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John Harvard (clergyman)

John Harvard (clergyman)

John Harvard (November 26, 1607 – September 14, 1638) was a Massachusetts clergyman, after whom Harvard University is named. He was born and raised in London, in the borough of Southwark, the fourth of nine children, the son of Robert Harvard (1562-1625), a butcher and tavern owner, and his wife, Katherine Rogers (1584-1635), a native of Stratford-on-Avon whose father, Thomas Rogers (1540-1611), is sometimes thought to have been an associate of William Shakespeare (1564-1616). In 1625, his father, a stepsister, and two brothers died of the plague. Only his mother and one brother, Thomas, remained of his immediate family. She remarried to John Elletson (1580-1626) who died within months of their marriage, and then to Richard Yearwood (1580-1632) in 1627. Harvard entered Emmanuel College, Cambridge, then a Puritan stronghold, in December 1627 and received his B. A. in 1632. Katherine died in 1635 and Thomas in the spring of 1637. John married Ann Sadler (1614-1655), of Ringmer, Sussex, in April, 1636, daughter of the Rev. John Sadler and sister of Harvard's contemporary, John Sadler, lawyer and orientalist. In May 1637 he emigrated with his wife to New England and settled in Charlestown, Massachusetts where many of his classmates had arrived before him. Charlestown made him the teaching elder of the Church, but within the following year he contracted tuberculosis and died on September 14, 1638. Childless, Harvard bequeathed £800 (half of his estate) and his library of around 400 volumes to the New College at nearby Cambridge, which had been founded on September 8, 1636, and to his friend, the first schoolmaster of this college, Nathaniel Eaton who, needless to say, was very much hated afterwards by the jealous townsfolk who saw to his deposition and even attempted to do the same to his successor, Henry Dunster, but were foiled by a much more aware ecclesiastical power of the Church at Cambridge. Eaton's Records indicate that the building of the new college began immediately in 1638 with the assistance of the carpenter Thomas Meakins and/or his son, Thomas Meakins, Jr. of Charlestown. It was completely constructed of wood with a stone foundation and cellar, had its own apple orchard, and was apparently equipped with live-in accommodations for some 30 students as there were at least that many attendant within the first year. The school renamed itself "Harvard College" on March 13, 1639, and Harvard was first referred to as a university rather than a college by the new Massachusetts constitution of 1780. No records or illustrations remain of the earliest college which burnt to the ground in 1674 along with all but one of Harvard's original 400 volume donation; but judging from student references to black persons as "Moors", its possible that Shakespeare's works comprised a large portion of the volumes. Debate rages over whether or not the students actually had daily access to beer, or whether or not the word "beare" these people cite as "proof" of alcohol consumption actually refers to "berrie", the unfermented juice of grapes or apples: similar to what college students consume today in their free time. Vessels of the time, such as commemorative rummers, humpen or pewter tankards, indicate that beer was commonly spelled "bier" or "beir", and court records indicate that excessive alcohol consumption was punished by the temporary attachment of one's estate, or permanent attachment and banishment from the colony. Also, 17th Century phonics tend to indicate that anything with an "e" on the end of the word was pronounced "ē" as a separate syllable. Samuel Eliot Morison, in his Builders of the Bay Colony (1930), tends to dispell this theory, though, citing numerous references to the consumption of beer by students doing their studies up "until recent times". As in John Winthrop, Winthrop's Journal "The History of New England" 1630–1649, however, Morison isn't known to be 100% correct on all accounts either.

External link


- http://www.harvard-magazine.com/issues/jf00/vita.html
- [http://www.news.harvard.edu/tour/images/1_jh.jpg John Harvard as depicted on a cigar label from the early part of the 20th Century] Harvard, John Harvard, John Harvard, John Harvard, John Harvard, John Harvard, John

November 26

November 26 is the 330th day (331st on leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 35 days remaining.

Events


- 1778 - In the Hawaiian Islands, Captain James Cook becomes the first European to visit Maui.
- 1805 - Official opening of Thomas Telford's Pontcysyllte Aqueduct.
- 1825 - At Union College in Schenectady, New York a group of college students form Kappa Alpha Society, the first college social fraternity.
- 1862 - Charles Dodgson (AKA Lewis Carroll) sends the handwritten manuscript of Alice's Adventures Underground to 10-year-old Alice Liddell.
- 1863 - American Civil War: Mine Run - Union forces under General George Meade position against troops led by Confederate General Robert E. Lee.
- 1865 - Battle of Papudo: The Spanish navy engages a combined Peruvian-Chilean fleet north of Valparaiso, Chile.
- 1917 - The National Hockey League is formed, with the Montreal Canadiens, Montreal Wanderers, Ottawa Senators, Quebec Bulldogs, and Toronto Arenas as its first teams.
- 1918 - The Podgorica Assembly votes for "union of the people", declaring assimilation into the Kingdom of Serbia
- 1922 - Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon become the first people to enter the tomb of Egyptian King Tutankhamun in over 3000 years.
- 1922 - Toll of the Sea debuts as the first general release film to use two-tone Technicolor (The Gulf Between was the first film to do so but it was not widely distributed).
- 1939 - Shelling of Mainila: The Soviet Army orchestrates the incident which is used to justify the start of the Winter War with Finland four days later.
- 1941 - US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt signs a bill establishing the fourth Thursday in November as Thanksgiving Day in the United States.
- 1941 - World War II: Attack on Pearl Harbor - A fleet of six aircraft carriers commanded by Japanese Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo leaves Hitokapu Bay for Pearl Harbor under strict radio silence.
- 1941 - World War II: The Hull note ultimatum is delivered to Japan by the United States.
- 1942 - The film Casablanca premieres at the Hollywood Theater in New York City.
- 1942 - World War II: Yugoslav Partisans convene the first meeting of the Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia at Bihać in northwestern Bosnia.
- 1949 - The Indian Constituent Assembly adopts India's constitution.
- 1950 - Korean War: Troops from the People's Republic of China move into North Korea and launch a massive counterattack against South Korean and American forces (Battle of Chosin Reservoir), ending any hopes of a quick end to the conflict.
- 1965 - In the Hammaguira launch facility in the Sahara Desert, France launches a Diamant-A rocket with its first satellite, Asterix-1 on board, becoming the third country to enter space.
- 1968 - Vietnam War: United States Air Force helicopter pilot James P. Fleming rescues an Army Special Forces unit pinned down by Viet Cong fire and is later awarded the Medal of Honor.
- 1968 - British rock band Cream play their farewell concert at the Royal Albert Hall.
- 1970 - In Basse-Terre, Guadeloupe, 1.5 inches (38.1mm) of rain fall in a minute, the heaviest rainfall ever on record.
- 1976 - The Band play their final concert, dubbed The Last Waltz. One of the guest performers is Eric Clapton, whose band Cream also played their farewell concert on November 26, 8 years earlier.
- 1977 - 'Vrillon', representative of the 'Ashtar Galactic Command', takes over Britain's Southern Television for five minutes at 5:12 PM.
- 1983 - Brinks Mat robbery: In London, 6,800 gold bars worth nearly £26 million are taken from the Brinks Mat vault at Heathrow Airport
- 1985 - US President Ronald Reagan signs over rights to his autobiography to Random House for a record US$3 million.
- 1986 - Iran-Contra scandal: US President Ronald Reagan announces the members of what will become known as the Tower Commission.
- 1986 - The New Yorker publishes Susan Sontag's AIDS short story, "The Way We Live Now"
- 1998 - Tony Blair becomes the first Prime Minister of the United Kingdom to address the Republic of Ireland's parliament.
- 2003 - Last flight of Concorde.

Births


- 1288 - Emperor Go-Daigo of Japan (d. 1339)
- 1436 - Princess Catherine of Portugal, writer (d. 1463)
- 1607 - John Harvard, English-born clergyman (d. 1638)
- 1609 - Henry Dunster, English president of Harvard College (d. 1659)
- 1657 - William Derham, English minister and writer d. 1735)
- 1678 - Jean Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan, French geophysicist (d. 1771)
- 1703 - Theophilus Cibber, English actor and writer (d. 1758)
- 1792 - Sarah Grimke, American abolitionist and feminist (d. 1873)
- 1832 - Mary Edwards Walker, American feminist physician (d. 1919)
- 1832 - Karl Rudolf König, German physicist (d. 1901)
- 1847 - Maria Fyodorovna, Princess of Denmark and Empress of Russia (d. 1928)
- 1864 - Edward Higgins, British Salvation Army General (d. 1947)
- 1869 - Maud, Queen of Norway (d. 1938)
- 1876 - Willis Carrier, American engineer and inventor (d. 1950)
- 1877 - Alfred Cortot, Swiss pianist (d. 1962)
- 1885 - Heinrich Brüning, Chancellor of Germany (d. 1970)
- 1889 - Albert Dieudonné, French actor, screenwriter and novelist (d. 1976)
- 1894 - Norbert Wiener, American mathematician and founder of Cybernetics (d. 1964)
- 1898 - Karl Ziegler, German chemist, Nobel Prize laurete (d. 1973)
- 1899 - Bruno Hauptmann, German kidnapper of Charles Lindbergh III (d. 1936)
- 1905 - Bob Johnson, American baseball player (d. 1982)
- 1910 - Cyril Cusack, Irish actor (d. 1993)
- 1909 - Eugène Ionesco, Romanian-born playwright (d. 1994)
- 1912 - Eric Sevareid, American journalist (d. 1992)
- 1915 - Earl Wild, American pianist
- 1922 - Charles M. Schulz, American cartoonist (d. 2000)
- 1924 - George Segal, American Pop Sculptor (d. 2000)
- 1925 - Eugene Istomin, American pianist (d. 2003)
- 1927 - Ernie Coombs, American born children's entertainer (d. 2001)
- 1931 - Adolfo Pérez Esquivel, Argentine activist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- 1933 - Robert Goulet, American singer and actor
- 1937 - Boris Yegorov, Soviet cosmonaut
- 1938 - Porter J. Goss, American politician and Central Intelligence Agency director
- 1938 - Rich Little, Canadian comedian and actor
- 1939 - Tina Turner, American singer and actress
- 1939 - Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, 5th Prime Minister of Malaysia
- 1943 - Bruce Paltrow, American producer and director (d. 2002)
- 1945 - Daniel Davis, American actor
- 1945 - John McVie, British musician (Fleetwood Mac)
- 1946 - Art Shell, American football player and coach
- 1947 - Susanne Zenor, American actress
- 1948 - Krešimir Ćosić, Croatian basketball player (d. 1995)
- 1949 - Vincent A. Mahler, Political Scientist and professor at Loyola University Chicago
- 1949 - Juanin Clay, American actress (d. 1995)
- 1951 - Cicciolina, Italian actress and politician
- 1953 - Harry Carson, American football player
- 1956 - Dale Jarrett, American race car driver
- 1969 - Shawn Kemp, American basketball player
- 1970 - Dave Hughes, Australian comedian
- 1971 - Ronald "Winky" Wright, American boxer
- 1972 - Arjun Rampal, Indian actor
- 1974 - Ajay Mehra, Indian columnist (Writer of Pubhop in Bangalore Weekly)
- 1976 - Maven Huffman, American professional wrestler
- 1981 - Aurora Snow, American actress
- 1981 - Stephan Andersen, Danish international footballer
- 1981 - Natasha Bedingfield, British singer
- 1985 - Lil' Fizz, American singer

Deaths


- 399 - Pope Siricius
- 1252 - Blanche of Castile, Queen of Louis VIII of France (b. 1188)
- 1326 - Hugh the younger Despenser, English knight (b. 1286)
- 1504 - Queen Isabella I of Castile (b. 1451)
- 1621 - Radulph Agas, English surveyor
- 1639 - John Spottiswoode, Scottish historian (b. 1565)
- 1651 - Henry Ireton, English Civil War general (b. 1611)
- 1688 - Philippe Quinault, French writer (b. 1635)
- 1689 - Marquard Gude, German archaeologist (b. 1635)
- 1717 - Daniel Purcell, British composer (b. 1664)
- 1719 - John Hudson, British classical scholar (b. 1662)
- 1780 - Sir James Denham Steuart, British economist (b. 1712)
- 1836 - John MacAdam, British road builder (b. 1756)
- 1851 - Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult, French marshal (b. 1769)
- 1855 - Adam Mickiewicz, Polish poet (b. 1798)
- 1857 - Joseph von Eichendorff, German poet (b. 1788)
- 1876 - Karl Ernst von Baer, German biologist (b. 1792)
- 1896 - Emil du Bois-Reymond, German physician (b. 1818)
- 1896 - Coventry Patmore, British poet (b. 1823)
- 1952 - Sven Hedin, Swedish explorer (b. 1865)
- 1956 - Tommy Dorsey, American bandleader (b. 1905)
- 1959 - Albert Ketèlbey, British composer (b. 1875)
- 1962 - Albert Sarraut, French politician (b. 1872)
- 1963 - Amelita Galli-Curci, Italian soprano (b. 1882)
- 1981 - Max Euwe, Dutch chess player (b. 1901)
- 1996 - Michael Bentine, British comedian (b. 1922)
- 2002 - Verne Winchell, American doughnut entrepreneur
- 2003 - Soulja Slim, American rapper (shot) (b. 1978)
- 2003 - Stefan Wul, French writer (b. 1922)
- 2005 - Stan Berenstain,Childrens Author (b. 1923)

Holidays and observances


- R.C. saints - Pope Siricius; celebration of the excellence of Saint Genevieve in Paris.
- Also see November 26 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
- Bahá'í Faith: Day of the Covenant
- Mongolia: Independence Day

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/26 BBC: On This Day]
- World : [http://www.adbusters.org/metas/eco/bnd/ Buy Nothing Day] ---- November 25 - November 27 - October 26 - December 26 -- listing of all days ko:11월 26일 ms:26 November ja:11月26日 simple:November 26 th:26 พฤศจิกายน

1607

Events


- January 20 - Tidal wave swept along the Bristol Channel, killing 2000 people. (Possibly tsunami)
- April 25 - Battle of Gibraltar Dutch fleet destroys anchored Spanish fleet
- April 26 - English colonists make landfall at Cape Henry, Virginia, later moving up the James River to found Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in the United States.
- August 13 - Ship Gift of God of the Plymouth Company arrives at the mouth of the modern-day Kennebec River in Maine. English colonists establish a Fort St. George, also known as the Popham Colony. The settlement lasts little more than a year before residents return to England in the first ocean going ship built in the New World, a 30-ton pinnace, called The Virginia.
- Spain is effectively bankrupt.
- The British national anthem, God Save the King, is first sung.
- Rule of Andorra is passed jointly to the king of France and the Bishop of Urgell.
- June 8 - Newton Rebellion: 40-50 peasants killed by landowners Tresham family during protests against enclosure of common land in Newton, Northamptonshire, UK - culmination of Midlands Revolt.
- Yaqob is defeated in battle and deposed by his cousin Sissinios, who then becomes Emperor of Ethiopia.
- The Midlands Revolt against Enclosure - first use of the terms Levellers and Diggers

Births


- January 10 - Isaac Jogues, Jesuit missionary to native Americans (died 1646)
- March 20 - Lady Alice Boyle, Irish noblewoman (died 1667)
- March 24 - Michiel de Ruyter, Dutch admiral (died 1676)
- July 13 - Václav Hollar, Bohemian etcher (died 1677)
- November 1 - Georg Philipp Harsdorffer, German poet (died 1658)
- November 15 - Madeleine de Scudéry, French writer (died 1701)
- November 26 - John Harvard, American clergyman (died 1638)
- Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll (died 1661)
- Thomas Barlow, Bishop of Lincoln (died 1691)
- John Boys, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (died 1664)
- John Dixwell, English judge and regicide (died 1689)
- Jan Kazimierz Krasinski, Polish nobleman (died 1669)
- Claude de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, French courtier (died 1693)
- Thomas Wriothesley, 4th Earl of Southampton (died 1667)
- Yagyu Jubei Mitsuyoshi, Japanese samurai (died 1650)
- Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla, Spanish dramatist (died 1660) See also :Category:1607 births.

Deaths


- March 11 - Giovanni Maria Nanino, Italian composer
- May 21 - John Rainolds, English scholar and Bible translator (born 1549)
- June 10 - John Popham, Lord Chief Justice of England
- June 30 - Caesar Baronius, Italian cardinal and historian (born 1538)
- August 22 - Bartholomew Gosnold, English explorer and privateer (born 1572)
- September 10 - Luzzasco Luzzaschi, Italian composer
- September 22 - Alessandro Allori, Italian painter (born 1535)
- Henry Chettle, English writer (born 1564)
- Edward Dyer, English courtier and poet
- Yaqob, Emperor of Ethiopia
- Domenico Fontana, Italian architect (born 1543)
- Wawrzyniec Grzymala Goslicki, Polish philosopher (born 1530)
- Penelope Devereux, Lady Rich (born 1562) See also :Category:1607 deaths. Category:1607 ko:1607년

1638

Events


- March 29 - Swedish arrive on the ships Kalmare Nyckel and Fågel Grip to America to establish first settlement in Delaware, called New Sweden.
- April 15 - Shogunate forces defeat the last rebels of Shimabara Rebellion in the fortress of Hara.
- May 11 - French admiral d'Estrees runs his whole fleet aground in Curaçao.
- Dutch settle in Ceylon.
- October 21 - Great thunderstorm in Widecombe-in-the-Moor, England
- Pedro Teixeira makes the first ascent of the Amazon River, from its mouth to Quito, Ecuador. The same trip had been made in the opposite direction in 1541.
- Willem Kieft, Dutch merchant, appointed Director of New Amsterdam by the Dutch West India Company.
- The Netherlands colonizes Mauritius.
- Shipwrecked sailors from England found the first known European settlement in Belize.
- The Finnish postal service, Suomen Posti, is founded.

Births


- January 1 - Emperor Go-Sai of Japan (d. 1685)
- January 24 - Charles Sackville, 6th Earl of Dorset, English poet and courtier (d. 1706)
- March 14 - Johann Georg Gichtel, German mystic (d. 1710)
- March 15 - Shunzhi Emperor of China
- March 23 - Frederik Ruysch, Dutch physician and anatomist (d. 1731)
- May 6 - Henry Capell, 1st Baron Capell, First Lord of the British Admiralty (d. 1696)
- May 13 - Richard Simon, French Biblical critic (d. 1712)
- July 10 - David Teniers III, Flemish painter (d. 1685)
- August 6 - Nicolas Malebranche, French philosopher (d. 1715)
- September 5 - King Louis XIV of France (d. 1715)
- September 10 - Maria Theresa of Spain, queen of Louis XIV of France (d. 1683)
- November 25 - Catherine of Braganza, queen of Charles II of England (d. 1705) See also :Category:1638 births.

Deaths


- January 21 - Ignazio Donati, Italian composer
- January 27 - Gonzalo de Céspedes y Meneses, Spanish novelist
- February 26 - Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac, French mathematician (b. 1581)
- April 7 - Shimazu Tadatsune, Japanese ruler of Satsuma (b. 1576)
- April 13 - Henri, duc de Rohan, French Huguenot leader (b. 1579)
- May 6 - Cornelius Jansen, French bishop and religious reformer (b. 1585)
- June 25 - Juan Pérez de Montalbán, Spanish writer (b. 1602)
- September 14 - John Harvard, American clergyman (b. 1607)
- December 8 - Ivan Gundulić, Croatian poet (b. 1589)
- Johann Heinrich Alsted, German theologian (b. 1588)
- Pieter Brueghel the Younger, Flemish painter (b. 1564) See also :Category:1638 deaths. Category:1638 ko:1638년

Clergy

Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given religion. The term comes from Greek κληρος (a lot, that which is assigned by lot (allotment) or metaphorically, heritage). Depending on the religion, clergy usually take care of the ritual aspects of the religious life, teach or otherwise help in spreading the religion's doctrine and practices. They often deal with life-cycle events such as childbirth, circumcision, coming of age ceremonies, marriage, and death. Clergy of most faiths work both inside and outside formal houses of worship, and can be found working in hospitals, nursing homes, missions, armies, etc. There is a significant difference between clergy and theologians; clergy have the above-mentioned duties while theologians are scholars of religion and theology, and are not necessarily clergy. A lay-person can be a theologian. The two fields, of course, often overlap. In some denominations clergy status is reserved for males. In other denominations both men and women serve as clergy. Clergy are protected by special laws in many countries. In some cases clergy are financed (or co-financed) by the state, but usually they are financially supported by the donations of individual members of their religion. In Christianity there is a wide range of formal and informal clergy positions, including priests, deacons, bishops, and ministers. In Islam, religious leaders are usually known as imams or ayatollahs.

Christian clergy

Catholic clergy

Ordained Catholic clergymen are deacons, priests, or bishops, i.e., they belong to the diaconate, the presbyterate, or the episcopate. Among bishops, some are metropolitans, archbishops, or patriarchs, and the Pope is the Bishop of Rome. With rare exceptions, cardinals are bishops, although it was not always so; formerly, some cardinals were unordained laymen and not clergymen. The Holy See supports the activity of its clergy by the "Congregation for the Clergy" ([http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cclergy/]), an organ of Roman curia. Canon law indicates (canon 107) that "by divine institution, there are in the Church [Latin: Ecclesia] clergy [Latin: clerices] distinguished from laics". This distinction of a separate class was formed in the early times of Christianity; one early source reflecting this distinction is the writings of St. Ignatius of Antioch. The original clerics were the bishops (the Twelve Apostles) and the deacons (their seventy appointed assistants); the presbyterate actually developed as a sort of semi-bishop (cf. the disused chorepiskopos, "rural bishop"). In the Catholic Church, only men can be members of the clergy. Catholic clerical organisation is hierarchical in nature: before the reforms after the Second Vatican Council, the tonsure admitted a man to the clerical state, after which he could receive the four minor orders (ostiary, lectorate, order of exorcists, order of acolytes) and then the major orders of subdiaconate, diaconate, presbyterate, and finally the episcopate, which is defined in Catholic doctrine as "the fullness of Holy Orders". Today the minor orders and the subdiaconate have been replaced by lay ministries and the tonsure no longer takes place, the clerical state being tied to reception of the diaconate. Monks and other religious are not necessarily part of the clergy, unless they have received the diaconate. The administration of sacraments seems to be the real distinguishing element between laity and clergy, and in this sense unordained monks and nuns should not be considered part of clergy. Ordination to Holy Orders is considered one of the Seven Sacraments of Divine institution by Catholic doctrine, in many ways directly comparable to Holy Matrimony (i.e., marriage). During the Middle Ages however, the term was used to indicate all the people with an education (having an education had been the exclusive privilege of clergy for epochs). The term also survives in students' organisations at some ancient universities (such as Goliardia, where they are often called clerici vagantes). The term clerici vagantes comes indeed from the clerics that before 12th century were commanded at the service of a determined church (incardinatio); after that time, they were not forced any more to reside in the church (if they had no privileges or other related rights), and they could go living and residing wherever they liked (then vagantes, wandering). The Council of Trent vainly tried to abolish this use, and only in recent times the rule was restored that a clericus has a perpetual and absolute obligation to serve the diocese or the Order to which he is assigned; only with a special authorisation he can be accepted in the jurisdiction of another diocese or of another Order. Current canon law prescribes that to be ordained a priest, an education is required of two years of scholastic philosophy study, and 4 years of theology; dogmatic and moral theology, the Holy Scriptures, and canon law have to be studied inside a seminary. This reflects the scholastic and intellectual traditions of the Latin Church. Oaths of celibacy and obedience are required as a condition for admittance (and persistence) for Latin Rite Catholic priests; this is a disciplinary and administrative rule rather than a dogmatic and doctrinal one. Celibacy has taken many forms in different times and places. The Council in Trullo (Quinisextum Concilium) in 692 barred bishops from marrying, but did not prevent married men from becoming priests and excommunicated those deacons who would have divorced because ordained. This rule is still followed for ordained deacons in the Latin Rite, as well as for priests in the Eastern Rites. Married men are not ordained priests in the Latin Rite, although some married priests do exist who were ordained in the Anglican church and later received into the Roman Catholic Church. See also Presbyterorum Ordinis for a modern statement of the nature of the Catholic priesthood. Clergy have four classical rights: #Right of Canon: whoever commits real violence on the person of a clergyman, commits a sacrilege. This decree was issued in a Lateran Council of 1097 (requested by Pope Urban II), then renewed in the Lateran Council II (1139). #Right of Forum: by this right clergy may be judged by ecclesiastical tribunals only. Emperor Constantine I granted this right for bishops, which was subsequently extended to the rest of the clergy by Imperial Decree. #Right of Immunity: clergy cannot be called for military service or for duties or charges not compatible with his role. #Right of Competence: a certain part of the income of clergy, necessary for sustenance, cannot be sequestered by any action of creditors. The extent to which these rights are recognised at law varies dramatically from country to country, with traditionally Catholic countries being more inclined to respect these rights.

Orthodox clergy

The clergy of the Orthodox Church are the bishops, priests, and deacons, the same offices identified in the New Testament and found in the early church. Bishops include archbishops, metropolitans, and patriarchs. Priests (also called presbyters or elders) include archpriests, protopresbyters, hieromonks (priest-monks) and archimandrites (senior hieromonks). Deacons also include hierodeacons (deacon-monks) archdeacons and protodeacons; subdeacons, however, are not deacons, and comprise a separate office that is not to be major clergy, as do readers, acolytes and others. Bishops are usually drawn from the ranks of the monks, and are required to be celibate; however, a non-monastic priest may be ordained to the episcopate if he no longer lives with his wife (following Canon XII of the Quinisext Council)[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-136.htm#P6201_1388746]. Priests and deacons may be married, provided that they are married prior to their ordination to the diaconate.In contemporary usage such a non-monastic priest is usually tonsured to the monastic state at some point prior to his consecration to the episcopacy. If they are later divorced or remarried, they are not permitted to remarry unless they first leave the clergy and return to lay status. All Orthodox clergy must be male. There are records of deaconesses in the New Testament and in the early church; the consensus today is that this office was never equivalent to that of deacon, but had separate responsibilities. The ancient office of deaconess was subsumed by the office of abbess. The typical progression of ordination is: reader, subdeacon, deacon, priest, bishop. Each ordination must take place in order, although it is possible to ordain a layman to all five offices in the course of a weekend. The organization of the Orthodox Church is both hierarchical and conciliar (or synodal). It is hierarchical in that priests, deacons, and laymen are expected to follow their bishop and to do nothing without their bishop, and in that Jesus Christ is the head of every bishop. It is conciliar or synodal in that there is no single Pope whom all the bishops follow (the Pope of Alexandria functions as a patriarch), but rather the bishops meet together in synods or councils and reach binding agreements through consensus. A bishop, even the patriarch, is bound to obey the decisions of his synod. A council with representatives from all the churches is an ecumenical council. Although Orthodox clergy are given considerable honor by the Orthodox Church, each ordination is also viewed as a kind of martyrdom. The Orthodox cleric agrees to be a servant of both Jesus Christ and of the people of the church; many of the vestments are intended to remind him of this. Much is expected of the clergy, both practically and spiritually; consequently, they also have a special place in the litanies that are prayed, asking God to have mercy on them.
- External Links
  - [http://www.goarch.org/en/special/usvisit2002/clergy/clergy_greetings.asp Forms of Address for Orthodox Clergy]

Anglican clergy

In the Anglican churches clergy is comprised of deacons, priests (presbyters) and bishops, in ascending order of seniority. Canon, Archdeacon, Archbishop, and the like are specific titles within these divisions. Bishops are typically overseers, presiding over a diocese composed of many parishes, with Archbishops presiding over an province, which is a group of dioceses. A parish (generally a single church) is looked after by one or more priests, although one priest may be responsible for several small parishes. New clergy are ordained deacons. Those seeking to become priests are usually ordained priest after a year of satisfactory service. During the 1960s, some Anglican churches reinstituted the diaconate as a permanent, rather than transitional, order of ministry focused on ministry that bridges the church and the world, especially ministry to those on the margins of society. For the forms of address to be used with Anglican clergy, see Forms of Address in the United Kingdom. During the 1980s, before the acceptance of women as equal members of the clergy, women could be ordained as 'deaconesses', who were technically distinct from deacons but carried approximately the same privileges and responsibilities. This title has now been abolished. In the Anglican church all clergy are permitted to marry. In most branches women may become deacons or priests, but very few allow women bishops. Celebration of the Eucharist is reserved for priests and bishops. Each branch of the Anglican church is presided over by one or more archbishops. The senior archbishop of the Anglican Communion is the Archbishop of Canterbury, who acts as leader of the Church of England and 'first among equals' of the archbishops of all Anglican churches. The status of deacon, priest or bishop is a function of the person and not the job. A priest who retires is still a priest, even if they no longer have any role of religious leadership.

Protestant clergy

Clergy in Protestantism fill a wide variety of roles and functions. In many denominations, such as Methodism, Presbyterianism, and Lutheranism, clergy are very similar to Roman Catholic or Anglican clergy, in that they hold an ordained pastoral or priestly office, administer the sacraments, proclaim the word, lead a local church or parish, and so forth. Some Protestant denominations reject the idea that church leaders are a separate category of people. Some dislike the word clergy and do not use it of their own leaders. Often they refer to their leaders as pastors or ministers, titles that, if used, sometimes apply to the person only as long as he or she holds a particular office.

Latter-day Saints clergy

In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, there is no professional clergy. Most clergy are part-time volunteers. The rest, including missionaries and upper level leaders, give full-time service by living off their personal savings. Traditional clergy functions such as leading meetings, giving sermons, teaching classes, and ministering in the home and at hospitals are done by ordinary church members called of God to those responsibilities. These roles are generally open to all regardless of theological training or sex. Boys and girls usually begin giving short sermons to the entire congregation and may assume certain leadership roles starting at age 12, but in most cases don't start regular teaching assignments or taking primary responsibility for other tasks until age 18. The Church does not require formal training in theology. In practice, however, most Latter-Day Saint men and women have significant theological training. Every member of the church is expected to: # Attend Sunday School weekly starting at age three and continuing throughout life # Attend four years of Seminary during high school years # Study the scriptures and doctrines of the gospel on their own at least 30 minutes per day throughout their life # Study scriptures with family on a daily basis. # Serve a two-year full-time mission as a young man (for women, a mission is only 1½ years and is optional) # Participate in continuing theological instruction through events like the yearly BYU Education Week. Performance of certain ordinances (rituals) and many leadership roles are restricted to the priesthood. Priesthood offices are Deacon, Teacher, Priest, Elder, High Priest, Seventy, Apostle, and Patriarch. Admission to the Latter-day Saint priesthood requires no training; to be a member of the Latter-day Saint priesthood, one must be male, be at least 12 years old, and be morally worthy, as determined in a confidential interview with a local bishop (pastor). Anyone who meets these requirements is ordained to the priesthood as a matter of course. See Priesthood (Latter-day Saint). Leadership in the church is organized in several levels:
- Ward (congregation) leadership
- Stake (about 10 congregations) leadership
- Area leadership, and
- General (worldwide) leadership Some of the key leadership positions at each level are: Positions marked with ‡ do not require the priesthood and are traditionally filled by women at all levels. Other leadership positions require priesthood ordination, for example a Stake President must be ordained a High Priest. Most church leaders select two “counselors” who are called to assist them in their duties and to take charge when they are at work or otherwise unable to preside. Common ordinances (rituals) which require the priesthood are: Passing the Sacrament (Deacon), blessing the Sacrament (Priest), Baptizing (Priest), and giving priesthood blessings (Elder). All are eligible to receive these ordinances on condition of worthiness.

Judaism

In ancient Judaism there was a formal priestly tribe known as the Kohanim; each member of the tribe, a Kohen had priestly duties, many of which centered around the Temple in Jerusalem. Since the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE, their role has largely been rendered superfluous. Since that time the religious leaders and clergy of Judaism have been the rabbis. Rabbis are not an intermediary between God and man: the word "rabbi" means "teacher". The rabbi is not an occupation found in the Torah (Five books of Moses); the first time this word is mentioned is in the Mishnah. The modern form of the rabbi developed in the Talmudic era. Rabbis are given authority to make interpretations of Jewish law and custom. Traditionally, a man obtains smicha (rabbinic ordination) after the completion of an arduous learning program in Torah, Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), Mishnah and Talmud, Midrash, Jewish ethics and lore, the codes of Jewish law and responsa, theology and philosophy. Since the early medieval era an additional form of clergy, the Hazzan (cantor) has existed as well. Orthodox Judaism maintains all of these traditional requirements. Women are forbidden from becoming rabbis or cantors in Orthodoxy. One does not need a bachelor's degree to enter most Orthodox rabbinical seminaries. Conservative Judaism maintains all of these traditional requirements. Women are allowed to become rabbis and cantors in the Conservative movement. Conservative Judaism differs with Orthodoxy in that it has somewhat less stringent study requirements for Talmud and responsa as compared to Orthodoxy. However, the academic requirements are just as rigorous, as Conservative Judaism adds the following subjects as requirements for rabbinic ordination: one must first earn a bachelor's degree before entering the rabbinate. In addition studies are mandated in pastoral care and psychology, the historical development of Judaism; and academic biblical criticism. Reconstructionist Judaism and Reform Judaism do not maintain the traditional requirements for study. Both men and women may be rabbis or cantors. The level of Jewish law, Talmud and responsa studied in five years of these denominations is similar to that learned in the first year of Orthodox Jewish seminaries. The rabbinical seminaries of these movements hold that one must first earn a bachelor's degree before entering the rabbinate. In addition studies are mandated in pastoral care and psychology, the historical development of Judaism; and academic biblical criticism. Emphasis is placed not on Jewish law, but rather on sociology and modern Jewish philosophy.

Buddhism

The original Buddhist clergy were the Sanghas, the order of monks and the order of nuns, which were founded by Gautama Buddha during his lifetime of missionary work in the 5th century BCE. These monks and nuns followed the patimokkha, a strict code of poverty and discipline. In modern times, however, the role of Buddhist clergy can vary greatly across different countries. For instance, in Korea, Japan, and—in some cases—Tibet, Buddhist priests may marry, which is forbidden under the patimokkha. On the other hand, countries practicing Theravada Buddhism, such as Thailand, Burma, and Sri Lanka, tend to take a much more conservative view of monastic life. In the United States, depending on the sect of Buddhism, clergy are ordained through education, training, and experience. Buddhist priests take on the role of "minister" or "pastor" within the temple organization and use the title Reverend. Today, Buddhist clergy function in a similar way as their Christian counterparts. They counsel, lead study classes, write articles for newsletters, and perform weddings, funerals, and other rites of passage. They also participate in interfaith activities, serving as chaplains in hospitals, police and fire departments, the military, and corrections institutions.

Islam

Orthodox Islam is non-clerical. The term "imam" is generically used to refer to various forms of religious leadership, ranging from the leader of a small group prayer to a scholar of religion, none of which involve any sort of religious ordination. In other branches of Islam, the term "imam" has more specific meanings.

See also:


- Rabbi, Hazzan (Rev. Cantor), Kohen, Erasmus
- Bishop, Priest, Deacon, Elder, Minister, Grand Mufti Category:Religious leaders Category:Religious workers
-

Harvard University

:"Harvard" redirects here. For information about undergraduate education at Harvard University, see Harvard College. For other uses of the name Harvard, see Harvard (disambiguation). Harvard University is a private university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, and a member of the Ivy League. It was founded on September 8, 1636, by a vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, making it the oldest institution of higher education in the United States. In 1893, Baedeker's guidebook called it "the oldest, richest, and most famous of American seats of learning." Originally referred to simply as the New College, it was named Harvard College on March 13, 1639, after its first principal donor, a young clergyman named John Harvard. A graduate of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, John Harvard bequeathed a few hundred books in his will to form the basis of the college library collection, along with several hundred pounds. The earliest known official reference to Harvard as a "university" rather than a "college" occurred in the new Massachusetts constitution of 1780. Seventy-five Nobel prize winners are affiliated with the university, and since 1974, nineteen Nobel Prize winners and fifteen Pulitzer Prize winners have served on the Harvard faculty. There are 167 Harvard faculty in the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. Currently, Harvard has the world's largest university library collection (third overall after the Library of Congress and the British Library) and the largest financial endowment of any academic institution, standing at $25.9 billion as of 2005.

Institution

financial endowment" statue in Harvard Yard is a frequent target of pranks, hacks, and humorous decorations, such as the colorful lei shown above.]] A faculty of about 2,300 professors serves about 6,650 undergraduate and 13,000 graduate students. The school color is crimson, which is also the name of the Harvard sports teams and the daily newspaper, The Harvard Crimson. The color was unofficially adopted (in preference to magenta) by an 1875 vote of the student body, although the association with some form of red can be traced back to 1858, when Charles William Eliot, a young graduate student who would later become Harvard's president, bought red bandannas for his crew so they could more easily be distinguished by spectators at a regatta.

Admissions

Harvard's overall undergraduate acceptance rate for 2005 was 9.1%.. The 2006 figures from U.S. News indicated that the business school admitted 14.3% of its applicants, the engineering division admitted 12.5%, the law school admitted 11.3%, the education school admitted 11.2%, and the medical school admitted 4.9%.

Organization

Harvard today has nine faculties, listed below in order of foundation: Charles William Eliot
- The Faculty of Arts and Sciences and its sub-faculty, the Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences, which together serve:
  - Harvard College, the University's undergraduate portion (1636)
  - The Graduate School of Arts and Sciences (organized 1872)
  - The Harvard Division of Continuing Education, including Harvard Extension School and Harvard Summer School
- The Faculty of Medicine, including the Medical School (1782) and the Harvard School of Dental Medicine (1867, the first U.S. dental school).
- Harvard Divinity School (1816)
- Harvard Law School (1817)
- Harvard Business School (1908)
- The Graduate School of Design (1914)
- The Graduate School of Education (1920)
- The School of Public Health (1922)
- The John F. Kennedy School of Government (1936) In 1999, the former Radcliffe College was reorganized as the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study. Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study The Harvard University Library System, centered in Widener Library and comprising over 90 individual libraries and over 14.5 million volumes, is the largest university library system in the world and, after the Library of Congress, the second-largest library system in the United States. Harvard operates several art museums, including the Fogg Museum of Art (with galleries featuring history of Western art from the Middle Ages to the present, with particular strengths in Italian early Renaissance, British pre-Raphaelite, and 19th-century French art); the Adolph Busch Museum (formerly Busch-Reisinger Museum, formerly Germanic Museum) (central and northern European art; and a Flentrop pipe organ, familiar from recordings by E. Power Biggs); the Sackler Museum (ancient, Asian, Islamic and later Indian art); the Museum of Natural History, which contains the famous Blaschka Glass Flowers exhibit; the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology; and the Semitic Museum. Glass Flowers Prominent student organizations at Harvard include the aforementioned Crimson; the Harvard Lampoon, a humor magazine; the Harvard Advocate, one of the nation's oldest literary magazines; and the Hasty Pudding Theatricals, which produces an annual burlesque and celebrates notable actors at its Man of the Year and Woman of the Year ceremonies; and the Harvard Glee Club, the oldest college chorus in America. The Harvard-Radcliffe Orchestra, composed mainly of undergraduates, was founded in 1808 as the Pierian Sodality and has been performing as a symphony orchestra since the 1950s. The radio station WHRB (95.3FM Cambridge), is run exclusively by Harvard students, and is given space on the Harvard campus in the basement of Pennypacker Hall, a freshman dormitory. Known throughout the Boston metropolitan area for its classical, jazz, underground rock and blues programming, WHRB uses the radio "Orgy" format, where the entire catalog of a certain band, record, or artist is played in sequence. Harvard's athletic rivalry with Yale is intense in every sport in which they meet, coming to a climax in their annual football meeting, which dates to 1875 and is usually called simply The Game. While Harvard's football team is no longer one of the country's best, as it often was a century ago during football's early days, today Harvard does field top teams in several other sports, such as ice hockey, rowing, and squash. As of 2003, there were 43 Division I intercollegiate varsity sports teams for women and men at Harvard, more than at any other college in the country. Harvard College has traditionally drawn many of its students from private schools, though today the majority of undergraduates come from public schools across the United States and around the globe. sports Harvard has a friendly rivalry with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology which dates back to 1900, when a merger of the two schools was frequently mooted and at one point officially agreed upon (ultimately cancelled by Massachusetts courts). Today, the two schools cooperate as much as they compete, with many joint conferences and programs, including the [http://hst.mit.edu/ Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology], the [http://www.hmdc.harvard.edu/ Harvard-MIT Data Center] and the [http://dibinst.mit.edu/ Dibner Institute for the History of Science and Technology]. In addition, students at the two schools can cross-register without any additional fees, for credits toward their own school's degrees. Over its history, Harvard has graduated many famous alumni, along with a few infamous ones. Among the best-known are political leaders John Hancock, John Adams, and John F. Kennedy; philosopher Henry David Thoreau and author Ralph Waldo Emerson; poets Wallace Stevens, T. S. Eliot and E. E. Cummings; composer Leonard Bernstein; actor Jack Lemmon; architect Philip Johnson; civil rights leader W. E. B. Du Bois; and terrorist Ted Kaczynski (the Unabomber). Among its most famous faculty members are biologists James D. Watson and E. O. Wilson. For a fuller listing of famous faculty and alumni, see List of Harvard University people. Harvard affiliates' politics are generally liberal (center-left): Richard Nixon famously attacked it as the "Kremlin on the Charles". In 2004, the Harvard Crimson found that Harvard undergraduates favored Kerry over Bush by 73% to 19%, consistent with Kerry's margin in major eastern cities such as Boston and New York City. At the same time, Harvard has been criticized from the Left as the "incubator for an American ruling class" (Douthat) and "hostile to progressive intellectuals". (Trumpbour) President George W. Bush, in fact, graduated from the Harvard Business School. Indeed, there are both prominent conservative and prominent liberal voices among the faculty of the various schools. Though Harvard has been featured in many US films, including Legally Blonde, The Firm, The Paper Chase, Good Will Hunting, With Honors, How High, and Harvard Man, the University has not allowed any movies to be filmed on its campus since Love Story in the 1960s; most films are shot in look-alike cities, such as Toronto, and colleges such as Wheaton and Bridgewater State . Also set in Harvard is Korean hit TV series Love Story in Harvard, filmed at University of Southern California. Many movies have characters identified as Harvard graduates, including A Few Good Men, American Psycho, and Two Weeks Notice.

History

Two Weeks Notice Harvard's foundation in 1636 came in the form of an act of the colony's Great and General Court. By all accounts the chief impetus was to allow the training of home-grown clergy so the Puritan colony would not need to rely on immigrating graduates of England's Oxford and Cambridge universities for well-educated pastors, "dreading," as a 1643 brochure put it, "to leave an illiterate Ministry to the Churches." In its first year, seven of the original nine students left to fight in the English Civil War. Harvard was also founded as a school to educate American Indians in order to train them as ministers among their tribes. Harvard's Charter of 1650 calls for "the education of the English and Indian youth of this Country in knowledge and godliness". Indeed, Harvard and missionaries to the local tribes were intricately connected. The first Bible to be printed in the entire North American continent was printed at Harvard in an Indian language, Massachusett. Termed the Eliot Bible since it was translated by John Eliot, this book was used to facilitate conversion of Indians, ideally by Harvard-educated Indians themselves. Harvard's first American Indian graduate, Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck from the Wampanoag tribe, was a member of the class of 1665. Caleb and other students-- English and American Indian alike-- lived and studied in a dormitory known as the Indian College, which as founded in 1655 under then-President Charles Chauncy. In 1698 it was torn down owing to neglect. The bricks of the former Indian College were later used to build the first Stoughton Hall. Today a plaque on the SE side of Matthews Hall in Harvard Yard, the approximate site of the Indian College, commemorates the first American Indian students who lived and studied at Harvard University. The connection to the Puritans can be seen in the fact that, for its first few centuries of existence, the Harvard Board of Overseers included, along with certain commonwealth officials, the ministers of six local congregations (Boston, Cambridge, Charlestown, Dorchester, Roxbury and Watertown), who today, although no longer so empowered, are still by custom allowed seats on the dais at commencement exercises. Despite the Puritan atmosphere, from the beginning the intent was to provide a full liberal education such as that offered at European universities, including the rudiments of mathematics and science ('natural philosophy') as well as classical literature and philosophy. Nonetheless, Harvard became the bastion of a distinctly Protestant elite--the so-called Boston Brahmin class--well into the 20th century. Its discriminatory policies against immigrants, Catholics and Jews were partly responsible for the founding of Boston College in the 19th century and Brandeis University in 1948. The social milieu at Harvard is depicted in Owen Wister's Philosophy 4, set in the 1870s, which contrasts the character and demeanor of two undergraduates who "had colonial names (Rogers, I think, and Schuyler)" with that of their tutor, one Oscar Maironi, whose "parents had come over in the steerage." Myron Kaufman's 1957 novel Remember Me to God follows the life of a Jewish undergraduate in 1940s Harvard, navigating the shoals of casual antisemitism as he desperately seeks to become a gentleman, be accepted into The Pudding, and marry the Yankee protestant Wimsy Talbot.

Recent developments

Myron Kaufman On March 15, 2005, members of Harvard's Faculty of Arts and Sciences, which instructs graduate students in GSAS and undergraduates in Harvard College, passed 218-185 a motion of "lack of confidence" in the leadership of the current president Lawrence Summers, with 18 abstentions. In response, Summers convened two committees to study this issue: the Task Force on Women Faculty and the Task Force on Women in Science and Engineering. Summers has also pledged $50 million to support their recommendations and other proposed reforms. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, Harvard, along with numerous other institutions of higher education across the United States and Canada, offered to take in students who were unable to attend universities and colleges that were closed for the fall semester. Twenty-five students were admitted to the College, and the Law School made similar arrangements. Tuition was not charged and housing was provided.

Criticism of Harvard

Harvard is the target of a number of persistent criticisms from both external and internal sources. Some of the criticisms, such as admissions bias and under-representation of women and minorities on faculty, have also been leveled at comparable Ivy League institutions, such as Yale and Princeton.

Grade inflation

The high percentage of honors awarded prior to 2005 raised concerns about declining standards. Harvard conferred honors upon 91% of its graduating seniors, while other schools in the Ivy League ranged from 51% (Yale) to 8% (Cornell). [http://www.dartreview.com/archives/2002/03/01/grade_inflation_at_the_other_ivies.php] These accusations prompted reforms in grading and honors determinations. In June 2005, less than 60% of the class graduated with honors, a 50% reduction from 2004, and more in line with comparable Ivy League institutions such as Yale and Princeton. [http://www.registrar.fas.harvard.edu]. In addition, it has been accused of grade inflation, like other Ivy League institutions and Stanford University..

Teaching issues

The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, The New York Times, and some students have criticized Harvard for its reliance on teaching fellows in undergraduate education, as many in the faculty are engaged in research (assistant teaching is not taken into account by the major college and university rankings); they consider this to be detrimental to the quality of education. The New York Times article also detailed that the problem was prevalent in other comparable Ivy League universities as well, such as Yale. According to some internal faculty and external observers, including former Harvard president Derek Bok, the Harvard Corporation exercises disproportionate power, negatively compromising the independence of Harvard academics. However, the former Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences Henry Rosovsky, who was once appointed as a member of the corporation, sees it as instrumental in maintaining a long-term view and sound stewardship.

Undergraduate experience

The Harvard Crimson Magazine leveled a number of criticisms against the quality of the Harvard undergraduate experience, including widespread student dissatisfaction, exhaustion of the students, complacency of the administration, inattentiveness of professors, problems with the residential housing system, lack of campus community, and the dearth of on-campus social options. [http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=350153] [http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=350154] In fairness, the Harvard Crimson has also quoted some professors and students with a more positive perspective on Harvard's undergraduate experience. [http://thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=509925] [http://thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=509921] [http://thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=509907] In an internal memo from October 2004 that referenced the COFHE (Consortium on Financing Higher Education) student satisfaction survey of 31 top universities including the Ivy League and Stanford, Harvard's administration acknowledged that: "Harvard students are less satisfied with their undergraduate educations than the students at almost all of the other COFHE schools. Harvard student satisfaction compares even less favorably to satisfaction at our closest peer institutions." Harvard students who participated in the COFHE survey rated Harvard below average on faculty availability, quality of instruction, advising in the major, social life on campus, and sense of community. Former Dean of Undergraduate Education Lawrence Buell said, "I think we have to concede that we are letting our students down." [http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/2005/03/29/student_life_at_harvard_lags_peer_schools_poll_finds/]

Admissions bias

Harvard's undergraduate admissions policy has been criticized as well. In particular, the undergraduate admissions office's preference for children of alumni and wealthy benefactors has been the subject of much scrutiny and debate. As documented by sociologist Jerome Karabel in his book "The Chosen", Harvard's current admissions policies, like those of other Ivy League institutions such as Yale and Princeton, originated in the 1920s, when the school sought to limit the number of Jewish students. Harvard officials worried that admissions based purely on academic promise and intelligence would result in a large proportion of Jews in the student body, which in turn would degrade the school's social standing. The officials sought to prevent this by introducing more "well rounded" admissions criterion such as participation in sports and other extracurricular activities, which they felt would benefit white protestant candidates. See also [http://www.newyorker.com/critics/atlarge/articles/051010crat_atlarge]. Defenders of Harvard assert that, whatever the unsavory origins of the policy, the benefits of a diverse student body outweigh the cost in lowered academic standards. They further point out that even with the liberalized admission policy, Harvard's academic standards are still among the highest in the country. Its preference for underrepresented minorities, shared with many other schools, is also the subject of much debate. The New York Times considers minorities and women underrepresented on the faculty of Harvard, as at several other Ivy League universities. The College is not the sole target of criticism: the Business School has been criticized for over-reliance on the case method,.

Self promotion

Harvard and Harvard students have frequently been criticized for self-promotion in various forms. In "A Flood of Crimson Ink" (Wall Street Journal, April, 2005) [http://www.opinionjournal.com/forms/printThis.html?id=110006623], the author asserts that one reason Harvard receives a great deal of press coverage is because "Harvard graduates are disproportionately represented in the upper echelons of American journalism." Many articles and books arguing for or making representations of Harvard's pre-eminent prestige have been written by Harvard graduates, such as "GWB: HBS MBA" [http://www.americanthinker.com/articles.php?article_id=3378]. Some critical pieces, however, end up balancing out the more self-serving ones -- such as in Privilege : Harvard and the Education of the Ruling Class, Harvard is described as "a terrible mess of a place... an incubator for an American ruling class that is smug, self-congratulatory, and intellectually adrift" while his undergraduate experience was "a combination of vacuous classroom assignments, cruel social climbing and feverish networking". But overall, critics of Harvard graduates' marketing approach charge that the school is filled with students "specifically selected for their skills at self-promotion" [http://maroon.uchicago.edu/viewpoints/articles/2005/05/09/its_no_surprise_that.php].

Campus

Privilege : Harvard and the Education of the Ruling Class]The main campus is centered around Harvard Yard in central Cambridge, and extends into the surrounding Harvard Square neighborhood, approximately two miles (3.2 km) from the MIT campus. The Harvard Business School and many of the university's athletics facilities, including Harvard Stadium, are located in Allston, on the other side of the Charles River from Harvard Square. Harvard Medical School is located in the Longwood district of Boston. Harvard Yard itself contains the central administrative offices and main libraries of the University, several academic buildings and the majority of the freshman dormitories. Upperclass students live in twelve residential Houses; three Houses are located at the Quadrangle, in a residential neigborhood half a mile northwest of the Yard, and the other nine are in a largely commercial district south of the Yard, situated along or close to the banks of the Charles River. Radcliffe Yard, the center of the campus of the former Radcliffe College (and now Radcliffe Institute), is west of Harvard Yard, adjacent to the Graduate School of Education.

Major campus expansion

Throughout the past several years, Harvard has purchased large tracts of land in Allston, a short walk across the Charles River from Cambridge, with the intent of major expansion southward. The university now owns approximately fifty percent more land in Allston than in Cambridge. Various proposals to connect the traditional Cambridge campus with the new Allston campus include new and enlarged bridges, a shuttle service and/or a tram. One of the foremost driving forces for Harvard's pending expansion is its goal of substantially increasing the scope and strength of its science and technology programs. The university plans to construct two 500,000 square foot (50,000 m²) research complexes in Allston, which would be home to several interdisciplinary programs, including the Harvard Stem Cell Institute and an enlarged Engineering department. In addition, Harvard intends to relocate the Harvard Graduate School of Education and the Harvard School of Public Health to Allston. The university also plans to construct several new undergraduate and graduate student housing centers in Allston, and it is considering large-scale museums and performing arts complexes as well.

Harvard University people


- List of Harvard University people
- Presidents of Harvard

Further reading


- John T. Bethell, Harvard Observed: An Illustrated History of the University in the Twentieth Century, Harvard University Press, 1998, ISBN 0674377338
- <span id="Trumpbour">John Trumpbour, ed.</span>, How Harvard Rules, Boston: South End Press, 1989, ISBN 0896082830
- Hoerr, John, We Can't Eat Prestige: The Women Who Organized Harvard; Temple University Press, 1997, ISBN 1566395356
- <span id="Douthat">Ross Gregory Douthat</span>, Privilege: Harvard and the Education of the Ruling Class, Hyperion, 2005, ISBN 1401301126

External links


- [http://www.harvard.edu/ Official site]
- [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/ Faculty of Arts and Sciences]
- [http://www.gocrimson.com/ Official Harvard athletics site]
- [http://www.commencement.harvard.edu/ Harvard Commencement Information]
- [http://www.thecrimson.com/ The Harvard Crimson] (student newspaper)
- [http://www.hpronline.org/ The Harvard Political Review]
- [http://www.harvardgeo.org/ Harvard Geographic Society]
- [http://hir.harvard.edu/ Harvard International Review]
- [http://www.hcs.harvard.edu/~hapr/ Harvard Asia Pacific Review]
- [http://www.hpair.org/ Harvard Project for Asian and International Relations]
- [http://www.harvardlawreview.org/ Harvard Law Review]
- [http://rooseveltinstitution.org/harvard Harvard chapter of the Roosevelt Institution]

References

# Zachary M. Seward. "Endowment Up 21 Percent". The Harvard Crimson. September 15, 2004. http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=503347 # "World University Rankings". The Times Educational Supplement. http://www.thes.co.uk/worldrankings/ # Daniel J. T. Schuker. "Admissions Rate Sets New Low". The Harvard Crimson. April 4, 2005. http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=506804 # Don Peck. "The Selectivity Illusion". The Atlantic Monthly. November 2003. http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/prem/200311/peck # "The Best Graduate Schools 2006". U.S. News &amp; World Report. http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/grad/rankings/rankindex_brief.php # Rebecca D. O'Brien. "Kerry Tops Crimson Poll". The Harvard Crimson. October 29, 2004. http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=504151 # Ty Burr. "Reel Boston". The Boston Globe. February 27, 2005. http://www.boston.com/news/globe/magazine/articles/2005/02/27/reel_boston/ # Linda Wertheimer. "Harvard Grade Inflation". All Things Considered. National Public Radio. November 21, 2001. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1133702 # Rebecca M. Milzoff, Amit R. Paley, and Brendan J. Reed. "Grade Inflation is Real". Fifteen Minutes. March 1, 2001. http://www.thecrimson.com/fmarchives/fm_03_01_2001/article4A.html # "Princeton becomes first to formally combat grade inflation". Associated Press. April 26, 2004. http://www.usatoday.com/news/education/2004-04-26-princeton-grades_x.htm # David L. Hicks. "Should Our Colleges Be Ranked?" Letter to The New York Times. September 20, 2002. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9803E5D71130F933A1575AC0A9649C8B63 # John Merrow. "Grade Inflation: It's Not Just an Issue for the Ivy League". Carnegie Perspectives. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. June 2004. http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/perspectives/perspectives2004.June.htm # Mark Alden Branch. "Who's Teaching Whom?" Yale Alumni Magazine. Summer 1999 http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/99_07/GESO.html # http://www.dartreview.com/archives/1998/04/29/harvard_research_and_destroy.php # Bok, in Derek Bok, Universities in the Marketplace, Princeton (2003) # Rosovsky, in Henry Rosovsky, The University: An Owner's Manual, Norton (1990) # John Trumpbour, ed., How Harvard Rules, South End (1989) # http://www.digitas.harvard.edu/~perspy/old/issues/1997/nov/second.html # http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/01/education/01college.html # http://www.cfoeurope.com/displayStory.cfm/1777470 # http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=503493 Category:Association of American Universities Category:Ivy League Category:New England Association of Schools %26 Colleges Category:Colonial colleges <!-- main campus in --> Category:Cambridge, Massachusetts <!-- business and medical campuses in --> Category:Boston, Massachusetts ko:하버드 대학교 ja:ハーバード大学

London

London is the capital city of the United Kingdom and of England. As Europe's richest city, London produces 17% of the UK's GDP, and is one of the world's major business and financial centres. The capital of the former global empire, London is a leader in culture, communications, politics, finance, entertainment and the arts and has considerable influence worldwide. arts]] arts] London is the most populous city in the