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John Marshall

John Marshall

:This article is about the American political leader. You may be looking for John Marshall (archaeologist), John Marshall (cartoonist), Jack Marshall (New Zealand politician) or John Marshall (British captain) John Marshall (September 24, 1755–July 6, 1835) was a highly influential American statesman, lawyer, legislator and soldier who served as a Virginia Delegate, U.S. Representative, special emissary to France, Secretary of State and, most significantly, as Chief Justice of the United States. Marshall presided over the Supreme Court of the United States for over three decades and was the principal founder of American constitutional law and the power of judicial review. While a signatory of neither the Declaration of Independence nor the United States Constitution, his extraordinary legal mind and powerful personality both energized and legitimized the judicial branch of the early national government and cemented his position as one of America's preeminent Founding Fathers.

Family and education

John Marshall was born to planter Thomas Marshall (1732–1806) and his wife Mary Isham Keith in 1755 in Germantown, Virginia, in a section of Prince William County that became Fauquier County, Virginia four years after his birth. Germantown no longer exists, but the archeological sites relating to the German settlers who gave the settlement its name were added to the National Register of Historic Places and a plaque noting the historic status of the area stands near the present-day town of Midland, Virginia. John was the oldest of 15 children, seven boys and eight girls, all of whom survived to adulthood and many of whom (along with their descendants) were also remarkably significant in the development of the Republic. As a young man he studied the classics and English literature, eventually working with a private tutor, the Reverend James Thompson, an Episcopal clergyman from Scotland. At the age of 14 he was sent to a "classical academy" in Westmoreland County for additional instruction. Marshall's father, Thomas, and George Washington, the "Father of His Country," as he was later called, had studied at the same academy in their youths. James Monroe was one of Marshall's fellow students during the year the latter spent at the academy. Thereafter, he returned to the family home, Oak Hill, and resumed studying with the Rev. Thompson. By age 18 he had begun to study law, particularly William Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England, but his academic work was interrupted by the coming of the American Revolution. Then, beginning in the winter of 1779 through 1780, he journeyed to Williamsburg, Virginia, to attend the law lectures of professor George Wythe at the College of William and Mary as well as those of the college's Professor Bishop James Madison on natural philosophy. Marshall's time at William and Mary concluded his formal education.

Military service

When John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, known to history as "Lord Dunmore," invaded Lower Virginia in 1775, young Marshall was appointed a lieutenant and his father a major in the "minute battalion," later called the Culpeper Minute Men. This unit was composed of citizens of Culpeper, Orange and Fauquier counties, armed with rifles, knives and tomahawks, and on their green hunting shirts they bore the motto "Liberty or death!" and on their banner was the emblem of a coiled rattlesnake, with the inscription "Don't tread on me!" Together the Marshalls and their Virginia compatriots engaged and defeated Dunmore in the Battle of Great Bridge, near the Dismal Swamp, on December 9, 1775, therefore ending English control of the Old Dominion forever. This state militia unit was eventually reorganized, and Thomas Marshall was appointed colonel in the 3d Virginia infantry of the Continental line, and John's company was attached to the 11th regiment of Virginia troops, which was sent to join Washington's army in New Jersey. Both were in most of the principal battles of the war until the end of 1779. In July 1776 he was attached to the Virginia Continental line, with the same commission; and, early in 1777, he joined the army under George Washington. He was in the Battle of Brandywine and Battle of Germantown, endured the miserable winter at Valley Forge, and fought at the Battle of Monmouth, Battle of Stony Point, and Battle of Paulus Hook in the summer of 1778, as commander of a Virginia company. His marked good sense and discretion and his general popularity often led to his being selected to settle disputes between his brother officers, and he was frequently employed to act as deputy judge advocate. This brought him into extensive acquaintance with the officers, and into personal intercourse with General Washington and Colonel Alexander Hamilton, an acquaintance that subsequently ripened into sincere regard and attachment. The term of enlistment of his regiment having expired, Captain Marshall and other supernumerary officers were ordered to Virginia to take charge of any new troops that might be raised by the state. While he was detained in Richmond during the winter of 1779 through 1780, awaiting the action of the legislature, was when Marshall studied law at William & Mary under George Wythe and philosophy with professor Bishop James Madison (cousin to U.S. president James Madison).

Early career

He was admitted to the bar on August 28, 1780, but on the invasion of Virginia by General Alexander Leslie in October of that year, he joined the army again, serving under Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, and remained in the service until January 1781. He resigned his Army commission at that time and began in earnest a private practice of law in Fauquier County. As soon as the courts were reopened young Marshall began practice, and he quickly rose to high distinction in the legal community. In the spring of 1782, at the age of 27, he was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates, and in the fall of that year, made a member of the state executive council. On January 3, 1783, he married 17-year-old Mary Willis Ambler (called Polly, Molly or Maria), youngest daughter of Jacqueline Ambler, the then-treasurer of Virginia, and Rebecca Lewis Burwell, whom Thomas Jefferson had loved in his youth. The young lawyer and his bride relocated his primary residence from Fauquier County to Richmond, Virginia where the future Chief Justice would maintain a home and a legal practice for nearly 15 years. In the spring of 1784 John Marshall resigned his seat on the Virginia executive council board in order to devote himself more exclusively to his work as an attorney. Unfortunately for the fate of that ambition, he was immediately returned to the state's legislature by Fauquier County, even though he resided there on rare occasions. He held that seat until 1785, at which time he took on the additional responsibility of Recorder of the Richmond City Hustings Court, holding that post through 1788. In 1787 he was reelected to the Virginia state legislature as the Delegate from Henrico County, which includes the city of Richmond. His practice, in the meantime, became extended and lucrative. He was employed in nearly every important cause that came up in the state and United States courts in Virginia. In the summer of 1788, Marshall joined other delegates at the Virginia state convention that was to ratify or reject the proposed United States Constitution. He joined with fellow Virginian James Madison in eloquently urging his fellow statesmen to vote in favor of the document. His own constituents were opposed to its provisions, but chose him in spite of his refusal to pledge himself to vote against its adoption.questions, such as the direct power of taxation, the control of the militia and the judicial power—the most important features of the proposed government, the absence of which in the Confederation was the principal cause of its failure. On these occasions he generally answered Patrick Henry, a leader of the anti-Federalist faction and the most powerful opponent of the constitution, and he spoke with such force of argument and breadth of views as greatly to affect the final result. The final tally was 89 in favor versus 79 against. When the Constitution went into effect, Marshall acted with the party that desired to give it fair scope and to see it fully carried out. His great powers were frequently called into requisition in support of the Federalist cause, and in defense of the measures of Washington's administration. Marshall was a very active Freemason during his adult life and during this time was elected the Worshipful Master of the Grand Lodge of Virginia, serving from 1793 to 1795. He was again a member of the Virginia House of Delegates in 1795 and 1796, and notably defended Jay's Treaty in a speech of remarkable power.

Federal service

In August 1795, President Washington offered him the position of Attorney General of the United States, which had been made vacant by the death of William Bradford, but Marshall declined, preferring to continue as a practicing lawyer. In February, 1796, he attended the Supreme Court at Philadelphia to argue the great case of the British debts Ware vs. Hylton, and while he was there received unusual attention from the leaders of the Federalist party in congress. He was now, at 41 years of age, undoubtedly at the head of the Virginia bar; and in the branches of international and public law, which, from the character of his cases and his own inclination, he had profoundly studied, he probably had no superior, if he had an equal, in the country. Ware vs. Hylton In the summer of 1796 Washington offered him the place of envoy to France to succeed James Monroe, but he declined it, and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney was appointed. As the French Directory refused to receive Mr. Pinckney, and ordered him to leave the country, no other representative was sent to France until John Adams became president. In June, 1797, Mr. Adams appointed Pinckney, Marshall and Elbridge Gerry as joint envoys. The new envoys were as unsuccessful in establishing diplomatic relations with the French republic as General Pinckney had been. They arrived at Paris in October, 1797, and communicated with Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, but were cajoled and trifled with. Secret agents of the minister approached them with a demand for money—£50,000 for private account, and a loan to the government, events now known as the XYZ Affair. Repelling these shameful suggestions with indignation, the envoys sent Talleyrand an elaborate paper, prepared by Marshall, which set forth with great precision and force of argument the views and requirements of the United States, and their earnest desire for maintaining friendly relations with France. But it availed nothing. Pinckney and Marshall, who were Federalists, were ordered to leave the territories of the republic, while Gerry, as a Republican, was allowed to remain. The news of these events was received in this country with the deepest indignation. Marshall returned to the United States in June, 1798, and was everywhere received with admiration, and returned again to the practice of law in Virginia. On September 26, 1798, President John Adams, offered him an appointment to be an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States to a seat made vacant by the death of James Wilson, but Marshall declined and recommended Bushrod Washington as a replacement. Bushrod Washington would later become one of Marshall's staunchest allies on the court although he himself had a largely mediocre career.

U.S. Representative

In part due to the measure of fame according him because of his conduct during the XYZ Affair and in part due to the promotion of his candidacy by Patrick Henry, he reluctantly ran for and won a seat in the United States House of Representatives. He was elected as a Federalist to the Sixth United States Congress and served from March 4, 1799 to June 7, 1800, when he resigned. During his tenure in the House, he was called upon to announce to that body the death of George Washington and made a short, stirring and memorable speech. His most notable effect on the law of the land during his term in Congress was his speech on the case of Thomas Nash, alias Jonathan Robbins, in which he showed that there is nothing in the Constitution of the United States which prevents the federal government of the United States from carrying out an extradition treaty. This speech settled the principles that have since guided the government and the courts of the United States in extradition cases, and is regarded as an authoritative exposition of international law on the subject of which it treats. While still serving the last days of his single term in Congress, with the final day of the session scheduled for May 14, he was appointed twice to the United States Cabinet by John Adams. The first nomination, on May 7, was to be United States Secretary of War in the place of the departing James McHenry, but that possibility was dropped when Adams decided on May 12 to name him instead United States Secretary of State as a replacement for Timothy Pickering. Confirmed by the United States Senate on May 13, he took the title on June 6, 1800 and served through March 4, 1801 as the fourth head of the United States Department of State.

U.S. Secretary of State

As Secretary of State, he directed the negotiation of the reconciliation convention of 1800 with France. He filled this office with ability and credit during the remainder of Adams's administration. His state papers are luminous and unanswerable, especially his instructions to Rufus King, minister to Great Britain, in relation to the right of search and other difficulties with that country. He strongly opposed violations of American rights on the high seas and adopted a policy which necessitated a strong Navy to give force to American diplomatic protests.

Supreme Court career

It was in 1801 that he embarked upon the most important work of his life, that of leading the United States Supreme Court. He was nominated January 20 of that year by John Adams to replace Chief Justice Oliver Ellsworth, who had resigned in November 1800. Adams first offered the seat to former Chief Justice and then-Governor of New York John Jay, but when Jay declined due to ill health, Adams turned to Marshall. John Marshall was unanimously confirmed as the fourth Chief Justice of the United States by the United States Senate on January 27, commissioned January 31 and seated February 4. He then presided over the court at the February term, even while serving in the Cabinet as Secretary of State. February 4, as recorded in the minutes of the Supreme Court of the United States, in which the Court determined the separate states could not tax the federal government.]] Marshall, only 45 at the time of his appointment, was the second-youngest Chief Justice in U.S. history (after John Jay, appointed at age 44). In the United States Supreme Court, Marshall made his greatest contributions to the development of American government. In a series of historic decisions, he established the judiciary as an independent and influential branch of the government equal to Congress and the Presidency. Perhaps the most significant of these cases was that of Marbury v. Madison, in which the principle of judicial review was stated by Marshall: "A legislative act contrary to the Constitution is not law." Then, as the young nation was endangered by regional and local interests which often threatened to fracture its hard-fought unity, Marshall again and again interpreted the Constitution broadly so that the Federal Government had the power to become a respected and creative force guiding and encouraging the nation's growth. For practical purposes, the Constitution in its most important aspects today is the Constitution as John Marshall interpreted it. As Chief Justice he embodied the majesty of the judiciary of the government as fully as the President of the United States stood for the power of the Executive Branch. Marshall wrote several important Supreme Court opinions, including:
- Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803)
- Fletcher v. Peck, 10 U.S. 87 (1816)
- McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. 316 (1819)
- Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 17 U.S. 518 (1819)
- Cohens v. Virginia, 19 U.S. 264 (1821)
- Gibbons v. Ogden, 22 U.S. 1 (1824)
- Worcester v. Georgia, 31 U.S. 515 (1832) Marshall served as Chief Justice through all or part of six Presidential administrations (John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson), and remained a stalwart proponent of Federalism and nemesis of the Jeffersonian school of government throughout its heyday.

Later life and legacy

For the first 31 years of his Chief Justiceship his life was generally serene. He never had to remain in Washington for more than three months. During the rest of the year, with the exception of a visit to Raleigh, North Carolina, which his duties as circuit judge required him to make, and a visit to his old home in Fauquier County, he lived in Richmond on Shockhoe Hill. Furthermore, Marshall's career, following his appointment to the Court and excepting his monumental contribution to that body, was relatively uneventful. In 1805 he published a five-volume biography of George Washington, the Life of Washington, based on records and papers provided him by the President's family, of which the first volume was in 1824 reissued separately as A History of the American Colonies. The work reflected Marshall's Federalist principles, and consequently was not well received by President Jefferson. In 1807 he presided, with Judge Cyrus Griffin, at the great state trial of Aaron Burr, who was charged with treason and misdemeanor. Few public trials have excited greater interest than this. President Thomas Jefferson and his adherents desired Burr's conviction, but Marshall preserved the most rigid impartiality and exact justice throughout the trial, acquitting himself, as always, to the public satisfaction. In 1823 he became first president of the Richmond branch of the American Colonization Society, which was dedicated to resettling American slaves across the Atlantic Ocean in Liberia, Africa. In 1828 he presided over a convention to promote internal improvements in Virginia. In 1829 he was a delegate to the state constitutional convention where he was again joined by fellow American statesman and loyal Virginians, James Madison and James Monroe, although all were quite old by that time. Marshall mainly spoke at this convention to promote the necessity of an independent judiciary. On Christmas Day 1831 his wife of some 49 years passed away. All of his familiars agreed that after the death of his beloved wife, he was never quite the same again. In 1832, Marshall's revised and condensed two-volume Life of Washington was published. On returning from Washington, D.C. in the spring of 1835 he suffered severe contusions resulting from an accident to the stage coach in which he was riding. His health, which had not been good, now rapidly declined and in June he journeyed to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania for medical attendance. There he died on July 6, at the age of 79, having served as Chief Justice for over 34 years. Two days before his death he enjoined his friends to place only a plain slab over the graves of himself and wife, and he wrote the simple inscription himself. His body, which was taken to Richmond, lies in Shockhoe Hill Cemetery. JOHN MARSHALL Son of Thomas and Mary Marshall was born the 24th of September 1755 Intermarried with Mary Willis Ambler the 3rd of January 1783 Departed this life the 6th day of July 1835. Marshall's home in Richmond, Virginia has been preserved by the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities.

Further reading


- Collon, Joseph P., Jr., ed., Constitutional Decisions of John Marshall, (New York and London, 1905)
- Corwin, Edward W., John Marshall and the Constitution: A Chronicle of the Supreme Court, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1919. Online Edition: Project Gutenberg
- Joseph Story, ed., The Writings of John Marshall, late Chief Justice of the United States, upon the Federal Constitution, Boston, 1839.
  - Discourse upon the Life, Character, and Services of John Marshall
- Flanders, Henry, The lives and times of the chief justices of the Supreme court of the United States, (2d series, Philadelphia, 1858). Online Edition: Making of America Books

References


- Lossing, Benson John, and Barritt, Our countrymen, or, Brief memoirs of eminent Americans. Illustrated by one hundred and three portraits, Online Publisher: Making of America Books
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See also


- List of places and things named for John Marshall

External links


- [http://www.supremecourthistory.org/02_history/subs_timeline/images_chiefs/004.html Supreme Court Historical Society: John Marshall]
- [http://richmondthenandnow.com/Newspaper-Articles/Jefferson-Marshall.html "John and Tom -- Rivals in Everything" by Georgia Bennett, Richmond Times-Dispatch, February 10, 1935]
- [http://www.apva.org/marshall/ The John Marshall House, Richmond, Virginia]


Marshall, John Marshall, John Marshall, John Marshall, John Marshall, John Marshall, John ja:ジョン・マーシャル

John Marshall (archaeologist)

Sir John Hubert Marshall (19 March, 1876–17 August, 1958) was the Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India from 1902 to 1931. He was responsible for the excavation that lead to the discovery of Harappa and Mohenjodaro, two of the main cities that comprise the Indus Valley Civilization. Marshall was born in Chester and educated at Cambridge. In 1902 he was appointed Director-General of Archaeology within the British Indian administration, and modernised the approach to archaeology on that continent, introducing a programme of cataloguing and conservation of ancient monuments and artefacts. It was thanks to him that native Indians were allowed for the first time to participate in excavations in their own country. In 1913, he began the excavations at Taxila, which lasted for twenty years. He then moved on to other sites, including the Buddhist centres of Sanchi and Sarnath. His work revealed to the world the true age of Indian civilisation. Marshall was knighted in 1914.

External links


- [http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ENG/mar.htm The date of Kanishka, by JH Marshall] Category:1876 births Category:1958 deaths Marshall, John Hubert Marshall, John Hubert

John Marshall (British captain)

John Marshall was born in Ramsgate, Kent, England on February 15, 1748. Having been bound apprentice at the age of six, he spent his life at sea. In 1788 he captained the "Scarborough", a ship of the First Fleet taking convicts from England to Botany Bay. He then sailed from Australia to China, charting previously unknown islands, as well as a new trade route to Canton (now Guangzhou). The islands which he had originally called "Lord Mulgrove's range" were later named Marshall Islands. John Marshall also captained the Scarborough on her second voyage transporting convicts to Australia, but the convicts coming aboard were in poor health and many did not survive the voyage; this, combined with an attempted seizure of the ship by the convicts, deterred him from any further voyages of transportation. He saw action during the American war of Independence, and also the Napoleonic Wars, being severely wounded when on board the ship "Diana". He died in 1819 at the age of 71. ------------------------------------------------------------------ Reference:"A Journal of the different voyages of Mr John Marshall written by himself" Marshall, John Marshall, John Marshall, John Marshall, John Marshall, John

1755

1755 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar).

Events


- January 25 - Moscow University established.
- February 20 - General Braddock lands in Virginia to take command of the English forces against the French in North America
- April 15 - A Dictionary of the English Language is published by Samuel Johnson; he had begun the work in 1746
- July 9 - French and Indian War: Braddock Expedition - British troops and colonial militiamen are ambushed and suffer a devastating defeat inflicted by French and Indian forces. During the battle, British General Edward Braddock is mortally wounded. Colonel George Washington survives.
- November 1 - 1755 Lisbon earthquake: In Portugal, Lisbon is destroyed by a massive earthquake and tsunami, killing 60,000 - 90,000 people.
- November 18 - An earthquake occurs in the vicinity of Cape Ann, Massachusetts, causing extensive damage.
- December 2 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire.
- Great Expulsion of the Acadians.
- The sultanate of Mataram on Java is divided in two, creating the sultanates of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. the acadians were forced to leave their home because of the treaty of uresty between the french and the british
- Wolsey the clothes manufacturer was established in Leicester; the business celebrated its 250th anniversary in 2005.

Ongoing events


- French and Indian War (1754-1763)

Births


- February 11 - Albert Christoph Dies, German composer (d. 1822)
- April 16 - Elisabeth Vigee-Lebrun, French painter (d. 1842)
- June 30 - Paul François Jean Nicolas Barras, French politician (d. 1829)
- September 9 - Benjamin Bourne, American politician (d. 1808)
- November 2 - Marie Antoinette, Queen of France (d. 1793)
- November 12 - Gerhard von Scharnhorst, Prussian general (d. 1813)
- November 17 - Louis XVIII of France (d. 1824)
- Charles Manners-Sutton, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1828)

Deaths


- February 10 - Montesquieu, French writer (b. 1689)
- February 11 - Francesco Scipione, marchese di Maffei, Italian archaeologist (b. 1675)
- March 2 - Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, French writer (b. 1675)
- April 6 - Richard Rawlinson, English minister and antiquarian (b. 1690)
- June 26 - Iyasus II, Emperor of Ethiopia
- July 13 - Edward Braddock, British general
- August 13 - Francesco Durante, Italian composer (b. 1684)
- September 8 - Ephraim Williams, American philanthropist (b. 1715)
- September 9 - Johann Lorenz von Mosheim, German historian (b. 1694)
- October 22 - Elisha Williams, American rector of Yale College (b. 1694)
- November 25 - Johann Georg Pisendel, German musician (b. 1687)
- December 1 - Maurice Greene, English composer (b. 1696) Category:1755 ko:1755년 ms:1755

July 6

July 6 is the 187th day of the year (188th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 178 days remaining.

Events


- 1253 - Mindaugas is crowned king of Lithuania.
- 1483 - Richard III is crowned king of England.
- 1484 - Portuguese sea captain Diogo Cão finds the mouth of Congo River.
- 1495 - Charles VIII fights in the Battle of Fornovo against the Holy League, ending his attempted conquest of Italy.
- 1560 - The Treaty of Edinburgh is signed by Scotland and England.
- 1573 - Córdoba, Argentina is founded by Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera.
- 1609 - Bohemia is granted freedom of religion.
- 1630 - Thirty-Years War: 4,000 Swedish troops under Gustavus Adolphus land in Pomerania, Germany.
- 1777 - American Revolutionary War: At the Battle of Ticonderoga, bombardment by British artillery under General John Burgoyne forces American retreat from Fort Ticonderoga, New York.
- 1785 - The dollar is unanimously chosen as the monetary unit for the United States.
- 1799 - Ranjit Singh's 25,000 men start march towards Lahore.
- 1801 - Battle of Algeciras: The French navy defeats the British Royal Navy.
- 1854 - In Jackson, Michigan, the first convention of the U.S. Republican Party is held.
- 1885 - Louis Pasteur successfully tests his vaccine against rabies. The patient is Joseph Meister, a boy who was bitten by a rabid dog.
- 1887 - David Kalakaua, monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii, is forced at gunpoint, at the hands of Americans, to sign the Bayonet Constitution giving Americans more power in Hawaii while stripping Hawaiian citizens of their rights.
- 1892 - Dadabhai Naoroji elected as first Indian Member of Parliament in Britain.
- 1893 - The small town of Pomeroy, Iowa is nearly destroyed by a tornado that kills 71 people and injures 200.
- 1905 - Alfred Deakin becomes Prime Minister of Australia for the second time.
- 1908 - Robert Peary sets sail for the Arctic on the expedition on which he later reaches the North Pole.
- 1917 - World War I: Arabian troops led by Lawrence of Arabia and Auda ibu Tayi capture Aqaba from the Turks during the Arab Revolt.
- 1919 - The British dirigible R-34 lands in New York, completing the first crossing of the Atlantic by an airship.
- 1923 - Treaty of Union signed by Russia, Transcaucasia, Ukraine and Belarus, establishing the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
- 1928 - The ten world's largest hailstones fall in Potter, Nebraska.
- 1933 - The first Major League Baseball All-Star Game is played in Chicago's Comiskey Park. The American League defeats the National League, 4 to 2.
- 1939 - Holocaust: The last remaining Jewish enterprises in Germany are closed.
- 1944 - The Hartford Circus Fire, one of America's worst fire disasters, kills approximately 168 people and injures over 700 in Hartford, Connecticut.
- 1957 - Althea Gibson wins the Wimbledon championships, becoming the first black athlete to do so.
- 1957 - John Lennon and Paul McCartney of The Beatles meet for the first time.
- 1964 - A Hard Day's Night, the first Beatles film, premieres.
- 1964 - Malawi declares its independence from the United Kingdom.
- 1966 - Malawi becomes a republic.
- 1967 - Biafran War: Nigerian forces invade Biafra, beginning the war.
- 1974 - The radio program A Prairie Home Companion makes its first live broadcast.
- 1975 - The Comoros declare independence from France.
- 1977 - Pink Floyd's Roger Waters spits on a fan during the In The Flesh tour in Montreal.
- 1988 - The Piper Alpha drilling platform in the North Sea is destroyed by explosions and fires, killing 167 oil workers.
- 1988 - Carlos Salinas wins controversial Mexican presidential election.
- 1989 - At 01:23:45 AM, the time and date by British reckoning was 01:23:45 6/7/89. This was also true 12 hours later excepting 24-hour time.
- 2003 - The Corsicans rejected a referendum for increased autonomy from France by a very thin majority: 50.98 percent against, and 49.02 percent for.
- 2004 - The New York Post erroneously reports that Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry has selected Dick Gephardt as his running mate.
- 2005 - International Olympic Committee announces that London wins bid to host the 2012 Summer Olympic Games.
- 2005 - Time Magazine reporter Matt Cooper agrees to testify to a grand jury that Karl Rove revealed to him Valerie Plame's secret CIA identity.
- 2005 - Bob Geldof and Bono meet with the G8 in Gleneagles to discuss increasing aid to Africa. Afterwards, both make appearances at the Edinburgh 50,000 concert, a last concert in the Live 8 series.

Births


- 1686 - Antoine de Jussieu, French naturalist (d. 1758)
- 1766 - Alexander Wilson, Scottish-born poet, ornithologist, naturalist, and painter (d. 1813)
- 1785 - William Jackson Hooker, English botanist (d. 1865)
- 1796 - Tsar Nicholas I of Russia (d. 1855)
- 1817 - Albert von Kölliker, Swiss anatomist (d. 1905)
- 1818 - Adolf Anderssen, German chess player (d. 1879)
- 1838 - Vatroslav Jagic, Croatian scholar (d. 1923)
- 1859 - Verner von Heidenstam, Swedish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1940)
- 1884 - Harold Vanderbilt, American businessman (b. 1884)
- 1898 - Hanns Eisler, German composer (d. 1962)
- 1903 - Hugo Theorell, Swedish scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1982)
- 1907 - Frida Kahlo, Mexican painter (d. 1954)
- 1918 - Sebastian Cabot, English actor (d. 1977)
- 1919 - Ernst Haefliger, Swiss tenor
- 1921 - Nancy Reagan, actress and First Lady of the United States
- 1923 - Wojciech Jaruzelski, President of Poland
- 1925 - Merv Griffin, American game show developer and television show host
- 1925 - Bill Haley, American singer (Bill Haley and the Comets) (d. 1981)
- 1927 - Hein Donner, Dutch chess player
- 1927 - Janet Leigh, American actress (d. 2004)
- 1927 - Pat Paulsen, American comedian and Presidential candidate (d. 1997)
- 1931 - Della Reese, American singer and actress
- 1935 - Tenzin Gyatso, fourteenth Dalai Lama, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- 1936 - Dave Allen, Irish comedian (d. 2005)
- 1937 - Vladimir Ashkenazy, Russian pianist and conductor
- 1937 - Ned Beatty, American actor
- 1946 - George W. Bush, 43rd President of the United States
- 1946 - Sylvester Stallone, American actor
- 1951 - Geoffrey Rush, Australian actor
- 1953 - Nanci Griffith, American singer and songwriter
- 1958 - Jennifer Saunders, British actress and comedian
- 1959 - Richard Dacoury, French basketball player
- 1967 - Heather Nova, West Indian-born guitarist and singer
- 1969 - Fernando Redondo, Argentine footballer
- 1970 - Inspectah Deck, American rapper
- 1975 - 50 Cent, American rapper
- 1978 - Tia Mowry and Tamera Mowry, Twin German actresses
- 1983 - Gregory Smith, Canadian actor

Deaths


- 1189 - King Henry II of England (b. 1133)
- 1218 - Eudes III, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1166)
- 1249 - King Alexander II of Scotland (b. 1198)
- 1415 - Jan Hus, Bohemian reformer (burned at the stake) (b. 1369)
- 1476 - Regiomantus, German astronomer and mathematician (b. 1436)
- 1480 - Antonio Squarcialupi, Italian composer (b. 1416)
- 1533 - Ludovico Ariosto, Italian poet (b. 1474)
- 1535 - Sir Thomas More, English writer and philosopher (executed) (b. 1478)
- 1553 - King Edward VI of England (b. 1537)
- 1583 - Edmund Grindal, Archbishop of Canterbury
- 1585 - Thomas Aufield, English Catholic martyr (b. 1552)
- 1684 - Peter Gunning, English royalist churchman (b. 1614)
- 1758 - George Howe, 3rd Viscount Howe, British general (killed in battle)
- 1711 - James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry, Scottish politician (b. 1662)
- 1762 - Tsar Peter III of Russia (murdered) (b. 1728)
- 1768 - Conrad Beissel, German-born religious leader
- 1835 - John Marshall, Chief Justice of the United States (b. 1755)
- 1854 - Georg Ohm, German physicist
- 1893 - Guy de Maupassant, French author (b. 1850)
- 1902 - St. Maria Goretti, French saint (b. 1890)
- 1916 - Odilon Redon, French painter (b. 1840)
- 1932 - Kenneth Grahame, English children's author (b. 1859)
- 1960 - Aneurin Bevan, British politician (b. 1897)
- 1961 - Woodall Rodgers, mayor of Dallas, Texas (b. 1890)
- 1962 - William Faulkner, American writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1897)
- 1962 - Joseph August, Archduke of Austria, Austrian field marshal (b. 1872)
- 1966 - Sad Sam Jones, baseball player (b. 1892)
- 1971 - Louis Armstrong, American musician (b. 1901)
- 1973 - Otto Klemperer, German conductor (b. 1885)
- 1982 - Bob Johnson, baseball player (b. 1905)
- 1986 - Jagjivan Ram, Indian politician (b. 1908)
- 1989 - János Kádár, Hungarian politician (b. 1912)
- 1998 - Roy Rogers, American cowboy actor and singer (b. 1911)
- 1999 - Joaquin Rodrigo, Spanish composer (b. 1901)
- 2002 - Dhirubhai Ambani, Indian businessman (b. 1932)
- 2002 - John Frankenheimer, American film director (b. 1930)
- 2003 - Buddy Ebsen, American actor (b. 1908)
- 2004 - Thomas Klestil, President of Austria (b. 1932)
- 2005 - L. Patrick Gray III, American director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (b. 1916)
- 2005 - Claude Simon, French writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1913)

Holidays and observances


- Comoros - Independence Day (1975)
- Czech Republic - Jan Hus Day (1415)
- Feast day of St Maria Goretti
- Lithuania - Day of Statehood
- Malawi - Independence Day (1964)
- Malawi - Republic Day (1966)
- Roman festivals Ludi Apollinares, games in honour of Apollo (since 208 BC) begin today

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/6 BBC: On This Day] ---- July 5 - July 7 - June 6 - August 6 -- listing of all days ko:7월 6일 ms:6 Julai ja:7月6日 simple:July 6 th:6 กรกฎาคม

1835

1835 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar).

Events


- January 1 – Ole Pedersen Hoiland breaks into the Bank of Norway and steals 64.000 dollars
- January 7 - HMS Beagle anchors off the Chonos Archipelago.
- January 30 - Unsuccessful assassination attempt against President Andrew Jackson in the United States Capitol - first assassination attempt against a President of the United States.
- February 20 - Concepción, Chile is destroyed by an earthquake
- March 2 - Ferdinand becomes Emperor of Austria.
- April 18 - Lord Melbourne succeeds Sir Robert Peel as British Prime Minister.
- The Australian city of Melbourne is founded by John Batman and John Pascoe Fawkner.
- May 5 - In Belgium a railway is opened between Brussels and Mechelen. It is the first railway in continental Europe.
- May 6 - James Gordon Bennett, Sr. publishes the first issue of the New York Herald.
- June 2 - P.T. Barnum and his circus begins first tour of the U.S.
- July 4 - The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad completed construction of its Thomas Viaduct then the longest bridge in the United States, and second only to London Bridge in the world.
- August 25 - The Great Moon Hoax begins.
- September 7 – Charles Darwin arrives at Galapagos Islands aboard HMS Beagle
- October 2 - Texas Revolution begins: Battle of Gonzales - Mexican soldiers attempt to disarm the people of Gonzales, Texas but encounter stiff resistance from a hastily assembled militia.
- November 16 - Comet Halley reaches perihelion, it's closest approach to the sun.
- December 1 - Hans Christian Andersen publishes first book of fairy tales
- December 7 - First German Railway between Nürnberg and Fürth named "der Adler" (The Eagle)
- December 9 - The Army of the Republic of Texas captures San Antonio.
- December 16 - Fire in New York City destroys 530 buildings
- December 19 - Toledo Blade newspaper begins publishing.
- December 28 - Seminole chief Osceola and his warriors attack government agent Thompson outside Fort King in Central Florida - it means the outbreak of the Second Seminole War

Month/day unknown


- The Toledo War was fought between the State of Ohio and the Michigan Territory over the city of Toledo and the Toledo Strip.
- De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestum, Copernicus' book on the motion of the Earth, is removed from the Index of Prohibited Books.
- Samuel Colt patents the first revolver
- Civil war erupts in Uruguay between supporters of Blanco and Colorado parties
- Cachar Levy, forerunner of Assam Rifles, is founded in India
- The first Bulgarian-language school opens in the Ottoman Empire.
- The French word for their language changes to français, from françois
- Independent Order of Rechabites founded as part of temperance movement in U.S.

Births


- February 13 - Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, Punjabi Muslim reformer (d. 1908)
- February 15 - Demetrius Vikelas, Greek International Olympic Committee president (d. 1908)
- February 18 - César Cui, Lithuanian composer (d. 1918)
- March 14 - Giovanni Schiaparelli, Italian astronomer (d. 1910)
- March 15 - Eduard Strauss, Austrian composer (d. 1916)
- March 24 - Jožef Stefan, Slovenian physicist, mathematician, and poet (d. 1893)
- April 9 - King Léopold II of Belgium (d. 1909)
- May 3 - Alfred Austin, English poet (d. 1913)
- June 2 - Pope Pius X (d. 1914)
- July 7 - Ernest Giles, Australian explorer (d. 1897)
- July 10 - Henryk Wieniawski, Polish composer
- July 27 - Giosue Carducci, Italian writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1907)
- August 2 - Elisha Gray, American inventor and businessman (d. 1901)
- October 7 - Felix Draeseke, German composer (d. 1913)
- October 9 - Camille Saint-Saëns, French composer (d. 1921)
- October 23 - Adlai E. Stevenson, Vice President of the United States (d. 1914)
- October 31 - Adolf von Baeyer, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1917)
- November 17 - Andrew L. Harris, American Civil War hero and Governor of Ohio (d. 1915)
- November 19 - Rani Lakshmi Bai, Indian freedom fighter (d. 1858)
- November 21 - Hetty Green, American businesswoman (d. 1916)
- November 25 - Andrew Carnegie, American industrialist and philanthropist (d. 1919)
- November 29 - Empress Dowager Cixi of China (d. 1908)
- November 30 - Mark Twain, American author and humorist (d. 1910)
- December 4 - Samuel Butler, English writer (d. 1902)
- December 18 - Lyman Abbott, American clergyman and author (d. 1922)

Deaths


- February 15 - Henry Hunt, British politician (b. 1773)
- March 2 - Emperor Francis I of Austria (b. 1768)
- March 18 - Christian Gunther von Bernstorff, Danish and Prussian statesman and diplomat (b. 1769)
- April 8 - Wilhelm von Humboldt, German linguist and philosopher (b. 1767)
- April 21 - Samuel Slater, American industrialist (b. 1768)
- May 13 - John Nash, English architect (b. 1752)
- June 18 - William Cobbett, English journalist and author (b. 1763)
- July 28 - Édouard Adolphe Casimir Joseph Mortier, French marshal (b. 1768)
- September 23 - Vincenzo Bellini, Italian composer (b. 1801) Category:1835 ko:1835년 ms:1835 simple:1835 th:พ.ศ. 2378

Virginia General Assembly

The Virginia General Assembly is the state legislature of the Commonwealth of Virginia, a U.S. state. Its existence dates from the establishment of the House of Burgesses at Jamestown in 1619. It became the General Assembly in 1776 with the ratification of the Virginia Constitution. The General Assembly is a bicameral body consisting of a lower house, the Virginia House of Delegates, with 100 members, and an upper house, the Virginia Senate, with 40 members. The House of Delegates is presided over by a Speaker of the House, while the Senate of Virginia is presided over by the Lieutenant Governor of Virginia. The House and Senate each elect a clerk and sergeant-at-arms. Unlike the United States Senate, the Senate of Virginia's clerk is known as the "Clerk of the Senate", instead of the title "Secretary of the Senate" used in the U.S. Senate. The General Assembly meets at the state capital of Richmond, Virginia. When sitting in Richmond, the General Assembly holds sessions in the Virginia State Capitol, designed by Thomas Jefferson in 1788 and expanded in 1904. The building was renovated in 2005-2006. Senators and Delegates have their offices in the General Assembly Building across the street directly north of the Capitol. The Governor of Virginia lives across the street directly east of the Capitol in the Virginia Governor's Mansion. The Virginia General Assembly is the oldest legislative body in the Western Hemisphere. It previously met in Jamestown, Virginia from 1619 until 1699, when it moved to Williamsburg, Virginia and met in the colonial Capitol. The state government was moved to Richmond in 1780 during the administration of Governor Thomas Jefferson, and the General Assembly has met there ever since.

External links


- [http://legis.state.va.us/ Virginia General Assembly] Category:Government of Virginia Category:U.S. State legislatures Category:Virginia General Assembly

United States House of Representatives

The United States House of Representatives is one of the two houses of the Congress of the United States. Each state is represented in the House proportional to its population, but each state is entitled to at least one Representative. The total number of Representatives is currently fixed at 435, each of whom serve two-year terms. Congress has the power to alter the total membership. The presiding officer of the House is known as the Speaker. The bicameral Congress arose from the desire of the Founding Fathers to create a "house of the people" that would closely resemble and follow public opinion, and a more deliberative, learned and reserved Senate which would be less susceptible to the frenzies of mass sentiment. It is conventional to consider the House as the "lower house", and the Senate as the "upper house", although the U.S. Constitution, does not use such language. The Constitution provides that the approval of both houses is necessary for the passage of legislation. The House is generally considered a more partisan chamber than the Senate. Many of the Founding Fathers intended the Senate (originally elected by the state legislatures) to be a check on the popularly elected House, just as the House was to be a check on the Senate. The "advice and consent" powers (such as the power to approve treaties) were therefore granted to the Senate alone. The House was granted its own exclusive powers: the power to initiate revenue bills, impeach officials, and elect the President in electoral college deadlocks. However, the Senate can propose amendments to spending bills, tries impeached officials, and chooses the Vice President in an electoral college deadlock. The Senate and its members generally have greater prestige than the House and its members. Senators serve longer terms, are less numerous, and (in most cases) represent larger constituencies than members of the House. Senate.]]

History

Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress was a unicameral body in which each state held one vote. The ineffectiveness of the federal government under the Articles led Congress to summon a Constitutional Convention in 1787; all states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates. The issue of how Congress was to be structured was one of the most divisive during the Convention. James Madison's Virginia Plan called for a bicameral Congress; the lower house would be elected directly by the people, and the upper house would be elected by the lower house. The plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, which called for a unicameral Congress with equal representation for the states. Eventually, the Convention reached the Connecticut Compromise, or the Great Compromise, under which one house of Congress (the House of Representatives) would provide proportional representation, whereas the other (the Senate) would provide equal representation. The Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states (nine out of the 13) in 1788, but its full implementation was set for March 4, 1789. The House began work on April 1, 1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time. During the first half of the nineteenth century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over sectionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives. However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Sectional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery. One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican-American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War (1861–1865), which began soon after several southern states declared secession from the Union. The war culminated in the South's defeat and in the abolition of slavery. The years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Union's victory in the Civil War. Reconstruction ended in about 1877; the ensuing era, known as the Gilded Age, was marked by sharp political divisions in the electorate. Both the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw a dramatic increase in the power of the Speaker of the House. The rise of the Speaker's influence began in the 1890s, during tenure of Republican Thomas Brackett Reed. "Czar Reed," as he was nicknamed, attempted to put into effect his view that "The best system is to have one party govern and the other party watch." The leadership structure of the House also developed during approximately the same period, with the positions of Majority Leader and Minority Leader being created in 1899. While the Minority Leader was the head of the minority party, the Majority Leader remained subordinate to the Speaker. The Speakership reached its zenith during the term of Republican Joseph Gurney Cannon, 1903 to 1911. The powers of the Speaker included chairmanship of the influential Rules Committee and the ability to appoint members of other House committees. These powers, however, were curtailed in the "Revolution of 1910" due to the efforts of Democrats and dissatisfied Republicans who opposed Cannon's arguably heavy-handed tactics. The Democratic Party dominated the House of Representatives during most of the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933–1945), often winning over two-thirds of the seats. Both Democrats and Republicans were in power at various times during the next decade. However, after winning the elections of 1954, the Democratic Party would maintain control of the House for the next forty years. In the mid-1970s, there were major reforms of the House, strengthening the power of sub-commmittees at the expense of committee chairman and allowing party leaders to nominate committee chairs. These actions were taken to undermine the "seniority" system, and to reduce the ability of a small number of senior members to obstruct legislation they did not favor. There was also a shift from the 1970s to greater control of the legislative program by the majority party; in particular, the power of party leaders (especially the Speaker) grew considerably. The Republicans swept back into power only in 1995, under the leadership of Speaker Newt Gingrich (see Republican Revolution). Gingrich attempted to pass a major legislative program, the Contract With America on which the House Republicans had been elected, and made major reforms of the House, notably reducing the tenure of committee chairs to three two-year terms.

Membership

Contract With America Under article one, section two of the constitution, seats in the House of Representatives are apportioned among the states on the basis of population, as determined by a census conducted every ten years. Each state, however, is entitled to at least one representative. The only constitutional rule relating to the size of the House is that it may consist of no more than one member for every thirty thousand people. As the US population increased, this minumum proved untenable (adhering to this mimumum would today fill the House with over 9800 members), and Congress fixed the size of the House at 435 seats in 1911 (see Public Law 62-5). The figure was temporarily increased to 437 in 1959 to reflect the admission of Alaska and Hawaii as states, but returned to 435 four years later. The Constitution does not provide for the representation of the District of Columbia or of territories. However, Congress has passed legislation permitting them to elect delegates or Resident Commissioners. Delegates and Resident Commissioners are permitted to participate in debates and to vote in committees, but they may not vote on the floor of the House. The District of Columbia and the territories of American Samoa, Guam, and the U.S. Virgin Islands are represented by a delegate each. Only Puerto Rico elects a Resident Commissioner. States that are entitled to more than one representative must be divided into single-member districts. Typically, states conduct redistricting after each census, though states are allowed to redraw the boundaries at other times as well (see Redistricting warrant). Each state determines its own district boundaries, either through legislation or by a non-partisan panel. "Malapportionment" is unconstitutional and districts must be approximately equal in population (see Wesberry v. Sanders). The Voting Rights Act prohibits states from gerrymandering districts to reduce ethnic minorities' voting power. Using gerrymandering for political gain is not prohibited, even when political gerrymandering incidentally involves the creation of racially concentrated districts. Due to gerrymandering, fewer than 10% of all House seats are seriously contested in each election cycle. The fact that over 90% of House members are nearly guaranteed reelection every two years due to lack of electoral competition, has been criticized because it can be seen as against one of the main principles of democracy (fair competition). The legal gerrymandering of the House, combined with the institutionalized gerrymandering of the Senate and the Electoral College, have been criticized as being antithetical to democracy and representative government. Article I, Section 2 of the Constitution sets forth three qualifications for representatives: each representative must be at least twenty-five years old, must have been a citizen of the United States for at least the past seven years, and must be (at the time of the election) an inhabitant of the state he or she represents. It is not, however, requisite for the representative to live in his or her district. The age and citizenship qualifications for representatives are less stringent than those for senators. Furthermore, under the Fourteenth Amendment, any federal or state officer who takes the requisite oath to support the Constitution, but later engages in rebellion or aids the enemies of the United States, is disqualified from becoming a representative. This provision, which came into force soon after the end of the American Civil War, was intended to prevent those who sided with the Confederacy from serving. The Amendment, however, provides that a disqualified individual may still serve if two-thirds of both Houses of Congress vote to remove the disability. Elections are held in every even-numbered year, on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November (Election Day (United States)). Generally, the Republican and Democratic parties choose their candidates in primary elections, which are typically held several months before the general elections. Ballot access rules for independent and third-party candidates vary from state to state. For the general election, almost all states use the first-past-the-post system, under which the candidate with a plurality of votes (not necessarily an absolute majority) wins. The sole exception is Louisiana, which uses runoff voting. All vacancies that arise during a term must be filled by special elections, conducted in the same manner. Representatives and delegates serve for two-year terms, whereas the Resident Commissioner serves for four years. Once elected, a representative continues to serve until the expiry of his or her term, death, or resignation. Furthermore, the Constitution permits the House to expel any member with a two-thirds majority. In the history of the United States, only five members have been expelled from the House; three of them were removed in 1861 for supporting the Confederate secession, which led to the American Civil War. In 1980, Michael Myers was expelled for accepting bribes and James Traficant was expelled in 2002 following his conviction for corruption. The House also has the power to censure its members; censure requires only a simple majority, but does not remove a member from office. Representatives are entitled to prefix "The Honorable" to their names. A member of the House is commonly referred to as a "Congressman" or "Congresswoman". Although the Senate also forms a part of Congress, these terms are generally not applied to Senators. The term "Representative" is also used to refer to a member of the House, although this term is less frequently used. Among academics and journalists, the term "Member of Congress" (MC) is gaining popularity in reference to members of both houses, with "Representative" replacing "Congressman/woman". The annual salary of each Representative is $162,100. The Speaker of the House and the Majority and Minority Leaders earn higher salaries. By comparison, Senators earn the same as Representatives, cabinet members $180,100, and the President of the United States $400,000.

Officers

The party with a majority of seats in the House is known as the majority party; the next-largest party is the minority party. The Speaker, committee chairmen, and some other officials are generally from the majority party; they have counterparts (for instance, the "ranking members" of committees) in the minority party. The Constitution provides that the House may choose its own Speaker. Although not explicitly required by the Constitution, every Speaker has been a member of the House. The Constitution does not specify the duties and powers of the Speaker, which are instead regulated by the rules and customs of the House. The Speaker has a role both as a leader of the House and the leader of his or her party (always the majority party). Under the Presidential Succession Act (1947), the Speaker is second in line behind the Vice President to succeed the President. The Speaker is the presiding officer of the House, but does not preside over every debate. Instead, he or she delegates the responsibility of presiding to other members in most cases. The presiding officer sits in a chair in the front of the House chamber. The powers of the presiding officer are extensive; one important power is that of controlling the order in which members of the House speak. No member may make a speech or a motion unless he or she has first been recognized by the presiding officer. Moreover, the presiding officer may rule on any "point of order" (a member's objection that a rule has been breached), but the decision is subject to appeal to the whole House. The Speaker is the chair of his or her party's steering committee, which chooses the chairmen of standing committees. The Speaker determines which committees consider bills, appoints most of the members of the Rules Committee, and appoints all members of conference committees. When the Presidency and Congress are controlled by different parties, the Speaker can become the de facto "leader of the opposition." Since the Speaker is a partisan officer with substantial power to control the business of the House, the position is often used for partisan advantage. Each party elects a floor leader, who is known as the Majority Leader or Minority Leader. While the Minority Leader is the full leader of his or her party, the same is not true of the Majority Leader. Instead, the Speaker is the head of the majority party; the Majority Leader is only the second-highest official. Each party also elects a whip, who works to ensure that his or her party's members vote as the party leadership desires. Representatives are generally less independent of party leaders than senators, and usually vote as the leadership directs. Incentives to cooperate include the leadership's power to select committee chairmen. As a result, the leadership plays a much greater role in the House than in the Senate, and the atmosphere of the House is regarded by many as more partisan. The House is also served by several officials who are not members. The House's chief officer is the Clerk, who maintains public records, prepares documents, and oversees junior officials. The Clerk also presides over the House at the beginning of each new Congress pending the election of a Speaker. Another officer is the Chief Administrative Officer, responsible for the day-to-day administrative support to the House of Representatives. This includes everything from payroll to food service. The last House official is the Sergeant-at-Arms, who, as the House's chief law enforcement officer, maintains order and security on House premises. Routine police work is actually handled by the Capitol Police, which is supervised by the Capitol Police Board, a body to which the Sergeant-at-Arms belongs. The position of Chief Administrative Officer was created following the 1994 takeover of the House by Republicans replacing the positions of Doorkeeper and Postmaster.

Procedure

Like the Senate, the House of Representatives meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. At one end of the chamber of the House is a rostrum from which the Speaker presides. The lower tier of the rostrum is used by clerks and other officials. Members' desks are arranged in the chamber in a semicircular pattern; the desks are divided by a wide central aisle. By tradition, Democrats sit on the right of the center aisle, while Republicans sit on the left, as viewed from the presiding officer's chair. Sittings are normally held on weekdays; meetings on Saturdays and Sundays are rare. Sittings of the House are generally open to the public and are broadcast live on television by C-SPAN. The procedure of the House depends not only on the rules, but also on a variety of customs, precedents, and traditions. In many cases, the House waives some of its stricter rules (including time limits on debates) by unanimous consent. Any member may block a unanimous consent agreement, but in practice, objections are rare. The presiding officer enforces the rules of the House, and may warn members who deviate from them. The presiding officer uses a gavel to maintain order. The Constitution provides that a majority of the House constitutes a quorum to do business. Under the rules and customs of the House, a quorum is always assumed to be present unless a quorum call explicitly demonstrates otherwise. Any member may make a point of order that a quorum is not present; if the presiding officer accepts the point of order, a quorum call may be held. Although a majority of members are not normally present during debates, objections that a quorum is not present are rarely made. During debates, a member may only speak if called upon by the presiding officer. The presiding officer may determine which members to recognize, and may therefore control the course of debate. All speeches must be addressed to the presiding officer, using the words "Mr. Speaker" or "Madam Speaker." Only the presiding officer may be directly addressed in speeches; other members must be referred to in the third person. In most cases, members do not refer to each other by name, but by state, using forms such as "the gentleman from Virginia" or "the gentlewoman from California." Before legislation reaches the floor of the House, the Rules Committee normally passes a rule to govern debate on that measure. For instance, the committee determines if amendments to the b