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John Glenn

John Glenn

:This article is about the astronaut. For the English film director, see John Glen. John Herschel Glenn Jr. (born July 18, 1921, in Cambridge, Ohio) is a former American astronaut, Marine Corps fighter pilot, and politician. He was the third American to fly in space and the first American to orbit the earth. Later he served as a United States Senator from Ohio (1974 – 1999).

Early history and military career

Glenn grew up in Cambridge, Ohio and earned a Bachelor of Science in Engineering from Muskingum College. He enrolled in the Naval Aviation Cadet Program in 1942 and was assigned to the Marines VMO-155 group in 1944. Glenn flew Corsairs over the Marshall Islands, specifically Maloelap, where he attacked anti-aircraft gunnery and dropped bombs. In 1945 Glenn was transferred to Naval Air Station Patuxent River, where he was promoted to captain by the war's end. After World War II, Glenn flew patrol missions in North China, based in Guam, and in 1948 he became an flight instructor at Corpus Christi, Texas, after which he took an amphibious warfare course and was given a staff assignment, all the while seeking transfer to combat in Korea. He was sent to Korea with Marine Corps squadron VMF-311, and his frequent wing-man was Ted Williams of the Boston Red Sox, an already famous professional baseball player (and fine Marine pilot) who had been drafted for the second time in ten years. Glenn later flew in Korea with the Air Force on an interservice exchange. Flying an Air Force F-86 Sabre, he shot down three MiGs. He received several medals for his service. He returned to Patuxent River N.A.S., with an appointment to the Test Pilot School (class 12) after the Korean War. As a test pilot, he served as armament officer, flying planes to high altitudes and testing their cannon/machine guns. On July 16, 1957, Glenn completed the first supersonic transcontinental flight in a Vought F8U "Crusader." The California to New York flight took 3 hours, 23 minutes and 8 seconds. As Glenn passed over his hometown, a childhood neighbor reportedly ran to the Glenn house shouting "Johnny dropped a bomb! Johnny dropped a bomb!" as the supersonic boom shook the town.

NASA career

In 1959 Glenn was assigned to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) as one of the original group of Mercury astronauts for the Project Mercury. During this time, he remained an officer in the Marine Corps. He piloted the first American manned orbital mission aboard Friendship 7 on February 20, 1962. After completing three orbits, the "Mercury Atlas 6" mission, lasting 4 hours, 55 minutes, and 23 seconds, Glenn was celebrated as a national hero, and received a ticker-tape parade reminiscent of Lindbergh. His fame and political gifts were noted by the Kennedys, and he became a personal friend of the Kennedy family; after the assassination of JFK, Jackie Kennedy asked Glenn to give the news to the Kennedy children on November 22, 1963. 1963 Glenn resigned from NASA six weeks after the Kennedy assassination to run for office in his home state of Ohio. In 1965 Glenn retired as a Colonel from the USMC and entered the business world as an executive for Royal Crown Cola. He reentered the world of politics later on. Some accounts of Glenn's years at NASA suggest that Glenn was prevented from flying in Gemini or Apollo missions, either by President John F. Kennedy himself or by NASA management. Yet Glenn resigned from the astronaut corps on January 30, 1964, well before even the first Gemini crew was assigned. Glenn lifted off for a second space flight on October 29, 1998, on Space Shuttle Discovery's STS-95 in order to study the effects of space flight on the elderly. At age 77, Glenn became the oldest person ever to go into space. Glenn's participation in the nine-day mission was criticized by some in the space community as a junket for a politician. Others noted that Glenn's flight offered valuable research on weightlessness and other aspects of space flight on the same person at two points in life thirty-five years apart--by far the farthest interval between space flights by the same person. Upon the safe return of the STS-95 crew, Glenn (and his crewmates) received another ticker-tape parade, making him the ninth (and, as of 2004, final) person to have ever received multiple ticker-tape parades in his lifetime (as opposed to that of a sports team). The NASA John H. Glenn Research Center at Lewis Field in Cleveland, Ohio, is named after him.

Life in politics

In 1970, John Glenn entered politics and represented Ohio for the Democratic Party in the Senate from 1974 until retiring in 1999. In 1964 he announced that he was running against incumbent Senator Stephen M. Young in the Democratic primary, but was forced to withdraw when he suffered a fall in his bathroom after attempting to adjust a heavy mirror. It fell on him, causing him to fall backwards and hit his head on the bathtub. He sustained a concussion and injured his inner ear. Recovery left him unable to campaign at that time. In 1970, Glenn contested for the Democratic nomination for U.S. Senate; however, Glenn lost in the primary to fellow Democrat Howard Metzenbaum, who went on to lose the general election race to Robert Taft Jr. In the bitterly-fought 1974 Democratic primary rematch, Glenn defeated Metzenbaum. Metzenbaum had been appointed by Ohio governor John J. Gilligan to the other Ohio Senate seat to fill out the term of William B. Saxbe, who had resigned to become U.S. attorney general. In the 1974 general election, Glenn defeated Republican Mayor of Cleveland Ralph Perk. In 1980, Glenn won re-election to the seat, defeating Republican challenger Jim Betts. In 1986, Glenn defeated challenger U.S. Representative Tom Kindness. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Glenn and Metzenbaum (who was elected to the Senate in 1976) had strained relations, even though they were both from the same party and the same state. There was a thaw in 1983 when Metzenbaum endorsed Glenn for president, and in 1988, in response to a charge by Metzenbaum's opponent George Voinovich that Metzenbaum was soft on child pornography, Glenn appeared in a television ad in support of Metzenbaum. Glenn was one of the five U.S. Senators caught up in the Keating Five Scandal after accepting a $200,000 contribution from Charles Keating. Glenn and Republican Senator John McCain were the only Senators exonerated. The Senate Commission found that Glenn had exercised "poor judgment," but nothing worse. The association of his name with the scandal gave Republicans hope that he would be vulnerable in the 1992 campaign. Instead, Glenn handily defeated U.S. Rep. R. Michael DeWine to keep his seat. This 1992 re-election victory is, as of 2004, the last time a Democrat won a statewide race in Ohio; DeWine later won Metzenbaum's seat upon his retirement. In 1998, Glenn declined to run for reelection. The Democratic party chose Mary Boyle to replace him, but she was defeated by then-Ohio Gov. George Voinovich. Glenn also made a bid to run as Vice President with Jimmy Carter in 1976, but Carter selected Minnesota Senator Walter Mondale at the 1976 Democratic National Convention. Glenn also mounted a bid to be the 1984 Democratic Presidential candidate. Early on, Glenn polled well, coming in a strong second to Mondale. It was also surmised that he would be aided by the almost-simultaneous release of The Right Stuff, a movie about the original seven Mercury astronauts in which it was generally agreed that Glenn's character was portrayed in a pleasing and appealing manner. However, Glenn apparently turned his attention to national politics too early, neglecting the sensitive voters of the Iowa caucuses. Media attention turned to Mondale, Gary Hart, and Jesse Jackson, leaving Glenn the strongest also-ran. The 1984 presidential bid left Glenn with a substantial campaign debt that took years to pay off. During his time in the Senate, he was chief author of the 1978 Nonproliferation Act, served as chairman of the Committee on Governmental Affairs from 1978 until 1995, sat on the Foreign Relations and Armed Services committees and the Special Committee on Aging. Once Republicans regained control of the Senate, Glenn also served as the ranking minority member on a special Senate investigative committee chaired by Tennessee senator and actor Fred Thompson. There was considerable acrimony between the two very high-profile senators during the life of this committee, which reached a level of public disagreement between the two leaders of a Congressional committee seldom seen in recent years.

Family

Raised in Anna Margaret Castor; they are the parents of two children, David and Carolyn. Both Glenn and his future wife, Annie, attended Muskingum College, in New Concord, Ohio. After his retirement, John and Annie Glenn founded the John Glenn Institute for Public Service & Public Policy at The Ohio State University, which moved to its new facility, the renovated Page Hall, in 2005. Glenn and his wife both suffer from varying degrees of hearing loss, and concern for this issue has always been one of Glenn's foremost interests. Glenn and Annie were both members of the Ohio delegation to the 2004 Democratic National Convention.

Trivia

The night of the 1968 California presidential primary, when presidential hopeful Robert F. Kennedy was shot after delivering his victory speech, the Glenns were watching in the Kennedys' hotel suite. Glenn went to the hospital, where after three hours of surgery Robert Kennedy was in a coma but still alive. The Glenns were then asked to take five of the ten RFK children back to their home in Virginia. There, Glenn received the call that Robert Kennedy to tell the children that their father was dead. Quote attributed to John Glenn; "As I hurtled through space, one thought kept crossing my mind: Every part of this capsule was supplied by the lowest bidder."

External links

- [http://www.johnglennhome.org/index.shtml John & Annie Glenn Historic Site and Home]
- [http://www.glenninstitute.org/glenn/index.asp John Glenn Institute, The Ohio State University]
- [http://www11.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/glenn-j.html NASA Biography]
- [http://espn.go.com/classic/obit/s/2002/0705/1402612.html ESPN article on Glenn's reflections at Ted Williams' death] Glenn, John Glenn, John Glenn, John Herschel Jr. Glenn, John Glenn, John Glenn, John ja:ジョン・グレン

John Glen

This article is about the English film director. Another famous person with a similar name is American astronaut and senator John Glenn (with two 'N's). ---- John Glen is a noted film director, born May 15, 1932 in Sunbury-on-Thames, England. He is best known for his work as a director on five James Bond movies:
- For Your Eyes Only (1981)
- Octopussy (1983)
- A View to a Kill (1985)
- The Living Daylights (1987)
- Licence to Kill (1989) He had also worked as film editor and second unit director on three previous Bond movies:
- On Her Majesty's Secret Service (1969)
- The Spy Who Loved Me (1977)
- Moonraker (1979) Glen's other films as second unit director include Superman and The Wild Geese, both in 1978.

External links

- Glen, John Glen, John Glen, John Glen, John

1921

1921 (MCMXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 1 - In American football, California defeats Ohio State 28-0 in the Rose Bowl.
- January 2 - The first religious radio broadcast (KDKA AM in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania)
- January 2 - Spanish liner Santa Isabel sinks off Villa Garcia - 244 dead
- January 2 - DeYoung Museum in Golden Gate Park San Francisco opens.
- January 20 - Royal Navy K-boat K5 sinks in the English Channel with all 56 hands
- February 25 - The Democratic Republic of Georgia is occupied by Bolshevist Russia.
- February 27 - The International Working Union of Socialist Parties is formed in Vienna
- February 28 - Russian sailors rebel in Kronstadt - On March 17 the Red Army crushes the rebellion and number of sailors flee to Finland
- March 1 - The city Kiryu, located in Gunma, Japan, is founded.
- March 6 - The Portuguese Communist Party is founded.
- March 8 - Spanish Premier Eduardo Dato Iradier is assassinated while exiting the parliament building in Madrid.
- March 13 - Mongolia declares its independence from China
- March 17 - Marie Stopes opens the first birth control clinic in London, England. The Second Republic of Poland adopts the March Constitution.
- March 18 - The second Peace of Riga between Poland and Soviet Union ending Polish-Soviet war. Despite the recent Polish successes, Soviets annex Ukraine and Belarus.
- April 11 - The Emirate of Transjordan is created, with Abdullah I as emir.
- April 14 - In Britain, labour unions for mining, railway and transportation workers call for a strike - government threatens to call in the army
- April 24 - Referendum in Tyrol supports joining to Germany
- May 1-May 7 - Riots in Palestine of May, 1921
- 2 May-5 July - Third Silesian Uprising, the Poles in Upper Silesia rise against the Germans
- May 5 - Only 13 spectators attend the soccer match between Leicester City and Stockport County, the lowest attendance in The Football League's history.
- May 6 - General strike begins in Norway
- May 8 - Death penalty abolished in Sweden
- May 14 - May 17 - Violent anti-European riots in Cairo and Alexandria
- May 19 - The Emergency Quota Act passes the U.S. Congress establishing national quotas on immigration.
- May 31 - Race riots in Tulsa, Oklahoma
- May 24 - Elections are held for the first time for the new Northern Ireland Parliament.
- June 1 - Tulsa Race Riot of 1921: A race riot in Tulsa, Oklahoma kills 85 people.
- June 26 - In Britain, rain ends 100 days of drought
- July 1 - Coal strike ends in England
- July 11 - The Irish War of Independence comes to an end when a truce is signed between the British Government and the Irish forces.
- July 11 - Mongolia becomes independent of China
- July 14 - A Massachusetts jury finds Nichola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti guilty of first degree murder following a widely-publicized trial.
- July 18 - The first BCG vaccination against tuberculosis
- July 22 - Irish Truce declared in Britain
- July 26 - US President Warren G. Harding receives Princess Fatima of Afghanistan - and Stanley Clifford Weyman...
- July 29 - Adolf Hitler becomes Chairman of the Nazi Party
- July 27 - Researchers at the University of Toronto led by biochemist Frederick Banting announce the discovery of the hormone insulin.
- August - The United States formally ends World War I, declaring a peace with Germany
- August 5 - First radio broadcast of baseball game; Harold Arlin announced Pirates-Phillies game from Forbes Field over Westinghouse KDKA Pittsburgh
- August 11 - 35 degree Celsius in Breslau - heat wave continues elsewhere in Europe as well
- August 23 - King Faisal is crowned in Baghdad
- August 24 - Airship ZR 2 explodes during a test flight near Hull, England - 41 dead
- August 26 - Rising prices cause riots in Munich
- August 29 - Assassination of German politician Matthias Erzberger causes the government to declare martial law
- September 1 - Poplar Strike in London - 9 members of Poplar borough council are arrested
- September 7 - In Atlantic City, New Jersey, the first Miss America Pageant is held.
- September 8 - 16-year-old Margaret Gorman won the Atlantic City Pageant's Golden Mermaid trophy; pageant officials later dubbed her the first Miss America.
- September 12 - Lotta Svärd founded in Finland.
- September 21 - Oppau explosion happened at BASF's nitrate factory in Oppau, Germany - 500—600 dead.
- October 10 - Teaching at the University of Szeged started in Hungary.
- October 21 - Peace conference between Irish and United Kingdom begins in London.
- October 24 - Spanish army defeats rifkabyls.
- October 29 - Construction of the Link River Dam, a part of the Klamath Reclamation Project completed.
- November 9 - Riots in Reykjavík - most of the small police force is injured.
- November 11 - During an Armistice Day ceremony at Arlington National Cemetery, the Tomb of the Unknowns is dedicated by US President Warren G. Harding.
- December 1 - Rising prices cause riots in Vienna.
- December 16 - The Anglo-Irish Treaty establishing the Irish Free State is signed in London. See Ireland/History.
- December 13 - In the Four Power Treaty on Insular Possessions Japan, the United States, United Kingdom, and France agree to recognize the status quo in the Pacific.
- December 29 - William Lyon Mackenzie King becomes Canada's tenth prime minister.
- Agnes Macphail becomes the first woman to enter Canadian parliament
- Change of US presidency from Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921) to Warren G. Harding (1921-1923)
- Invention of the vibraphone.
- Abkhazia becomes an autonomous republic within the Soviet Union.

Fictitious Events

1921 is a song on the album Tommy by The Who.

Births

Date unknown

- Norma Macmillan, voice actress (d. 2001)

January

- January 5 - Friedrich Dürrenmatt, Swiss writer (d. 1990)
- January 5 - Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg
- January 10 - Rodger Ward, American race car driver (d. 2004)
- January 19 - Patricia Highsmith, American author (d. 1995)
- January 27 - Donna Reed, American actress (d. 1986)
- January 31 - Carol Channing, American actress
- January 31 - Mario Lanza, American tenor (d. 1959)

February

- February 4 - Betty Friedan, American feminist
- February 4 - K. R. Narayanan, President of India (d. 2005)
- February 5 - John Pritchard, English conductor (d. 1989)
- February 11 - Eva Gabor, Hungarian actress (d. 1996)
- February 11 - Lloyd Bentsen, American politician
- February 14 - Hugh Downs, American game show host and journalist
- February 22 - Wayne Booth, American literary critic (d. 2005)
- February 25 - Pierre Laporte, Canadian statesman (assassinated) (d. 1970)

March

- March 1 - Jack Clayton, British film director
- March 1 - Terence Cardinal Cooke, American Catholic archbishop (d. 1983)
- March 1 - Richard Wilbur, American poet
- March 2 - Robert Simpson, English composer (d. 1997)
- March 3 - Paul Guimard, French writer (d. 2004)
- March 5 - Elmer Valo, Czech Major League Baseball player (d. 1998)
- March 8 - Cyd Charisse, American actress and dancer
- March 11 - Frank Harary, American mathematician (d. 2005)
- March 12 - Giovanni Agnelli, Italian auto executive (d. 2003)
- March 12 - Gordon MacRae, American singer and actor (d. 1986)
- March 13 - Al Jaffee, American cartoonist
- March 13 - Cyril Poole, English cricketer (d. 1996)
- March 20 - Sister Rosetta Tharpe, American singer (d. 1973)
- March 21 - Arthur Grumiaux, Belgian violinist (d. 1986)
- March 25 - Simone Signoret, French actress (d. 1985)
- March 28 - Dirk Bogarde, English actor (d. 1999)

April-May

- April 1 - Beau Jack, American boxer (d. 2000)
- April 8 - Franco Corelli, Italian tenor (d. 2003)
- April 10 - Sheb Wooley, American actor and singer (d. 2003)
- April 14 - Thomas Schelling, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate
- April 15 - Georgi Beregovoi, Soviet cosmonaut (d. 1995)
- April 16 - Peter Ustinov, English actor and director (d. 2004)
- April 23 - Warren Spahn, baseball player (d. 2003)
- May 2 - Satyajit Ray, Indian filmmaker (d. 1992)
- May 5 - Arthur Leonard Schawlow, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999)
- May 6 - Erich Fried, Austrian author (d. 1988)
- May 9 - Sophie Scholl, resistance fighter in Nazi Germany (d. 1943)
- May 9 - Mona Van Duyn, American poet (d. 2004)
- May 11 - Hildegard Hamm-Brücher, German politician
- May 12 - Joseph Beuys, German artist (d. 1986)
- May 12 - Farley Mowat, Canadian writer and naturalist
- May 17 - Dennis Brain, English French horn player (d. 1957)
- May 18 - Sir Michael Epstein, British medical researcher
- May 19 - Karel van het Reve, Dutch writer (d. 1999)
- May 20 - Wolfgang Borchert, German writer (d. 1947)
- May 20 - Hal Newhouser, baseball player (d. 1998)
- May 21 - Andrei Sakharov, Russian physicist and activist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (declined) (d. 1989)
- May 23 - James Blish, American science fiction author (d. 1975)
- May 25 - Jack Steinberger, German-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- May 25 - James C. Quayle, American newspaper publisher
- May 26 - Stan Mortensen, English footballer (d. 1991)
- May 28 - Heinz G. Konsalik, German author (d. 1999)

June-August

- June 1 - Nelson Riddle, American bandleader (d. 1985)
- June 8 - Alexis Smith, Canadian actress (d. 1993)
- June 10 - Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
- June 15 - Errol Garner, American jazz musician (d. 1977)
- June 25 - Celia Franca, Canadian ballet dancer
- June 26 - Violette Szabo, French World War II heroine (d. 1945)
- June 28 - P. V. Narasimha Rao, Prime Minister of India (d. 2004)
- July 4 - Gerard Debreu, French economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004)
- July 4 - Tibor Varga, Hungarian violinist and conductor (d. 2003)
- July 6- Nancy Davis Reagan, wife of U.S President Ronald Reagan
- July 10 - Harvey Ball, American designer (d. 2001)
- July 11 - Ilse Werner, German actress (d. 2005)
- July 13 - Friedrich Peter, Austrian poltitician (d. 2005)
- July 14 - Leon Garfield, English children's author (d. 1996)
- July 14 - Geoffrey Wilkinson, English chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- July 15 - Robert Bruce Merrifield, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- July 17 - František Zvarík, Slovakian actor
- July 17 - Hannah Szenes, Hungarian World War II heroine (d. 1944)
- July 19 - Rosalyn Sussman Yalow, American physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- July 22 - William Roth, U.S. Senator (d. 2003)
- July 30 - Grant Johannesen, American concert pianist (d. 2005)
- August 4 - Maurice Richard, Canadian hockey player (d. 2000)
- August 8 - John Herbert Chapman, Canadian physicist (d. 1979)
- August 9 - J. James Exon Governor of Nebraska and U.S. Senator (d. 2005)
- August 19 - Gene Roddenberry, American television producer (d. 1991)
- August 23 - Kenneth Arrow, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate
- August 25 - Monty Hall, Canadian actor and game show host

September-December

- September 3 - Thurston Dart, English harpsichordist and conductor (d. 1971)
- September 8 - Harry Secombe, Welsh entertainer (d. 2001)
- September 12 - Stanisław Lem, Polish science fiction writer
- October 2 - Robert Runcie, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 2000)
- October 5 - Bill Willis, American football player
- October 13 - Yves Montand, French singer and actor (d. 1991)
- October 18 - Jesse Helms, U.S. Senator from North Carolina
- October 19 - Gunnar Nordahl, Swedish footballer (d. 1995)
- October 25 - King Michael of Romania
- November 3 - Charles Bronson, American actor (d. 2003)
- November 5 - Princess Fawzia of Egypt
- November 11 - Ron Greenwood, English football manager
- November 14 - Brian Keith, American actor (d. 1997)
- November 22 - Rodney Dangerfield, American actor and comedian (d. 2004)
- November 23 - Fred Buscaglione, Italian singer and actor (d. 1960)
- December 3 - Phyllis Curtin, American soprano
- December 6 - Otto Graham, American football player (d. 2003)
- December 26 - Steve Allen, American actor, composer, comedian, and author (d. 2000)

Deaths

- February 8 - Peter Kropotkin, Russian anarchist (b. 1842)
- February 26 - Carl Menger, Austrian economist (b. 1840)
- February 27 - Schofield Haigh, English cricketer (b. 1871)
- March 2 - King Nicholas I of Montenegro (b. 1841)
- April 27 - Arthur Mold, English cricketer (b. 1863)
- May 5 - Alfred Hermann Fried, Austrian writer and pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1864)
- June 5 - Georges Feydeau, French playwright (b. 1862)
- August 2 - Enrico Caruso, Italian tenor (b. 1873)
- September 2 - Henry Austin Dobson, English poet (b. 1840)
- September 11 - Subramanya Bharathy, Tamil poet (b. 1882)
- September 27 - Engelbert Humperdinck, German composer (b. 1854)
- October 25 - Bat Masterson, American gunfighter
- November 28 - `Abdu'l-Bahá, Persian religious leader (b. 1844)
- December 16 - Camille Saint-Saëns, French composer (b. 1835)
- December 31 - Boies Penrose, United States Senator from Pennsylvania (b. 1860)

Nobel Prizes

- Physics - Albert Einstein
- Chemistry - Frederick Soddy
- Medicine - not awarded
- Literature - Anatole France
- Peace - Karl Hjalmar Branting, Christian Lous Lange
- ko:1921년 ms:1921 ja:1921年 simple:1921 th:พ.ศ. 2464

Astronaut

An astronaut, cosmonaut, spationaut or taikonaut (taikongren, 太空人) is a person who travels into space, or who makes a career of doing so. The criteria for determining who has achieved human spaceflight vary (see edge of space). In the United States, people who travel above an altitude of 50 miles (approximately 80 kilometers) are designated as astronauts. The FAI defines spaceflight as over 100 km (approximately 62 miles). As of October 12, 2005, a total of 448 humans have reached space according to the U.S. definition, 442 people qualify under the FAI definition, while 438 people have reached Earth orbit or beyond. These individuals have spent over 28,000 crew-days (or a cumulative total of 76.7 years) in space including over 100 crew-days of spacewalks. A person who has traveled in space is said to hold astronaut wings. Astronauts from at least 34 countries have gone into space.

International variations

By convention, a space traveller employed by the Russian Aviation and Space Agency or its Soviet predecessor is called a cosmonaut. "Cosmonaut" is an anglicisation of the Russian word космонавт (kosmonavt), which in turn derives from the Greek words kosmos, meaning "universe" and nautes, "sailor". In the USA, a space traveller is called an astronaut. The term derives from the Greek words ástron ("star") and nautes, ("sailor"). For the most part, "cosmonaut" and "astronaut" are synonyms in all languages, and the usage of choice is often dictated by political reasons. However in the United States, the term "astronaut" is typically applied to the individual as soon as training begins, while in Russia, an individual is not labeled a cosmonaut until successful space flight. The first known use of the term was by Neil R. Jones in his short story The Death's Head Meteor in 1930. On March 14, 1995 astronaut Norman Thagard became the first American to ride to space on-board a Russian launch vehicle, arguably becoming the first American cosmonaut in the process. European (outside of the UK) space travellers are sometimes, especially in French-speaking countries, called spationauts (a hybrid word formed from the Latin spatium, "space", and Greek nautes, "sailor"). Apart from the Soviet Union, Europe has not yet produced manned spacecraft, but has sent men and women into space in cooperation with Russia and to a lesser extent with the United States of America. Taikonaut is sometimes used in English for astronauts from China by Western news media. The term was coined in May 1998 by Chiew Lee Yih (赵里昱) from Malaysia, who used it first in newsgroups. Almost simultaneously, Chen Lan coined it for use in the Western media based on the term tàikōng (太空), Chinese for "space". In Chinese itself, however, a single term yǔháng yuán (宇航員, "universe navigator") has long been used for astronauts. The closest term using taikong is a colloquialism tàikōng rén (太空人, "space human"), which refers to people who have actually been in space. Official English texts issued by the Chinese government use astronaut ().

Space milestones

colloquialism The first attempt ever in human history to use rocket for a spaceflight was done in the 16th century by a Chinese Ming dynasty official, a skilled stargazer named Wan Hu.^{[http://edition.cnn.com/2003/TECH/space/09/30/china.wanhu/index.html]} The first cosmonaut was Yuri Gagarin, who was launched into space on April 12 1961 aboard Vostok 1. The first woman cosmonaut was Valentina Tereshkova, launched into space in June 1963 aboard Vostok 6. Alan Shepard became the first American in space in May 1961. Vladimir Remek became the first non-Soviet European in space in 1978 on a Russian Soyuz rocket. On July 23 1980 Pham Tuan of Vietnam became the first Asian in space when he flew aboard Soyuz 37. In June 1985 Shannon Lucid became the first Chinese born person in space. On October 15 2003 Yang Liwei became China's first astronaut on the Shenzhou 5 spacecraft. The first mission to orbit the moon was Apollo 8 which included William Anders - who was born in Hong Kong making him the first Asian-born astronaut in 1968. The youngest person to fly in space is Gherman Titov, who was roughly 26 years old when he flew Vostok 2, and the oldest is John Glenn who was 77 when he flew on STS-95. The longest stay in space was 438 days by Valeri Polyakov. As of 2005, the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut was seven, a record held by both Jerry L. Ross and Franklin Chang-Diaz. The furthest distance from Earth an astronaut has traveled was 401,056 km (during the Apollo 13 emergency). The first non-governmental astronaut was Christa McAuliffe, who was killed during the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster on January 28, 1986. The first astronaut to fly a privately-funded mission was Mike Melvill, on SpaceShipOne flight 15P. This should be contrasted with the various millionaire space tourists, who have flown as passengers, or minor crew members, on publicly funded flights (generally Russian resupply flights to the ISS). The first space tourist was Dennis Tito on April 28, 2001. In the United States, persons selected as astronaut candidates receive silver Astronaut wings. Once they have flown in space they receive gold Astronaut wings. The United States Air Force also presents Astronaut wings to its pilots who exceed 50 miles in altitude.

International astronauts

United States Air Force Up until the end of the 1970s only Americans and Soviets were active astronauts. In 1976 the Soviets started the Intercosmos program with a first group of 6 cosmonauts from fellow socialist countries, a second group started training in 1978. At about the same time in 1978 the European Space Agency selected 4 astronauts to train for the first Spacelab mission on board of the Space Shuttle. In 1980 France started their own selection of astronauts, followed in 1982 by Germany, in 1983 by the Canadian space program, in 1985 by Japan and Italy in 1988. Several more international payload specialist were selected for the Space Shuttle, and also later for international Soyuz missions of Russia. In 1998 the European Space Agency formed a single astronaut corps of 18 by dissolving the former national corps of France, Germany and Italy.

Astronaut training

The first astronauts, both in the USA and USSR, tended to be jet fighter pilots, often test pilots, from military backgrounds. U.S. military astronauts receive a special qualification badge, known as the Astronaut Badge upon completion of Astronaut training and participation in a space flight.

Astronaut deaths

Astronaut Badge To date, eighteen astronauts have been killed on space missions, and at least ten more have been killed in ground-based training accidents. See also: space disaster.

External links

- [http://www.astronautix.com Encyclopedia Astronautica]
- [http://www.astronautix.com/astrogrp/phaonaut.htm Encyclopedia Astronautica: Phantom cosmonauts]
- Category:Transportation and material moving occupations Category:Transportation occupations Category:Science occupations ja:宇宙飛行士 simple:Astronaut th:นักบินอวกาศ

United States Marine Corps

The United States Marine Corps (USMC) is a branch of the U.S. military. While concerned almost exclusively with shipboard security service and amphibious warfare in its formative years, the Marine Corps has evolved to fill a unique, multi-purpose role within the modern United States military. The Marine Corps is the second smallest of the five branches (Navy, Marine Corps, Army, Air Force, Coast Guard) of the U.S. military, with 172,000 active and 40,000 reserve Marines as of 2005. Only the United States Coast Guard, part of the Department of Homeland Security, is smaller. In absolute terms, the US Marine Corps is nonetheless larger than the armed forces of many major nations; it is larger than the British Army, for example.

Mission

British Army The Marine Corps serves as a versatile combat element, and is adapted to a wide variety of combat operations. The Marine Corps was initially composed of infantry combat forces serving aboard naval vessels, responsible for security of the ship, its captain and officers, offensive and defensive combat during boarding actions, by acting as sharpshooters, and carrying out amphibious assaults. The Marines fully developed and used the tactics of amphibious assault in World War II, most notably in the Pacific Island Campaign. Since its creation in 1775, the Corps' role has expanded significantly. The Marines have a unique mission statement, and, alone among the branches of the U.S. armed forces, "shall, at any time, be liable to do duty in the forts and garrisons of the United States, on the seacoast, or any other duty on shore, as the President, at his discretion, shall direct." In this special capacity, charged with carrying out duties given to them directly by the President of the United States, the Marine Corps serves as an all-purpose, fast-response task force, capable of quick action in areas requiring emergency intervention. The Marine Corps possesses organic ground and air combat elements, and relies upon the US Navy to provide sea combat elements to fulfill its mission as "America's 9-1-1 Force". Marine combat forces are largely contained in three Marine Expeditionary Forces, or "MEF's". The 1st MEF is based out of Camp Pendleton, California, the 2nd out of Camp LeJeune, North Carolina, while the third is based on Okinawa, Japan. Within the MEF's are the individual Marine Divisions (MARDIVS), Force Service Support Groups (FSSG's) and Marine Aircraft Wings (MAWs). Force Reconnaissance companies are composed of Marines specially trained in covert insertion, reconnaissance, and surveillance tactics, and some have even received special operations training. The "Recon Marines" basic mission is to scout out the enemy and report what they find. Marine tactics and doctrine tends to emphasize aggressiveness and the offensive, compared to Army tactics for similar units. The Marines have been central in developing groundbreaking tactics for maneuver warfare; they can be credited with the development of helicopter insertion doctrine and modern amphibious assault. The Marines also maintain an operational and training culture dedicated to emphasizing the infantry combat abilities of every Marine. All Marines receive training first and foremost as basic riflemen, and thus the Marine Corps at heart functions culturally as an infantry corps. The Marine Corps is famous for the saying "Every Marine is a rifleman." The maneuver warfare doctrine upon which the Corps is organized and the chaotic nature of the operations which the Corps has traditionally taken on causes it to place a premium on decentralized decision-making and the individual abilities of leaders at all levels. As a result, a large degree of initiative and autonomy is expected of even junior Marines, particularly the NCO's (Corporals and Sergeants) regarding the accomplishment of their particular missions, at least compared to many other military organizations. The Marine Corps has a strong tendency towards pushing authority and responsibility downward throughout its organization onto Marines to a greater degree than their counterparts in rank would have in other services. While the Marine Corps does not necessarily fill unique combat roles, only when combined do the US Army, Navy, and US Air Force overlap every area that the Marine Corps covers. As a force, the Marines consistently use all essential elements of combat (air, ground, sea) together. While the creation of joint commands under the Goldwater-Nichols Act has improved interservice coordination between the larger services, the Marine Corps' ability to permanently maintain integrated multi-element task forces under a single command provides a special ability to respond to flexibility and urgency requirements. The Marines argue that they do not and should not take the place of the other services, any more than an ambulance takes the place of a hospital. Nonetheless, when a pressing emergency develops, the Marines essentially act as a stopgap, to get into and hold an area until the larger machinery can be mobilized. The opinions of other military men and politicians have, at times, differed, and President Harry S. Truman considered abolishing the Corps as part of the 1948 reorganization of the military. As Truman said, "The only propaganda machine that rivals that of Stalin is that of the United States Marine Corps." Truman, a former U.S. Army artillery captain in WWI, still resented the high degrees of praise bestowed the Marines after the First World War mostly at the expense of Army units. He also believed that the Army proved that they could do amphibious landings with the actions in North Africa, Italy and Normandy so there was no need for a separate service to fulfill this function. An example of this coordinated, time-sensitive capability could be seen in 1990, when the 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit (22nd MEU) conducted Operation Sharp Edge, a noncombatant evacuation operation, or NEO, in the west African city of Monrovia, Liberia. Liberia suffered from civil war at the time, and civilian citizens of the United States and other countries could not leave via conventional means. Sharp Edge ended in success. Only one reconnaissance team came under fire, with no casualties incurred on either side, and the Marines evacuated several hundred civilians within hours to U.S. Navy vessels waiting offshore.

Creation and history

The Marine Corps, originally created as the "Continental Marines" during the American Revolutionary War, was formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on November 10, 1775, and first recruited at Tun Tavern in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania by Samuel Nicholas. They served as landing troops for the recently created Continental Navy. The Continental Marines were disbanded at the end of the war in April 1783 but re-formed on July 11 1798. Despite the gap, Marines worldwide celebrate November 10 as the Marine Corps Birthday. Historically, the United States Marine Corps has achieved fame in several campaigns, as referenced in the first line of the Marines' Hymn: "From the halls of Montezuma to the shores of Tripoli". In the early 19th century, First Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon led a group of eight Marines and 300 Arab and European mercenaries in capturing Tripoli. Separately, the Marines took part in the Mexican-American War (1846–1848) and assaulted the Castillo de Chapultepec, or the Chapultepec Palace, which overlooked Mexico City. The Marines were placed on guard duty at the Mexican Presidential Palace, "The Halls of Montezuma". Mexico City)
U.S. Marines raise the American Flag on Iwo Jima on February 23, 1945]] After these early 19th-century engagements, the Marine Corps occupied a small role in American military history. They saw little significant action in the American Civil War, but later become prominent due to their deployment in small wars around the world. During the latter half of the 19th century, the Marines saw action in Korea, Cuba, the Philippines, and China. During the years before and after World War I, the Marines saw action throughout the Caribbean in places such as Haiti and Nicaragua. These actions became known as "The Banana Wars", and the experiences gained in counter-insurgency and guerrilla operations during this period were consolidated into the Small Wars Manual. In World War I, the battle-tested, veteran Marines served a central role in the U.S. entry into the conflict, and at the Battle of Belleau Wood, Marine units were in the front, earning the Marines a reputation as the "First to Fight". This battle marked the creation of the Marines' reputation in modern history. Rallying under the battle cries of "Retreat? Hell, we just got here!" (Captain Lloyd Williams) and "Come on, you sons of bitches, do you want to live forever?" (then Gunnery Sergeant, later Sergeant Major Dan Daly, two time Medal of Honor recipient), the Marines drove German forces from the area. Captured prisoners and German letters referred to the Marines in the battle as "Teufelshunden", literally, "Devil Dogs", a nickname Marines proudly hold to this day. The French government renamed Belleau Wood "Bois de la Brigade de Marine", or "Wood of the Marine Brigade," and decorated both the 5th and 6th Regiments with the Crois de Guerre. Franklin Delano Roosevelt, then Secretary of the Navy, stated that enlisted Marines would henceforth wear the Eagle, Globe, and Anchor on their uniform collar. In World War II, the Marines played a central role in the Pacific War, and the war saw the expansion of the Corps from two brigades to two corps with six divisions and five air wings with 132 squadrons. The battles of Guadalcanal, Tarawa, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa saw fierce fighting between US Marines and the Imperial Japanese Army. The secrecy afforded their communications by the now-famous Navajo code talkers program, is widely seen as having contributed significantly to their success. During the Battle of Iwo Jima, Raising of the Flag on Iwo Jima, a famous photograph of five Marines and one Navy corpsman raising the US flag on Mt. Suribachi, was taken. Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal, who had come ashore earlier that day to observe the progress of the troops, said of the flag raising on Iwo Jima, "...the raising of that flag on Suribachi means a Marine Corps for the next five hundred years". The acts of the Marines during the war added to their already significant popular reputation, and the USMC War Memorial in Arlington, VA was dedicated in 1954. The Korean War saw the Marines fighting in the Provisional Marine Brigade at the Pusan Perimeter, then landing at Inchon and assaulting north into North Korea along with the Army. As U.S. forces approached the Yalu River, the People's Republic of China, fearing an incursion by American forces, sent armies over the river to engage American forces within Korea. People's Republic of China At the Battle of Chosin Reservoir, the First Marine Division, vastly outnumbered but vastly better equipped and trained, fought Chinese forces. Although surrounded, the Marines regrouped, assaulted the Chinese, and inflicted heavy casualties during their fighting withdrawal to the coast. The Marines also played an important role in the Vietnam War at battles such as Da Nang, Hué City, and Khe Sanh. Marines were among the first troops deployed to Vietnam, as well as the last to leave during the evacuation of the American embassy in Saigon. After Vietnam, Marines served in a number of important events and places. On October 23, 1983, a Marine barracks in Lebanon was bombed, causing the highest peacetime losses to the Corps in its history (220 Marines killed) and leading to the American withdrawal from Lebanon. Marines were also responsible for liberating Kuwait during the Persian Gulf War, as the Army made an attack to the west directly into Iraq. In 1995, Marines performed a successful mission in Bosnia, rescuing Captain Scott O'Grady, a downed Air Force fighter pilot, in what is called a TRAP (Tactical Recovery of Aircraft and Personnel). Most recently, the Marines served prominently in the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the subsequent occupation, where a light, mobile force was and is especially needed. Perhaps most notably, the Marines spearheaded both assaults on the city of Fallujah in April and November 2004.

Reputation of the Marine Corps

The Marine Corps has a widely-held reputation as a fierce and effective fighting force and the Marines take pride in their gung-ho attitude, they are indoctrinated with a strong belief in their chain of command and the importance of esprit de corps, a spirit of enthusiasm and pride in themselves and the Corps. The Marine Corps is popularly seen as possessing a degree of fame and infamy among the enemies they fight, and examples of this effect are readily seized upon and publicized by the Corps and its supporters. During the 1991 Gulf War, after Iraqi forces had already been bloodied by the Corps in the first ground engagement of the war at Khafji, U.S. Army General Norman Schwarzkopf used a public demonstration of a Marine landing on Kuwait and the Iraqi port of Umm Qasr to pin down Iraqi units, while the Army then executed a sweep from the West. Most recently, Iraqis in the Persian Gulf War and 2003 invasion of Iraq were said to have taken special note of Marine Cobra helicopters and the distinctive look of the Marine combat uniform. The Marines have taken steps to build on this psychological advantage by, for instance, developing a new utility uniform that makes Marines easier to distinguish from other US servicemen. See the [http://www.marcorsyscom.usmc.mil/sites/mcub/PAGES/uniform_plates.htm Web site of the Permanent Marine Corps Uniform Board (PMCUB)] for illustrations of the various Marine uniforms. 2003 invasion of Iraq The Marine Corps has also recently initiated an internally designed martial arts program, an idea borrowed from the South Korean Marines, who train in martial arts and who, during the Vietnam War, were widely rumored to all be black belts. Due to an expectation that urban and police-type peacekeeping missions will become more common in the 21st century, which will place Marines in even closer contact with unarmed civilians, it is expected that the Marines will benefit from having a larger and more versatile set of less-than-lethal options for controlling hostile, but unarmed individuals. It is also a stated aim of the program to instill and maintain the "warrior culture" within Marines. While the reputation of the Marine Corps has remained largely positive in recent years, at least within the United States, the Corps has still struggled with occasional negative press and perceptions. In many conflicts, members of the other armed forces of the United States have complained that the Marine Corps often emphasizes its prowess at the expense of the reputation of Army or Navy units which are nearby. An example occurred at the Battle of Chosin Reservoir in the Korean War, when a Marine officer (probably Lt. General Lewis "Chesty" Puller) disparaged the undermanned Army infantry regiment which took the initial Chinese attack. Additionally, the aggressive tradition of the Marine Corps, and the public perception of the Corps' as both an agressive organization and an elite force within the US military, has at times led to public relations issues surrounding accusations of bullying, harrassment and hazing since WWII. In its post-World War II history, the Marine Corps reputation has been damaged several times. The first major event was the Ribbon Creek Incident on April 8, 1956, when the junior Drill Instructor, Staff Sergeant Matthew Mckeon, led his assigned platoon into a tidal stream on Parris Island in the purpose of disciplining his platoon, while violating several basic Marine and training regulations. 6 recruits died. SSgt McKeon was court-martialed, and, with significant media coverage, an extensive Congressional investigation took place. See also: The Ribbon Creek incident In recent years, following incidents of hazing in various Marine Corps units, such as ANGLICO and the Silent Drill Platoon; incidents involving civilians in Status of Forces Agreement countries; and other public relations issues that could cast the Corps into disrepute, increasingly further-reaching measures have been taken to prevent such incidents and protect the public image of the Marine Corps. Standing orders prohibit hazing and inititation rituals of any kind, at least officially. Marines on Okinawa and at other posts are regularly subject to restrictions and curfews, particularly following incidents between Marines and civilians. Marines today are also discouraged from publicly disparaging other branches of service. These and other measures reflect a realization that the Marine Corps is generally more visible and higher profile than the other branches of service in all that it does and that it relies upon the goodwill of the American people and Congress to a much greater degree for its survival.

Organization

Air-ground task forces

The Marine Corps organization is flexible, and task forces can be formed of any size. Modern deployed Marine units are based upon the doctrine of the Marine air-ground task force, or MAGTF. A MAGTF can generally be of any of three sizes, based upon the amount of force required in the given situation; however, all MAGTFs have a similar organization. A MAGTF is comprised of four elements: the command element (CE), the ground combat element (GCE), the air combat element (ACE) and the combat service support element (CSSE).
- Command element — A headquarters unit that directs the other elements
- Ground combat element — Usually infantry, supported by armor (tanks), and artillery, but including special units such as scouts or Force Reconnaissance, snipers and forward air controllers
- Air combat element — The total airpower strength of the MAGTF, the ACE includes all aerial vehicles (both fixed wing and helicopter), their pilots and maintenance personnel and those units necessary for aviation command and control.
- Combat service support element — This element includes all of the support units for the MAGTF: communications, combat engineers, motor transport, medical and supply units, and certain specialized groups such as air delivery and landing support teams The smallest type of MAGTF is the Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU). The MEU is trained to operated as an independent force or as part of a Joint Task Force. Four elements make up a Marine Expeditionary Unit (Special Operations Capable): The Command Element is the standing headquarters for the MEU, usually headed by a Colonel (O-6). The Ground Combat Element is a Battalion Landing Team; an infantry battalion reinforced with tanks, artillery, engineers, amphibious vehicles, light armored vehicles, and other ground combat assets. The Aviation Combat Element is made up of a composite squadron of both fixed and rotary-wing aircraft. The Combat Service Support Element consists of a MEU Service Support Group which handles the logistics and administration needs of the MEU. The specific makeup of the MEU can be customized based upon the task at hand; additional artillery, armor, or air units can be attached, including squadrons of F/A-18 Hornet and Harrier jets. There are usually three MEUs assigned to each of the U.S. Navy Atlantic and Pacific Fleets, with another MEU based on Okinawa. While one MEU is on deployment, one MEU is training to deploy and one is standing down, resting its Marines, and refitting. Each MEU is rated as capable of performing special operations. A Marine Expeditionary Brigade (MEB) is larger than a MEU, and is based upon a Marine regiment, with larger air and support contingents. A Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF), as deployed in Iraq in 2003, comprises a Marine division with an artillery regiment, several tank battalions, several LAV battalions, as well as an air wing. The I Marine Expeditionary Force as deployed in the Persian Gulf War ultimately consisted of the 1st and 2nd Marine Divisions as well as considerable Marine air and support units.

Ground Combat Elements

Here is the typical organization for Marine Corps infantry units, from smallest to largest: (Note that the organization and weapons below are from Marine Corps Table of Organization and Equipment standard. Any Marine Corps unit might be organized differently under their own SOP and specialized units, such as Force Reconnaissance, could certainly carry different weapons):
- fire team: four Marines; team leader (M16A4 with M203 attachment), automatic rifleman (M249), assistant automatic rifleman(M16A4), and rifleman (M16A4).
- squad: three fire teams and a corporal or sergeant as squad leader
- platoon
- rifle platoon: three squads, a Navy corpsman, a platoon sergeant (staff sergeant), and a lieutenant as platoon commander
- weapons platoon: a 60mm mortar section, an assault section, a medium machine gun section (using M240G 7.62mm machine guns), a Navy corpsman, a platoon sergeant (gunnery sergeant), and a lieutenant as platoon commander
- company
- rifle company: three rifle platoons, a weapons platoon, a Navy corpsman, a administrative clerk, a police sergeant (corporal or sergeant), a training NCO, a company gunnery sergeant, first sergeant, a first lieutenant as executive officer, and captain as commander
- weapons company: an 81mm mortar platoon, an anti-armor platoon, and a heavy machine gun platoon
- headquarters and support company:
- battalion: three or four companies, commanded by a lieutenant colonel
- regiment: three or four battalions, commanded by a colonel
- brigade: less common in the Marine Corps, but typically made up of one or more regiments and commanded by a brigadier general
- division: three or four regiments, officers and others, commanded by a major general Battalions and larger units have a sergeant major, and an executive officer as second in command, plus officers and others for: Administration (S-1), Intelligence (S-2), Operations (S-3), Logistics (S-4), Civil Affairs [wartime only] (S-5), and Communications (S-6). Units of batallion size or larger may be reinforced by the addition of supporting tank or artillery units, as in the Battalion Landing Teams comprising the GCEs of Marine Expeditionary Units. As of 2004, there are four Marine divisions:
- the First in Camp Pendleton, California;
- the Second in Camp Lejeune, North Carolina;
- the Third in Camp Smedley Butler in Okinawa, Japan; and
- the Fourth is a reserve unit headquarted in New Orleans, Louisiana, with units scattered throughout the continental United States. In World War II, two more Marine Divisions were formed: the Fifth and Sixth, which fought in the Pacific War. These divisions were disbanded after the end of the war.

Aviation

Typical aviation units are squadron, group and wing. There are four Marine aircraft wings:
- the 1st MAW in Okinawa, Japan;
- the 2d MAW in Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point, North Carolina;
- the 3d MAW at Marine Corps Air Station Miramar, California; and
- the 4th MAW, a reserve unit headquartered in New Orleans.

Logistics Groups

There are also four Marine Logistics Group
- the First in Camp Pendleton, California;
- the Second in Camp Lejeune, North Carolina;
- the Third in Okinawa, Japan;
- and the Fourth, a reserve unit, headquartered in New Orleans.

Participation in Joint Operations

The MAGTF structure reflects a strong tradition in the Corps towards self-sufficiency and a committment to combined arms, both essential assets to an expeditionary force often called upon to act independently in discrete, time-sensitive situations. The history of the Marine Corps as well has led to a wariness towards relying too much on its sister services. During WWII, Marines at times viewed the support which they received from the Navy during the Pacific island battles as insufficient. During most of the Korean War, the Corps was forced to fight as "leg infantry" under Army command, and their unique potential advantage as an amphibious force operating in a penninsular country was ignored. In recent years, the Corps has come to cooperate more and more closely with the other service branches under the Joint Command Structure. An example of this is the recent establishment of Marine Special Operations Command under the joint U.S. Special Operations Command (SOCOM), a move which the Corps eschewed when SOCOM was founded in 1986.

Ranks

This list is in ascending order. It includes pay grades and abbreviations in the style used by the Marine Corps. Enlisted:
- E-1, Private, Pvt
- E-2, Private First Class, PFC
- E-3, Lance Corporal, LCpl
- Noncommissioned Officers, or NCOs:
- E-4, Corporal, Cpl
- E-5, Sergeant, Sgt
- Staff Noncommissioned Officers, or SNCOs:
- E-6, Staff Sergeant, SSgt
- E-7, Gunnery Sergeant, GySgt
- E-8
- Master Sergeant, MSgt
- First Sergeant, 1stSgt
- E-9
- Master Gunnery Sergeant, MGySgt
- Sergeant Major, SgtMaj
- Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps, SgtMajMC NOTE 1: The E-8 and E-9 levels each have two ranks per pay grade, each with different responsibilities. Gunnery Sergeants indicate on their annual evaluations, called "fitness reports", or "fitreps" for short, their preferred promotional track: Master Sergeant or First Sergeant. The First Sergeant and Sergeant Major ranks are command-oriented, with Marines of these ranks serving as the senior enlisted Marines in a unit, charged to assist the commanding officer in matter of discipline, administration and the morale and welfare of the unit. Master Sergeants and Master Gunnery Sergeants provide technical leadership as occupational specialists in their specific MOS. First Sergeants typically serve as the senior enlisted Marine in a company, battery or other unit at similar echelon, while Sergeants Major serve the same role in battalions, squadrons or larger units. NOTE 2: The Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps is the senior enlisted Marine of the entire Marine Corps, personally selected by the Commandant of the Marine Corps. Some enlisted ranks have commonly used nicknames, though they are not official and technically improper. For instance, a Master Sergeant, is commonly called "Top". A Gunnery Sergeant is typically called "Gunny", and (much less often) "Guns". A Master Gunnery Sergeant is often called "Master Guns". Likewise, Lance Corporals are often referred to (derisively) as "Lance Coolies", "Lances", or "Lance Criminals". Though they are not usually called by rank due to their status as "non-rates". Unlike the US Army, no enlisted personnel is referred to as "Sarge", and most NCOs will take offense to the term. Likewise, ranks such as Staff Sergeant or Gunnery Sergeant, are never shortened to Sergeant. Warrant Officers
- W-1, Warrant Officer, WO
- W-2, Chief Warrant Officer 2, CWO2
- W-3, Chief Warrant Officer 3, CWO3
- W-4, Chief Warrant Officer 4, CWO4
- W-5, Chief Warrant Officer 5, CWO5 NOTE 3: A Chief Warrant Officer, CWO2-CWO5, serving in the MOS 0306 "Infantry Weapons Officer" is designated as a special rank: "Marine Gunner". A Marine Gunner replaces the Chief Warrant Officer insignia on the LEFT collar with a bursting bomb insignia. Other Warrant Officers are sometimes informally also referred to as "Gunner" but this usage is not correct. Commissioned officers:
- Company-grade officers
- O-1, Second Lieutenant, 2ndLt
- O-2, First Lieutenant, 1stLt
- O-3, Captain, Capt
- Field-grade officers
- O-4, Major, Maj
- O-5, Lieutenant Colonel, LtCol
- O-6, Colonel, Col
- Generals
- O-7, Brigadier General, BGen
- O-8, Major General, MajGen
- O-9, Lieutenant General, LtGen
- O-10, General, Gen NOTE 4: There has never been any O-11 "five-star" General rank thus far in the Marine Corps, though such a rank could theoretically be created at any time by act of Congress (the first time Congress were to promote a Marine Officer to such a rank). Historically, O-11 ranks, such as "General of the Army" or "General of the Air Force" (five star General) or "Fleet Admiral" were established during WWII to allow US General- or Flag-grade officers to command foreign officers under the allied command structure who, otherwise, would have technically outranked them (an example would be a British "Field Marshal", a rank which does not exist in the US military but would be equivalent to a five-star General). Currently, no officer in any branch of the U.S. military holds a grade of O-11.

Commandants

The Commandant of the Marine Corps functions as the highest-ranking officer of the Marine Corps. Even though more senior Marine officers occasionally exist, the commandant is still in charge of the administration of the Marine Corps. The commandant is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and reports to the Secretary of the Navy, but not to the Chief of Naval Operations. As of October 2005, Marine Generals Peter Pace (Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff) and James L. Jones (Commander of the United States European Command; NATO Supreme Allied Commander, Europe; and a former commandant of the Marine Corps) are senior in time and grade to the commandant. The commandant is responsible for keeping the Marine Corps in fighting condition and does not serve as a direct battlefield commander. However, he is the symbolic and functional head of the Corps, and holds a position of very high esteem among Marines. As of April 2005, the Commandant of the Marine Corps is General Michael W. Hagee, who became Commandant in January of 2003.

Appearance

Michael W. Hagee Marines are often confused with Soldiers, who are members of United States Army. Some differences in appearance are:
- Marines do not wear berets.
- Marines wear boots only with their utility uniform
- Reflecting their naval heritage, Marines do not salute under 'cover' (indoors), in the field, or when they are not wearing a 'cover' (hat).
- The Marine service uniform, roughly equivalent to business attire, has a long or short sleeve button up khaki shirt, the long-sleeved version of which is worn with a double windsor knotted necktie, and olive-green trousers. The equivalent Army uniform has a light-green shirt with forest-green trousers. Enlisted Marines wear their rank insignia on the sleeve of the service shirt, but Army privates and specialists wear their rank on the collar, and NCOs wear theirs on shoulder epaulets. Marine officers wear rank insignia on the collar, whereas Army officers wear their rank insignia in a similar manner as that of NCOs.
- The Marine class "A" service coat is olive green (as opposed to forest green for the Army) and has a waist-belt, formerly a Garrison belt for enlisted Marines and the Sam Browne belt for officers. The Marine service uniform is worn with either a barracks (service) cover, which has a bill and a round top, or a garrison cover, which comes to a peak.
- Marines are less generous with awards and unit identification; the rationale behind this is that as a member of an elite force, it is enough to be identified simply as a Marine. For example, with the exception of breast insignia denoting a few specialized qualifications such as airborne (parachute), pilot or scuba/rebreather qualification, and small red patches sewn on the utility trouser legs and covers of Landing Support Marines, Marines do not normally wear any insignia or device on their utility uniforms denoting their unit, MOS (military occupational specialty), or training.
- Traditionally, Marine officers eschew the wearing of rank insignia in combat, on the theory that it simply makes them targets (as in Vietnam) and do not allow saluting in these situations. Enlisted Marines are supposed to know who their leaders are, regardless of whether or not they are wearing rank insignia. This attitude supports the conduct of amphibious operations, the most complex of all military maneuvers. During such a maneuver, units are typically scattered and without a traditional command structure. Leaders are anyone who takes the initiative to lead, an attribute that is stressed throughout Marine Corps training and doctrine.

Utility uniform

Differences in the utility uniform include:
- The cover (hat) of the utility uniform is constructed differently. Marine covers have eight sides and corners.
- Marines wear green-colored "skivvie" undershirts with their utility uniform, even in the desert. Soldiers wea