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John Sholto Douglas, 9th Marquess Of Queensberry

John Sholto Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry

] John Sholto Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry (20 July 1844–31 January 1900) was a Scottish nobleman, remembered for lending his name to the "Marquess of Queensberry rules" that formed the basis of modern boxing. He was born in Florence, Italy. In 1858 he inherited the Marquessate of Queensberry from his father Archibald. There is some controversy about the numbering of the Marquesses due to doubts as to whether James Douglas should be included. John Sholto Douglas is therefore often identified as the 8th Marquess. He was educated at the Royal Naval College and married Sibyl Montgomery in 1866. The couple had four sons and one daughter and was divorced in 1887. Queensberry married Ethel Weeden in 1893, but they were divorced the following year. Queensberry was a patron of sport and a noted boxing enthusiast. In 1866 he was one of the founders of the Amateur Athletic Club, now the Amateur Athletic Association of England, one of the first groups that did not require amateur athletes to belong to the upper-classes in order to compete. The following year the Club published a set of twelve rules for conducting boxing matches. The rules had been drawn up by John Graham Chambers but appeared under Queensberry's sponsorship and are universally known at the "Marquess of Queensberry Rules." Queensberry, a keen rider, was also active in fox hunting and owned several successful race horses. In 1872, Queensberry was chosen by the members of the peerage of Scotland to sit in the British House of Lords as a representative peer. He served as such until 1880, when he was again nominated but refused to take the religious oath of allegiance to the Sovereign. An outspoken atheist, he declared that he would not participate in any "Christian tomfoolery" and that his word should suffice. As a consequence neither he nor Charles Bradlaugh, who had also refused to take the oath after being elected to the House of Commons, were allowed to take their seats in Parliament. This prompted an apology from the new Prime Minister, William Gladstone. Bradlaugh was re-elected four times by the constituents of Northampton until he was finally allowed to take his seat in 1886, but Queensberry was never again sent to Parliament by the Scottish nobles. In 1881, Queensberry accepted the presidency of the British Secular Union, a group that had broken away in 1877 from Bradlaugh's National Secular Society. In 1882, he was ejected from the theatre after loudly interrupting a performance of the play The Promise of May by Lord Tennyson, the Poet Laureate, because it included a villainous atheist in its cast of characters. Under the auspices of the British Secular Union, Queensberry wrote a pamphlet entitled The Religion of Secularism and the Perfectibility of Man. The Union, always small, ceased to function in 1884. His divorces, militant atheism, and association with the boxing world made Queensberry an unpopular figure in London high society. In 1893 his eldest son, Francis Douglas, was created Baron Kelhead in the peerage of the United Kingdom, thus giving the son an automatic seat in the House of Lords, from which the father was excluded. This caused a bitter dispute between Queensberry and his son Francis, and also between Queensberry and Lord Rosebery, the patron who had promoted Francis's ennoblement and who shortly thereafter became Prime Minister. In March 1895 Queensberry was sued for defamatory libel by Oscar Wilde, whom he had accused of "posing as a somdomite" (sic): Queensberry made the allegation because he was angered by Wilde's relationship with his son, Alfred Douglas. Soon after the trial opened, the libel case was withdrawn. Wilde was later convicted of gross indecency under the Criminal Law Amendment of 1885. Lord Queensberry died in London, aged 55.

References


- [http://www.thepeerage.com/p2066.htm#i20654 Genealogical information from thePeerage.com]
- [http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person.asp?LinkID=mp03686 Queensberry at the National Portrait Gallery]
- [http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/john_mcgee/british_secular_movement.html A History of the British Secular Movement, by J.E. McGee]
- [http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/m/murray-bosie.html Chapter One of Bosie, by Douglas Murray] Queensberry, John Sholto Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry, John Sholto Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry, John Sholto Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry, John Sholto Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry, John Sholto Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry, John Sholto Douglas, 9th Marquess of

1844

1844 was a leap year starting on Monday (see link for calendar).

Events


- January 15 - University of Notre Dame receives its charter from Indiana.
- February 27 - The Dominican Republic gains independence from Haiti.
- February 28 - A gun on USS Princeton explodes while the boat is on a Potomac River cruise, killing two United States Cabinet members and several others.
- April - The Fleet Prison for debtors in London is abolished.
- May 23 - Persian Prophet The Báb announces His revelation, founding Bábism.
- May 24 - First electrical telegram sent by Samuel Morse from Baltimore, Maryland to Washington, D.C., saying "What hath God wrought?".
- June 6 - George Williams founds the Young Men's Christian Association in London.
- June 15 - Charles Goodyear receives a patent for vulcanization, a process to strengthen rubber.
- June 27 - Joseph Smith, Jr. is murdered with his brother Hyrum in Carthage Jail, Carthage, Illinois.
- July 3 - The last pair of Great Auks are killed.
- August 8 - During a meeting held in Nauvoo, the Quorum of Twelve, headed by Brigham Young, is created as the leading body of the Mormon Church.
- October 22 - Date predicted by the Millerites for the Second Coming of Jesus; leads to the Great Disappointment.
- November - James K. Polk defeats Henry Clay in the U.S. presidential election
- 3 November - Debut of Giuseppe Verdi's I due Foscari, at Teatro Argentina, Rome.
- November 6 - The Dominican Republic gains its independence from Spain.
- First ever international cricket match is played in New York City between Canada and the United States.
- Swedish chemistry professor Gustaf Erik Pasch invents the safety match
- Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx meet in Paris
- Alexander Dumas Jr meets Marie Duplessis
- Locksmith Alexander Fichet invents the first safe
- Carlos Antonio Lopez becomes dictator of Paraguay
- Abd al-Kader is defeated at Isly in Morocco. The sultan of Morocco soon repudiates his ally.

Births


- February 17 - Aaron Montgomery Ward, American department store founder (d. 1913)
- February 20 - Ludwig Boltzmann, Austrian physicist (d. 1906)
- February 20 - Joshua Slocum, Canadian seaman and adventurer (d. 1909)
- February 21 - Charles-Marie Widor, French organist and composer (d. 1937)
- March 10 - Pablo de Sarasate, Spanish violinist (d. 1908)
- March 18 - Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Russian composer (d. 1908)
- March 25 - Adolf Engler, German botanist (d. 1930)
- March 30 - Paul Verlaine, French poet (d. 1896)
- April 16 - Anatole France, French writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1924)
- May 17 - Julius Wellhausen, German biblical scholar (d. 1918)
- May 21 - Henri Rousseau, French artist (d. 1910)
- May 22 - Mary Cassatt, American artist (d. 1926)
- May 23 - `Abdu'l-Bahá, Persian religious leader (d. 1921)
- June 3 - Garret A. Hobart, 24th Vice President of the United States (d. 1899)
- July 11 - King Peter I of Serbia (d. 1921)
- July 22 - William Archibald Spooner, British scholar and Anglican priest (d. 1930)
- July 28 - Gerard Manley Hopkins, English poet (d. 1889)
- August 6 - Prince Alfred of the United Kingdom, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (d. 1900)
- August 17 - Menelik II, Emperor of Ethiopia (d. 1913)
- August 22 - George Washington DeLong, American naval officer and explorer (d. 1881)
- August 23 - Hamilton Disston, American land developer (d. 1896)
- August 29 - Edward Carpenter, English Socialist poet (d. 1929)
- August 30 - Emily Ruete, princess of Zanzibar (d. 1924)
- October 15 - Friedrich Nietzsche, German philosopher (d. 1900)
- October 22 - Louis Riel, Canadian leader (d. 1885)
- October 22 - Sarah Bernhardt, French actress (d. 1923)
- October 23 - Robert Bridges, English poet (d. 1930)
- October 27 - Klas Pontus Arnoldson, Swedish writer and pacirist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1916)
- November 2 - Mehmed V, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1918)
- November 23 - Karl Benz, German automotive pioneer (d. 1929)
- December 1 - Alexandra of Denmark, queen of Edward VII of England (d. 1925)
- December 8 - Émile Reynaud, French science teacher and animation pioneer (d. 1918)
- Abd ar-Rahman Khan, Emir of Afghanistan (d. 1901)

Deaths


- January 25 - Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Count d'Erlon, French marshal (b. 1765)
- January 27 - Charles Nodier, French writer (b. 1780)
- February 27 - Nicholas Biddle, president of the Second Bank of the United States (b. 1786)
- March 8 - King Charles XIV John of Sweden, Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, French Napoleonic general (b. 1763)
- June 27 - Hyrum Smith, American religious leader (b. 1800)
- June 27 - Joseph Smith, Jr., American religious leader (b. 1805)
- July 27 - John Dalton, English chemist and physicist (b. 1766)
- July 28 - Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon I and King of Napes and Spain (b. 1768)
- July 29 - Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart, Austrian composer (b. 1791) Category:1844 ko:1844년 ms:1844 simple:1844

1900

1900 (MCM) is a common year starting on Monday.

Events

January


- January 1 - Chris Smith Born in 1972
- January 2 - John Hay announces the Open Door Policy to promote trade with China.
- January 2 - Chicago Canal opens.
- January 5 - Irish leader John Edward Redmond calls for a revolt against British rule.
- January 6 - It is reported that millions are starving in India.
- January 6 - Boers attack Ladysmith - over 1000 people were killed.
- January 8 - United States President William McKinley places Alaska under military rule.
- January 13 - Kaiser of Germany declares that German is the command language in the German army
- January 14 - Premier presentation of opera Tosca in Rome - actors have received death threats and nameless letters.
- January 16 - The United States Senate accepts the Anglo-German treaty of 1899 in which the United Kingdom renounced its claims to the Samoan islands.
- January 24 - Battle of Spion Kop in Second Boer War.
- January 24 - The governments in London and Pretoria begin negotiations to end the Boer Wars.
- January 27 - Boxer rebellion: Foreign diplomats in Peking China demand that the Boxer rebels be disciplined.
- January 29 - The American League of Professional Baseball Clubs is organized in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania with 8 founding teams.
- January 30 - United Kingdom forces fighting Boers in South Africa ask for reinforcements.

February

South Africa
- February 3 - Gubernatorial candidate William Goebel is assassinated in Frankfort, Kentucky. Former-Secretary of State Caleb Powers was later found guilty in a conspiracy to kill Goebels.
- February 7 - The British Labour Party is formed.
- February 8 - British troops are defeated by Boers at Ladysmith, South Africa.
- February 9 - Richard Wigginton Thompson, U.S. congressman, dies.
- February 14 - Russia responds to international pressure to free Finland by tightening imperial control over the country.
- February 14 - Boer War: In South Africa, 20,000 British troops invade the Orange Free State.
- February 17 - Battle of Paardeberg in the Second Boer War
- February 22 - Hawaii officially becomes a territory of the United States.
- February 23 - Boer War: Battle of Hart's Hill - In South Africa the Boers and British troops battle.
- February 27 - Boer War: In South Africa, British military leaders receive an unconditional notice of surrender from Boer General Piet Cronje.
- February 27 - Ramsay MacDonald appointed secretary of newly formed British Labour Party.

March


- March 3 - Mining strike ends in Germany.
- March 6 - A coal mine explosion in West Virginia traps 50 coal miners.
- March 9 - Women in Germany demand right to participate in university entrance exams
- March 11 - Boer War: Boer leader Paul Kruger's peace overtures are rejected by Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Lord Salisbury.
- March 13 - Boer War: British forces occupy Bloemfontein, Orange Free State.
- March 13 - In France, length of a workday for women and children is limited to 11 hours by law
- March 14 - The Gold Standard Act is ratified placing United States currency on the gold standard.
- March 16 - Sir Arthur Evans discovers the ruins of Knossos on Crete
- March 24 - New York City Mayor Van Wyck breaks ground for a new underground "Rapid Transit Railroad" that would link Manhattan and Brooklyn.

April


- April 1 - Every French policeman is assigned to carry a gun.
- April 1 - Irish Guards formed by Queen Victoria
- April 4 - Anarchist shoots at the Prince of Wales during his visit to Belgium in the birthday celebrations of the king of Belgium.
- April 14 - Paris World Exhibition opens.

May


- May 1 - Explosion of blasting powder in coal mine in Scofield, Utah kills 200
- May 2 - Oscar II, King of Sweden, declares support for Britain at the time of the Boer War.
- May 17 - Boer War: British troops relieve Mafeking
- May 17 - Boxers destroy three villages near Peking and kill 60 Chinese Christians
- May 18 - Boer delegation travels to USA to ask for assistance
- May 18 - The United Kingdom proclaims a protectorate over Tonga.
- May 21 - Russia invades Manchuria
- May 23 - Sergeant William Harvey Carney becomes the first African American to be awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor (awarded for heroism in the Battle of Fort Wagner during the American Civil War).
- May 24 - Boer War: British annex Orange Free State as Orange River Colony.
- May 25 - Boer soldiers vote for the continuance of the war
- May 28 - Boxers attack Belgian personnel in the Fengtai railway station
- May 29 - Chinese government condemns Boxers
- May 30 - Boxers occupy Tientsin
- May 31 - Peacekeepers from various European countries arrive in China
- May 31 - British under Lord Robert occupy Johannesburg

June


- June 1 - Carrie Nation demolishes 25 saloons in Medicine Lodge
- June 5 - Boer War: British soldiers take Pretoria, South Africa.
- June 14 - The Reichstag approves a second law that allows the expansion of the German navy.
- June 20 - The Boxers gather about 20,000 people near Peking and kill hundreds of European citizens, including the German ambassador.
- June 30 - Piers of North German Lloyd Steamship line burned in Hoboken, New Jersey - 326 dead

July

Hoboken, New Jersey
- July 2 - First zeppelin flight on Lake Constance near Friedrichshafen, Germany
- July 5 - Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act passes British Parliament
- July 9 - Queen Victoria gives royal assent to Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act
- July 13 - Boxer Rebellion: In China, Tientsin is retaken by European Allies from the rebelling Boxers
- July 29 - In Italy, King Umberto I of Italy is assassinated by Italian-born anarchist Gaetano Bresci.
- July 30 - The Duke of Albany becomes Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha as Carl Eduard following the death of his uncle, Duke Alfred

August


- August 14 - An international contingent of troops, under British command, invades Peking and frees the Europeans taken hostage.
- August 27 - British defeat Boer commandos at Bergendal

September


- September 8 - Galveston Hurricane of 1900: a powerful hurricane hits Galveston, Texas killing about 8,000 people.
- September 17 - Philippine-American War: Filipinos under Juan Cailles defeat Americans under Colonel Benjamin F. Cheatham at Mabitac.

October


- October - The Norwegian inventor Johann Vaaler demands a patent for his invention, the paperclip.

November


- November 3 - the first automobile show in the United States opened at New York's Madison Square Garden under the auspices of the Automobile Club of America.
- November 6 - U.S. presidential election, 1900: Republican incumbent William McKinley is reelected by defeating Democrat challenger William Jennings Bryan.

Births

January


- January 5 - Yves Tanguy, French painter (d. 1955)
- January 26 - Karl Ristenpart, German conductor (d. 1967)
- January 27 - Hyman Rickover, American admiral (d. 1986)

February


- February 4 - Jacques Prévert, French lyricist and author (d. 1977)
- February 5 - Adlai Stevenson, American politician (d. 1965)
- February 11 - Hans-Georg Gadamer, German philosopher (d. 2002)
- February 12 - Roger J. Traynor, American judge (d. 1983)
- February 19 - Giorgos Seferis, Greek writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971)
- February 22 - Luis Buñuel, Spanish film director (d. 1983)
- February 28 - Wolfram Hirth, German pilot and aircraft designer (d. 1959)

March


- March 9 - Howard Aiken, American computing pioneer (d. 1973)
- March 19 - Frédéric Joliot, French physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (d. 1958)
- March 23 - Erich Fromm, German-born psychologist and philosopher (d. 1980)
- March 29 - John McEwen, eighteenth Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1980)
- March 31 - Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester (d. 1974)

April-June


- April 2 - Roberto Arlt, Argentinian writer (d. 1942)
- April 5 - Spencer Tracy, American actor (d. 1967)
- April 25 - Wolfgang Ernst Pauli, Austrian-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1958)
- April 26 - Charles Richter, American geophysicist and inventor (d. 1985)
- April 30 - Cecily Lefort, English World War II heroine (executed) (d. 1945)
- May 1 - Ignazio Silone, Italian author (d. 1978)
- May 12 - Helene Weigel, Austrian actress (d. 1971)
- May 28 - Tommy Ladnier, American jazz trumpeter (heart attack) (d. 1939)
- June 3 - Rolland Fisher, American temperance movement leader (d. 1982)
- June 5 - Dennis Gabor, Hungarian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1979)
- June 15 - Paul Mares, American jazz trumpeter (d. 1949)
- June 29 - Antoine de Saint-Exupery, French pilot and writer (d. 1944)

July-September


- July 13 - George Lewis, American jazz clarinetist (d. 1969)
- July 29 - Eyvind Johnson, Swedish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1976)
- August 3 - Ernie Pyle, American journalist (d. 1945)
- August 4 - Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, queen of King George VI of the United Kingdom (d. 2002)
- August 6 - Cecil H. Green, British-born geophysicist and businessman (d. 2003)
- August 10 - Arthur Espie Porritt, New Zealand politician and athlete (d. 1994)
- August 15 - Jan Brzechwa, Polish poet (d. 1966)
- August 22 - Sergei Ozhegov, Russian lexicographer (d. 1964)
- August 25 - Sir Hans Adolf Krebs, German physician and biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1981)
- August 26 - Hellmuth Walter, German engineer and inventor (d. 1980)
- September 3 - Urho Kekkonen, President of Finland (d. 1986)
- September 6 - W.A.C. Bennett, Canadian politician (d. 1979)

October-December


- October 6 - Stan Nichols, English cricketer (d. 1961)
- October 7 - Heinrich Himmler, Nazi official and leader of the SS (d. 1945)
- October 30 - Ragnar Granit, Finnish neuroscientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1991)
- November 5 - Martin Dies, Jr., American politician (d. 1972)
- November 8 - Charlie Paddock, American athlete (d. 1943)
- November 8 - Margaret Mitchell, American writer (d. 1949)
- November 11 - Halina Konopacka, Polish athlete (d. 1989)
- November 14 - Aaron Copland, American composer (d. 1990)
- December 3 - Ulrich Inderbinen, Swiss mountain guide (d. 2004)
- December 3 - Richard Kuhn, Austrian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967)
- December 12 - Sammy Davis, Sr., American dancer (d. 1988)

Deaths


- January 20 - John Ruskin, English writer and social critic (b. 1819)
- March 6 - Gottlieb Daimler, German inventor and automotive pioneer (b. 1834)
- April 5 - Joseph Louis François Bertrand, French mathematician (b. 1822)
- April 24 - George Douglas Campbell, 8th Duke of Argyll, British politician (b.1823)
- April 30 - Casey Jones, American train wreck victim (b. 1864)
- May 18 - Jean Gaspard Felix Ravaisson-Mollien, French philosopher (b. 1813)
- June 3 - Mary Kingsley, English explorer and writer (b. 1862)
- June 5 - Stephen Crane, American author (b. 1871)
- June 11 - Belle Boyd, American Confederate spy and actress (b.1843)
- July 29 - Umberto I, King of Italy (assassinated) (b. 1844)
- July 30 - Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (b. 1844)
- August 10 - Charles Russell, Baron Russell of Killowen, Lord Chief Justice of England (b.1832)
- August 12 - Wilhelm Steinitz, Austrian-born chess player (b. 1836)
- August 16 - Eça de Queirós, Portuguese writer (b. 1845)
- August 25 - Friedrich Nietzsche, German philosopher and writer (b. 1844)
- August 25 - Kuroda Kiyotaka, Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1840)
- September 23 - William Marsh Rice, American philanthropist and university founder (murdered) (b. 1816)
- September 29 - Samuel Fenton Cary, American politician and temperance movement leader (b. 1814)
- October 15 - Zdeněk Fibich, Czech composer (b. 1850)
- October 22 - John Sherman, American politician (b.1823)
- November 22 - Sir Arthur Sullivan. English composer (b. 1842)
- November 30 - Oscar Wilde, Irish writer (b. 1854)

Month/day unknown


- Henry D. Cogswell, American philanthropist and temperance movement pioneer (b. 1820)

Notes


- 1900 is not a leap year even though the number is divisible by 4. It is one of the dropped leap years of the Gregorian Calendar.
- ko:1900년 ms:1900 ja:1900年 simple:1900 th:พ.ศ. 2443

Marquess of Queensberry rules

The Marquess of Queensberry rules are a code of popularly accepted rules in the sport of boxing. They were named so because the 9th Marquess of Queensberry publicly endorsed the code. The boxing code was written by John Graham Chambers in 1865 and published in 1867 as "the Queensberry rules for the sport of boxing". This code of rules superseded the Revised London Prize Ring rules (1853), which had themselves replaced the original London Prize Ring rules (1743) of Jack Broughton. This version persuaded boxers that "you must not fight simply to win; no holds barred is not the way; you must win by the rules" (17, sect. 5, pt. 1). The first prize fight under Marquess of Queensberry rules took place in Cincinnati, Ohio on August 29 1885. John L. Sullivan defeated his opponent, Dominick McCaffery, in the sixth round.

Marquess of Queensberry Rules

# To be a fair stand-up boxing match in a 24-foot ring, or as near that size as practicable. # No wrestling or hugging allowed. # The rounds to be of three minutes' duration, and one minute's time between rounds. # If either man falls through weakness or otherwise, he must get up unassisted, 10 seconds to be allowed him to do so, the other man meanwhile to return to his corner, and when the fallen man is on his legs the round is to be resumed and continued until the three minutes have expired. If one man fails to come to the scratch in the 10 seconds allowed, it shall be in the power of the referee to give his award in favour of the other man. # A man hanging on the ropes in a helpless state, with his toes off the ground, shall be considered down. # No seconds or any other person to be allowed in the ring during the rounds. # Should the contest be stopped by any unavoidable interference, the referee to name the time and place as soon as possible for finishing the contest; so that the match must be won and lost, unless the backers of both men agree to draw the stakes. # The gloves to be fair-sized boxing gloves of the best quality and new. # Should a glove burst, or come off, it must be replaced to the referee's satisfaction. # A man on one knee is considered down and if struck is entitled to the stakes. # No shoes or boots with springs allowed. # The contest in all other respects to be governed by revised rules of the London Prize Ring.

Sources


- [http://www.hickoksports.com/history/boxchheavy.shtml HickokSports.com - Sports History - Boxing: Heavyweight Champions] Queensberry Queensberry

Boxing

:For other uses, see Boxing (disambiguation) or Boxer (disambiguation) Boxer (disambiguation) Boxing, also called pugilism and prizefighting, is a sport where two participants of similar weight attack each other with their fists in a series of two to three-minute intervals called "rounds". In both Amateur and Professional divisions, the combatants (called boxers or fighters) avoid their opponent's punches whilst trying to land punches of their own. Points are awarded for clean, solid blows to the legal area on the front of the opponent's body above the waistline, with hits to the head and torso especially valuable. The fighter with the most points after the scheduled number of rounds is declared the winner. Victory may also be achieved if the opponent is knocked down and unable get up before the referee counts to ten (a Knockout, or KO) or if the opponent is deemed too injured to continue (a Technical Knockout, or TKO).

Origins

Earliest evidence suggests that boxing was prevalent in North Africa during 4000 BC and the Mediterranean in 1500 BC. A Greek ruler named Thesus, who ruled around 900 B.C., was entertained by men who would seat in front of each other and beat another with their fists until one of them was killed. In time, the fighters fought on their feet and wore gloves (not padded) and wrappings on their arms below the elbows, but were otherwise naked when competeing. First accepted as an Olympic sport (the ancient Greeks called it Pygmachia) in 688 BC, participants in the ancient games trained on punching bags (called a korykos). Keeping their fingers free, fighters then wore leather straps (called himantes) on their hands, wrists, and sometimes lower arms, to protect them from injury. In Rome, fighters were usually criminals and slaves. They hoped to become champions and gain their freedom. However, free men also fought. Eventually, fist fighting became so popular that even aristocrats started fighting, but that was banned by the ruler Augustus. In 500 A.D., the sport was banned by Theodoric the Great.

London Prize Ring rules (1839)

Records of boxing activity disappeared after the fall of the Roman Empire. The sport would later resurface in English during the early 18th century in the form of bare-knuckle prizefighting. The first documented account of a bare-knuckle fight in England appeared in 1681 in the "London Protestant Mercury," and the first English bare-knuckle champion was James Figg in 1719. This is also the time when the word "boxing" first came to be used. Early bare-knuckle fighting was crude with no written rules. There were no weight divisions, round limits and no referee. Modern rules banning gouging, grappling, biting, headbutting, fish-hooking and blows below the belt were absent. The first boxing rules were introduced by heavyweight champion Jack Broughton in 1743 to protect fighters in the ring where deaths sometimes occurred. Under these rules, if a man went down and could not continue after a count of 30 seconds, the fight was over. Hitting a downed fighter and grasping below the waist were prohibited. Broughton also invented "mufflers" (padded gloves), which were used in training and exhibitions. In 1839, the London Prize Ring rules were introduced which superceded Jack Broughton's rules. Later revised in 1853, they stipulated the following:
- Fights occur in a 24-foot-square ring surrounded by ropes.
- If a fighter was knocked down, he must rise within 30 seconds of his own power to be allowed to continue.
- Biting, headbutting and hitting below the belt were declared fouls.

Marquess of Queensberry rules (1867)

In 1867, the Marquess of Queensberry rules were drafted by John Chambers for amateur championships held at Lillie Bridge in London for Lightweights, Middleweights and Heavyweights. The rules were published under the patronage of the Marquess of Queensberry, whose name has always been associated with them. There were twelve rules in all, and they specified that fights should be "a fair stand-up boxing match" in a 24-foot-square ring. Rounds were three minutes long with one minute rest intervals between rounds. Each fighter was given a ten-second count if he was knocked down and wrestling was banned. The introduction of gloves of "fair-size" also changed the nature of the bouts. An average pair of boxing gloves resembles a bloated pair of mittens and are laced up around the wrists. Gloves protected the hands of both fighters but their considerable size and weight made knock-out victories more difficult to achieve. Resultantly, bouts became longer and more strategic with greater importance attached to defensive maneuvers such as slipping, bobbing, countering and angling. The first world heavyweight champion under the Queensberry Rules was "Gentleman Jim" Corbett, who defeated John L. Sullivan in 1892 at the Pelican Athletic Club in New Orleans. With the gradual acceptance of formalised rules, two distinct branches of boxing emerged; Professional and Amateur. The boxing rules enforced by governing bodies worldwide today at the local, national and international level are all derived in some way from the Marquis of Queensberry Rules.

Amateur boxing

In amateur boxing (the version of the sport found at the Olympic Games and Commonwealth Games) the primary emphasis is on landing scoring punches rather than concern with doing physical damage to one's opponent. Competitors wear protective headgear and box for three to five rounds of two or three minutes each. Gloves in amateur boxing have a white strip across the knuckle. A punch is considered a scoring punch only when the boxers connect with the white portion of the gloves. Each punch that lands on the head or torso is awarded a point. A referee monitors the fight to ensure that competitors use only legal blows (a belt worn over the torso represents the lower limit of punches - any boxer repeatedly landing "low blows" is disqualified). Referees also ensure that the boxers don't use holding tactics to prevent the opponent from swinging (if this occurs, the referee separates the opponents and orders them to continue boxing. Repeated holding can result in a boxer being penalised, or ultimately, disqualified). Also, in amateur boxing, referees will readily step in and stop the contest even if the competitor is only relatively lightly injured. As a result, the risk of grievous injury is sufficiently reduced in amateur boxing versus professional boxing.

Amateur boxing history

The Queensberry Amateur Championships continued from 1867 to 1885, and so, unlike their professional counterparts, amateur boxers did not deviate from using gloves once the Queensberry Rules had been published. In Britain, the Amateur Boxing Association (A.B.A.) was formed in 1880 when twelve clubs affiliated. It held its first championships the following year. Four weight classes were contested, Featherweight (9 stone), Lightweight (10 stone), Middleweight (11 stone, 4 pounds) and Heavyweight (no limit). (A stone is equal to 14 pounds). By 1902, American boxers were contesting the titles in the A.B.A. Championships, which, therefore, took on an international complexion. By 1924, the A.B.A. had 105 clubs in affiliation. Boxing first appeared at the Olympic Games in 1904 and, apart from the Games of 1912, has always been part of them. From 1972 through 2004, Cuba and the United States have won the most Gold Medals, 29 for Cuba and 21 for the U.S. Internationally, amateur boxing spread steadily throughout the first half of the 20th century, but when the first international body, the Federation Internationale de Boxe Amateur (International Amateur Boxing Federation) was formed in Paris in 1920, there were only five member nations. In 1946, however, when the International Amateur Boxing Association (A.I.B.A.) was formed in London, twenty-four nations from five continents were represented, and the A.I.B.A. has continued to be the official world federation of amateur boxing ever since. The first World Amateur Boxing Championships were staged in 1974. In the late 19th and early 20th century, amateur boxing was encouraged in schools, universities and in the armed forces, but the champions usually came from among the urban poor. Women's boxing first appeared in the Olympic Games at a demonstration bout in 1904. For most of the 20th century, however, it was banned in most nations. Its revival was pioneered by the Swedish Amateur Boxing Association, which sanctioned events for women in 1988. The British Amateur Boxing Association sanctioned its first boxing competition for women in 1997. The first event was to be between two thirteen-year-olds, but one of the boxers withdrew because of hostile media attention. Four weeks later, an event was held between two sixteen-year-olds. The A.I.B.A. accepted new rules for Women's Boxing at the end of the 20th century and approved the first European Cup for Women in 1999 and the first World Championship for women in 2001. Women's boxing will be an exhibition sport at the 2008 Olympics, but it won't become an official Olympic sport at the 2012 Olympics. Fights at the amateur boxing level were scored by five judges, who gave 20 points to whoever they thought won a round, and 19 or less to the loser. This form of scoring changed after the 1988 Olympic games in Seoul, when Michael Carbajal and Roy Jones Jr. lost their gold medal fights to South Korean opponents, with the boxing media generally believing that Carbajal and Jones Jr. should have won their bouts. It was later discovered that the judges had been bribed to give South Koreans the gold medals against Carbajal and Jones Jr. Ironically, at the same Games, a South Korean boxer sat in the ring for about 90 minutes after being declared the loser in a fight he thought he should have won. As a consequence of all the controversies of the 1988 Olympic boxing competition, a new scoring system was invented for amateur boxing: using a computer, judges must press a button every time they think a boxer landed a punch. When three or more of the five judges press the button within a second of each other, the punch counts as a "point" for the fighter that landed it. Punches to the head or face of an opponent usually score the most points for a competitor. At any point of the fight in which a fighter is leading by twenty points (or sometimes more), the referee is indicated and the fight is stopped, the leading fighter winning by "mercy", and credited with a knockout.

Professional boxing

Professional bouts are far longer than amateur bouts (ranging from four to twelve rounds), headgear is not permitted, and boxers are generally allowed to take much more punishment before a fight is halted. At any time, however, the referee may stop the contest if he believes that one participant can not or should not continue to box. In that case, the other participant is awarded a technical knockout win, which appears on the boxer's record as a knockout win (or loss). A technical knockout would also be awarded if a fighter lands a punch that opens a cut on the opponent, and the opponent is later deemed not fit to continue by a doctor because of the cut. If a boxer simply quits fighting, or if his corner stops the fight, then the winning boxer is also awarded a technical knockout victory. If a knockout or disqualification does not occur, the fight must go to the scorecards. Professional fights have three judges each, and each of the judges must use the 10 point must system: Under this system, each time a boxer wins a round in the judges' eyes, the judge gives that boxer 10 points, and the other 9 or less. If the judge deems the round to be a tie, he or she may score it 10-10. When the fight reaches its scheduled distance, all scores are added, round by round, to determine who won on each judges' cards. When all three judges have the same boxer as the winner, this is an unanimous decision. When two judges have one boxer winning the fight and the other one has it a tie, this is called a majority decision. When two judges have one boxer winning the fight and the other judge has the other boxer winning, this is called a split decision. When one judge gives his or her vote to one boxer, another one gives it to the other boxer, and the third judge calls it a tie, this is a draw. It is also a draw when two judges score the fight a tie, regardless of who the third judge score the bout for. In Britain, the bout is only scored by the referee, except when a title is at stake, in which case it is scored by three judges. If a fight can not go on because of an injury caused to one of the competitors by a headbutt, there are different rules: If the fight has not reached the end of round three, (in some places, round four), the fight is declared a technical draw or a no contest. If it has reached beyond the end of round three (or four), then the scorecards are read and whoever is ahead, wins by a technical decision.

Evolution of professional boxing

In 1891, the National Sporting Club (N.S.C.), a private club in London, began to promote professional glove fights at its own premises, and created nine of its own rules to augment the Queensberry Rules. These rules specified more accurately the role of the officials, and produced a system of scoring that enabled the referee to decide the result of a fight. The British Boxing Board of Control (B.B.B.C.) was first formed in 1919 with close links to the N.S.C., and was re-formed in 1929 after the N.S.C. closed. In 1909, the first of twenty-two belts were presented by the fifth Earl of Lonsdale to the winner of a British title fight held at the N.S.C. In 1929, the B.B.B.C. continued to award Lonsdale Belts to any British boxer who won three title fights in the same weight division. The "title fight" has always been the focal point in professional boxing. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, however, there were title fights at each weight. Promoters who could stage profitable title fights became influential in the sport, as did boxers' managers. The best promoters and managers have been instrumental in bringing boxing to new audiences and provoking media and public interest. The most famous of all three-way partnership (fighter-manager-promoter) was that of Jack Dempsey (Heavyweight Champion, 1919-1926), his manager Jack Kearns, and the promoter Tex Rickard. Together they grossed US$ 8.4 million in only five fights between 1921 and 1927 and ushered in a "golden age" of popularity for professional boxing in the 1920s. They were also responsible for the first live radio broadcast of a title fight (Dempsey v. Georges Carpentier, in 1921). In Britain, Jack Solomons' success as a fight promoter helped re-establish professional boxing after the Second World War and made Britain a popular place for title fights in the 1950s and 1960s. In the first part of the 20th century, the United States became the centre for professional boxing. It was generally accepted that the "world champions" were those listed by the Police Gazette. After 1920, the National Boxing Association (N.B.A.) began to sanction "title fights". Also during that time, Ring Magazine magazine was founded and it listed champions and awarded championship belts. The N.B.A. was renamed in 1962 and became the World Boxing Association (W.B.A.). The following year, a rival body, the World Boxing Council (W.B.C.), was formed. In 1983, another world body, the International Boxing Federation (I.B.F.) was formed. By the end of the 20th century, a boxer had to be recognized by the three separate bodies to be the "Undisputed Champion" of the World. Ring Magazine also continued listing the World Champion of each weight division, and its rankings continue being of the most appreciated by fans. Although women fought professionally in many countries, in Britain the B.B.B.C. refused to issue licences to women until 1998. By the end of the century, however, they had issued five such licenses. The first sanctioned bout between women was in November 1998 at Streatham in London, between Jane Couch and Simona Lukic.

Equipment

Boxing techniques utilize very forceful strikes with the hand. There are many bones in the hand, and striking surfaces without proper technique can cause serious hand injuries. Today, most trainers do not allow boxers to train and spar without handwraps and gloves. Handwraps are used to secure the bones in the hand, and the gloves are used to protect the hands from blunt injury, allowing boxers to throw punches with more force than if they did not utilize them. Headgear, used in amateur boxing, protects against cuts, scrapes, and swelling, but does not protect very well against concussions. Headgear does not sufficiently protect the brain from the jarring that occurs when the head is struck with great force. Also, most boxers aim for the chin on opponents, and the chin is usually not padded. Thus, a powerpunch can do a lot of damage to a boxer, and even a jab that connects to the chin can cause damage, regardless of whether or not headgear is being utilized.

Length of bouts

For decades, from the 1920s to the 1980s, world championship matches in professional boxing were scheduled for fifteen rounds, but that changed with the death of boxer Duk Koo Kim, who died after a lightweight title fight with Ray Mancini in November of 1982. After Kim's death, the World Boxing Council reduced the number of their championship fights to twelve rounds. By 1988, to the displeasure of many boxing purists, all fights had been reduced to a maximum of 12 rounds only.

Technique

There are four basic punches in boxing: the Jab, Cross, Hook and Uppercut. If a boxer is right-handed, his lead hand be his left, and vice versa. A left-handed boxer is called a Southpaw.

Punches


- Jab - A quick, straight punch thrown with the lead hand from the stance position. The punch is accompanied by a quarter-rotation of the shoulders, while the fist rotates through 180 degrees so that it is horizontal upon impact. As the punch reaches full extension, the lead shoulder is brought up to guard the chin. The rear hand remains next to the face to guard the jaw. The jab is the most important punch in a boxer's arsenal because it provides a fair amount of its own cover and it leaves the least amount of space for a counterpunch from the opponent. It has the longest reach of any punch and does not require commitment or a large shift in position to throw the punch. It is thus used as a tool to gauge distances, probe an opponent's defenses, and set up heavier, more powerful punches.
- Cross - Also called a "straight" or "right", the cross is a straight punch executed with the rear hand. The rear hand crosses the body, the shoulders rotate toward the target and the rear pivots along with the hips. A half-step forward can be maneuvered (just as a jab can be thrown with a step (step-jab) or without) although many prefer not to do this and do not coach it. The power in the cross comes from the rotation of the hips, the extension of the arm and the momentum this builds, as well as the weight behind the punch - a boxers weight transfers to his front foot so as to put the body behind the punch, however he/she should always be able to resume a guarded stance immediately after the punch is thrown and never be off-balance. The cross is the most powerful punch and is responsible for the majority of knockouts. It can be used to set up a hook, and it can be used as a counterpunch to a jab aimed at the opponent's head (or a counter to a cross aimed at the body). The cross can be thrown right after a jab, creating the classic "one-two combo."
- Hook - This punch is thrown in a side arc with a bent arm. It can be thrown with either hand but is typically a lead hand punch. The boxer rotates the hips and transfers weight towards the back while pivoting the feet in the same direction, causing the arm to swing with the body in a lead hand hook. The power in a hook comes from the explosive rotation of the legs, hips, and shoulders, allowing a large amount of power to be thrown behind the punch. The classic hook is thrown in a horizontal plane, but the punch can also be thrown at a 45 degree angle (a "Mexican hook" or "shovel hook" or "hook to the ribs"), blending into the uppercut, striking the ribs right under the guard. Hooks are not parried but rather bobbed/rolled or simply blocked with the boxers guard against the head. The punch is very useful when aimed for the ribs, solar plexus, or especially the head, as the force from the hook tends to travel through a blocked head better than a jab.
- Uppercut - This punch is thrown upwards with either hand (although a rear hand uppercut is marginally more common). The weight transfer for an uppercut is similar to that of the cross, except the arm is bent and extends outward from the boxer's guard instead of extending straight out from the chin. The uppercut travels horizontally towards the opponent's chest, and arcs up slightly to strike the chin. The power in the uppercut comes from the rotation of the legs and hips, like a cross. This can be a devastating power punch because even if it does not connect with the chin itself, it tends to lift up the chin of the opponent, which opens up a bigger target and causes the opponent to be off balance for a moment.
- Bolo punch - Occasionally seen in amateur boxing, the bolo is an arm punch which owes its power to the shortening of a circular arc rather than to transference of body weight; it tends to have more of an effect due to the surprise of the odd angle it lands at rather than the actual power of the punch. This is more of a gimmick than a technical maneuvuer, this punch is not taught, it is on the same plane in boxing technicality as is the Ali shuffle.

Defense


- Guard - The guard is the protective barrier that the boxer's arms make. To create an effective guard, the boxer's elbows rest on the ribcagewhile the hands are held up to protect the head. The head is bent down slightly in order to tuck the chin to avoid painful strikes. The shoulders and arms are held without tension in order to allow quick movement. The guard is important because it is the last line of defense before a strike hits an unprotected face or body. When protecting against the body, the boxer rotates the hips in order to let the punches "roll off" the guard (a form of parrying with the forearms). When protecting against the face, the boxer tucks the head in more in order to be pretected better within the guard.
- Bob and Weave - This movement attempts to avoid an opponent's punch by bending the legs (and, often, the waist) in order to bring the head into a position under the opponent's extending arm. The legs and waist are then extended to bring the body back to its upright position. As the boxer rises, the body has moved either to the boxer's left or right in order to avoid the (presumably) still extended arm. To move to a position on the outside of the opponent's extended arm is sometimes called "bobbing to the outside" and is, generally, the preferred method of defense. "Bobbing to the inside", or moving the body to a position on inside of the opponent's extended arm, is considered defensively weak because the boxer is then vulnerable to punches from the opponent's opposite fist.
- Slip - The slip is a maneuver performed with the defending boxer's legs and hips in order to shift the position of the head. As a straight punch (such as a jab or straight/cross) comes toward the boxer's face, the defending boxer turns the hips and shoulders to one side which shifts the position of the chin sideways, allowing the punch to "slip" by. The less the boxer has to move his or her head or the vertical angle of the shoulders, the more skillful he or she is considered at this technique.
- Parry - The parry is performed most often against a straight punch. As the opponent's arm is extended, the defending boxer moves the fist (most often of the dominant arm) towards the oncoming punch, usually rotating the wrist and elbow so that the palm is facing the opponent. As the opponent's punch makes contact with the extended glove, it is directed away from its initial target.
- Clinch - The clinch, or grappling of the opponent while standing, is considered a defensive maneuver in modern boxing because it is most often employed to interfere with the opponent's offensive maneuvers. Since the distance between the fighters is closed, the majority of boxing's offensive techniques (which mostly rely on hip/torso rotation and arm extension) cannot be employed. Since the clinch is broken up by the referee immediately, the clinch is often seen as a method for the disadvantaged fighter to gain a short reprieve and perhaps interfere with the dominant fighter's concentration.

Stance and movement


- The modern boxing stance is a reflection of the current system of rules employed by professional boxing. It differs in many ways from the typical boxing stances of the 19th and early 20th centuries. It's been stated that Americans adopted a more upright vertical armed guard (as opposed to more horizontally held, knuckles facing the ground guard as seen when looking at early 20th century boxers such as Jack Johnson) due to the Americans' confrontations with the Filipino natives as a result of the Philippines Spanish-American war. When engaged in hand to hand combat, the Filipinos would slash the wrists of the American soldiers, the Americans adapted by changing the guarded stance and thus just one example of a boxing technicality evolving. The boxer must stand with the legs shoulder-width apart. The boxer places the lead foot (the left foot for a right-handed fighter, the right foot for a left-hander (southpaw) more forward than the back foot so the front foot's heel is in line with the back foots toes. The toes point straight forward, towards the opponent. The lead fist (the jabbing fist) is carried in front, half a dozen inches in front of the face at eye level (both arms should always be held straight and vertical - in line with the shoulders). The back fist is held against the chin and the arm lies in place against the body to protect the rib cage. Knockouts are usually scored with punches to the chin. Modern boxers can sometimes be seen "tapping" their cheeks or foreheads with their fist in order to remind themselves to kept their fists up in this defensive position (which becomes difficult during long bouts). The torso is kept straight and the chin is tucked into the lead shoulder (which is often kept tense to further protect the chin).
- Modern boxers are taught to "push off" with their feet in order to move effectively. Forward motion involves lifting the lead leg and pushing with the rear leg. Rearward motion involves lifting the rear leg and pushing with the lead leg. During lateral motion the leg in the direction of the movement moves first while the opposite leg provides the force needed to move the body.
- A rarely used technique is the Rope-a-dope method, most famously used by Mohammad Ali in the Rumble in the Jungle bout. This method involves laying on the ropes and concentrating on defence while conserving energy as the opponent is lured into striking repeatedly without interruption. If successful, the attacking opponent will eventually tire and lower his defenses for the other boxer to exploit for effective attacks using his now superior reserves. However, this method is discouraged as it is physically punishing and few boxers have the endurance to attempt it while gambling that their opponent will not realize what they are doing.

Boxing legends

The boxing world has produced talented and world famous personalities in both the amateur and professional realms. Famous amateur boxers have usually been Olympic medallists. The Olympic games have long been considered a springboard for professional entry, though some Olympic champions prefer to retain their amateur status, including three-time gold medalist Teofilo Stevenson. It is the professional side of boxing, however, that has produced the celebrities whose activities the public has generally followed.

London Rules and pre-Queensberry Era

The bareknuckle era produced legends like John L. Sullivan, the first world heavyweight champion. Sullivan has been called the first great American sports hero.

Modern era

1900s to 1920s

It is the post-Queensberry (or Modern) era that has the greatest number of legendary boxers, such as world heavyweight champions Jim Jeffries (the first Great White Hope) and Jack Johnson (the first black world heavyweight champion), who fought each other in 1910 in the first "Fight of the Century".

1920s to 1940s

World heavyweight champion Jack Dempsey was one of the most important athletes of roaring twenties. Boxing in the 1930s, despite being hit by depression, saw one of the greatest boxers of all time: Joe Louis. From 1937, he dominated the heavyweight scene for 12 years before retiring as world champion in 1949. Shortly before the beginning of WW2, the battles between Louis and Max Schmeling were seen as battles between America and Nazi Germany.

1940s to 1950s

The 1950s had a boxer who would go down in history as the only undefeated world heavyweight champion: Rocky Marciano. The title of the movie Rocky was inspired by this legend. This era also had Sugar Ray Robinson, who most experts rate as the best pound-for-pound boxer of all time. Robinson held the world welterweight title from 1946 to 1951, and the world middleweight title a record five times from 1951 to 1960. Another great of this period was Archie Moore, who held the world light heavyweight title for ten years and scored more knockout victories than any other boxer in history.

1960s to 1970s

The decades of the 1960s & 1970s are best remembered by the dominance of a boxer once named Cassius Clay, who said he would "shock the world." He joined the Nation of Islam, changed his name to Muhammad Ali, and declared himself against war. Many sociologists, observers, and critics now view Ali as a reflection of the changing society of that time. Ali had tough opponents like Sonny Liston, Joe Frazier, Ken Norton, and George Foreman, but proved himself to be the best heavyweight of his era, if not of all time. Larry Holmes (a former sparring patrner of Ali) and the electric promoter Don King both gained prominence during this time.

1970s to 1980s

After the retirement of Ali, Sugar Ray Leonard became the biggest star in the sport. In the late 1970s and the 1980s, Leonard won world titles in five different weight divisions, and was the firt boxer to make 100 million dollars during his career.

1990s to present

If there was ever a bad boy of boxing, the title surely would go to a man who burst into professional boxing like a hurricane; Mike Tyson. Nicknamed "Iron Mike" because of his devastating punching power, took the world by storm. The most dominant figure on the heavyweight division in the mid-to-late 80s, he ran through his opponents like a wrecking ball, becoming the first undisputed champion in a decade. Both in and out of the ring, he was always in the news. He was jailed multiple times, barred from boxing for a year after biting a chunk out of Evander Holyfield's ear, and going into bankruptcy. When he fought his last title fight, against Lennox Lewis in 2002, he was beaten thoroughly and knocked out. Lewis, the only British heavyweight titleholder in the 20th century, retired as champion. Roy Jones, Jr. was the most dominant fighter of the 1990s and early 2000s. He won world titles in four different weight divisions, from middleweight to heavyweight. When he defeated John Ruiz to win the WBA heavyweight title, he was the first former middleweight champion to wim a heavyweight title since Bob Fitzsimmons accomplished the feat over one hundred years earlier. Oscar De La Hoya was possibly the most popular boxer of his era. He won titles from junior lightweight to middleweight. With good looks and charisma, along with plenty of boxing talent, he became the richest non-heavyweight in the history of boxing.

Legends of British boxing

Great Britain, the birth place of modern boxing, has produced numerous boxing legends. Among British amateur boxers, only those who won Olympic gold medals tended to achieve recognition beyond the limits of boxing enthusiasts. They included Harry Mallin (Middleweight), 1920 and 1924), Terry Spinks (Flyweight, 1956), Dick McTaggart (Lightweight, 1956) and Chris Finnegan (Middleweight, 1968). In 1908, at the Olympic Games in London, five weight divisions were contested, Bantamweight, Featherweight, Lightweight, Middleweight and Heavyweight. British boxers won them all, and four of the finals were all-British! It is the professional side of boxing, however, that has produced the celebrities whose activities the public have generally followed. In the period between bare-knuckle pugilism and post-Queensberry boxing, Jem Mace was important. He carried many of the traditions of the old London Prize-Ring, but promoted the use of gloves and helped to popularize the sport in the United States and Australia. In the post-Queensberry era, the first British fighter to achieve superstar status was Bob Fitzsimmons. He weighed less than 12 stone but won world titles at Middleweight (1892), Light Heavyweight (1903), and Heavyweight (1897). He fought his last bout at the age of fifty-two. Successful fighters have provoked fierce local pride. The best example was Jimmy Wilde, a Welsh flyweight who won the world Flyweight Championship in 1916 and held it until 1923. He once had a sequence of eighty-eight fights without defeat. Between 1911 and 1923, he won seventy-five of his fights by a knockout. He was idolized in Wales, where they commonly believed him to be the best boxer, pound-for-pound, that ever lived. He was described as the "Mighty Atom" and "the ghost with a hammer in his hand". The Scots had a similar pride in Benny Lynch, a flyweight from Glasgow, who held the world flyweight title in 1935 and again in 1937. Over the years, Scots have had great success at this weight; Jackie Paterson won the title in 1943 and Walter McGowan in 1966. Scots have also had success in the lightweight division. Ken Buchanan won the title in 1971 and Jim Watt in 1980. In Northern Ireland, Rinty Monahan held the flyweight title from 1947 to 1950, and Barry McGuigan won the W.B.A. featherweight title in 1985. England, too, had its successes at the lighter weights. Among the flyweights, Jackie Brown won the title in 1932, Peter Kane in 1938 and Terry Allen. The Welsh had their own featherweight legend Jim Driscoll. His nickname was "Peerless Jim". He was born in the one time Irish "slum" of Newtown. Jim was the first outright winner of the Lord Lonsdale Belt. Jim had prolific wins of the British, Empire and European titles. Jim is considered by many to be the best pound for pound fighter of all time. Britain has had other popular world champions. In the 1930s, Jackie Berg won the light welterweight title. In the 1940s, Freddie Mills won the light heavyweight title. In the 1950s and 1960s, Randy Turpin and Terry Downes won middleweight titles. and in the 1970s, John Conteh and John Stracey won the light heavyweight and welterweight titles respectively. With so many title-awarding bodies in the 1980s and 1990s, the public became unsure about who actually was the champion. Nevertheless, the successes of Nigel Benn, Chris Eubank, and Joe Calzaghe continued to bring extensive media coverage to boxing and sustained a considerable public following. The most popular boxers, howevers, have not always been the world title-holders. Just fighting for the world title in the heavyweight division can bestow celebrity status, as was shown by Henry Cooper, who twice unsuccessfully fought Muhammad Ali in the 1960s. Britain had to wait 100 years to have its first heavyweight champion since Bob Fitzsimmons lost his title in 1899. Lennox Lewis became undisputed champion in 1999, having first gained the W.B.C. title in 1993. Frank Bruno held the W.B.C. world heavyweight title from 1995 and 1996, after beating the man who beat Lewis, Oliver McCall. He lost it to Mike Tyson in a rematch of their 1989 title bout. Sue Atkins (alias Sue Catkins) helped to pioneer women's boxing in Britain in the 1980s, but without any official recognition. The first British woman to be issued with a license was Jane Couch from Fleetwood, who won the Women's International Boxing Federation (W.I.B.F.) welterweight title in 1996.

International Boxing Hall of Fame

For many years, the sport of boxing did not have a hall of fame. The inspiration for the boxing hall of fame evolved from a tribute the town of Canastota, New York held for two local heroes in 1982. The tribute was for Carmen Basilio, who was world welterweight and middleweight champion in the 1950s, and his nephew, Billy Backus, who was world welterweight champion in the early 1970s. The people of Canastota raised money for the tribute, which was so success that some started to look into the idea of creating the sport's first hall of fame and museum. The International Boxing Hall of Fame opened in Canastota in 1989. In 1990, the first group of legends were inducted, which included Jack Johnson, Benny Leonard, Jack Dempsey, Henry Armstrong, Sugar Ray Robinson, Archie Moore, and Muhammad Ali. The Hall of Fame holds it's induction ceremony every June as part of a four day event.

Medical concerns

In 1983, The Journal of the American Medical Association called for a ban on boxing. The editor, Dr. George Lundberg, called boxing an "obscenity" that "should not be sanctioned by any civilized society." Since the AMA called for abolition of boxing, the British, Canadian, and World Medical Associaiton have also called for the sport's abolition, as have the American Neurological Association and the American Academy of Neurology. Many who disagree with the AMA point out that boxing is far from being the most dangerous of sports. To put the risks in perspective, here are some US figures on sports fatalities: Fatality rates per 100,000 participants #Horse racing: 128 #Sky diving: 123 #Hang gliding: 56 #Mountaineering: 51 #Scuba diving: 11 #Motorcycle racing: 7 #College football: 3 #Boxing: 1.3 (This table was compiled by R.J. McCunney and P.K. Russo, authors of an article entitled Brain Injuries in Boxing, which was published in 1984.) In response to such statistics, Lundberg has said, "It's not the deaths but the chronic brain damage that is so frequent." the AMA says about three out of four boxers who have twenty or more professional fights show some brain deterioration.

Impact of boxing on the English language

Numerous metaphors common to everyday speech derive from the sport of boxing. Some of these include:
- not up to scratch -- subpar, not able to do the task at hand (in the old days of boxing, boxers started the round by stepping over a scratch made in the ring, but if a boxer could not do this to keep the round going, he/she was said to be "not up to scratch")
- he was rocked by that one -- a fighter was hit by a punch with enough force to be dazed
- saved by the bell -- rescued from defeat by dint of time running out, an unexpected turn of events, etc.
- on the ropes -- on the verge of being defeated
- throw in the towel -- to quit, give up
- come out swinging -- to throw oneself into an activity or competition
- in one's corner -- on someone's side, to help or cheer him on
- down for the count -- knocked out, defeated
- sucker punch -- hitting an opponent who is off his guard, unfairly taking advantage of a vulnerability
- hitting below the belt -- a grossly unfair attack (in everyday life, usually of a verbal nature)
- punch drunk -- dazed or incoherent (originally, from being repeatedly struck, can refer to dazes generally)
- pull one's punches -- to hold back, withhold full force or attack
- in the arena -- to be participating, engaged
- keep your guard up -- to remain alert, on the defensive
- like a bull out of a cage -- to come out at the start of a round "throwing" punches

Boxing in popular culture


- Battling Butler (1926 film) Starring Buster Keaton
- Two-Fisted (1935 film) Comedy
- Kid Galahad (1937 film) Starring Edward G. Robinson
- Golden Boy (1937 stageplay) written by Clifford Odets
- Golden Boy (1939 film) Starring William Holden and Barbara Stanwyck
- Gentleman Jim (1942 film) Starring Errol Flynn
- Body and Soul (1947 film) Starring John Garfield
- Champion (1949 film) Starring Kirk Douglas
- The Set-Up (1949 film) Starring Robert Ryan
- Day of the Fight (1951 short subject) first film directed by Stanley Kubrick
- On the Waterfront (1954 film) Starring Marlon Brando
- The Harder They Fall (1956 film) Starring Humphrey Bogart
- Somebody Up There Likes Me (1956 film) Starring Paul Newman
- Requiem for a Heavyweight (1956 TV play) Starring Jack Palance, written by Rod Serling
- Requiem for a Heavyweight (1962 film) Starring Anthony Quinn, Jackie Gleason and Mickey Rooney
- Kid Galahad (1962 film) Musical starring Elvis Presley
- Golden Boy (1964 musical stageplay)
- The Great White Hope (1970 film) starring James Earl Jones and Jane Alexander.
- Fat City (1972 film) Starring Stacey Keach and Jeff Bridges
- Rocky Oscar winning movie in 1976 and its sequels
- The Main Event (1979 film) Starring Barbara Streisand and Ryan O'Neal
- Raging Bull (1980 film) A classic boxing movie
- Spike of Bensonhurst (1988 film)
- The Great White Hype (1996 film) Starring Samuel L Jackson and Jeff Goldblum
- When We Were Kings (1997 film) The story of Muhammad Ali and George Foreman and The Rumble in the Jungle
- 24 7: Twenty Four Seven (1997 film) Starring Bob Hoskins
- Don King: Only in America (TV movie) Starring Ving Rhames
- The Hurricane (1999 film) Starring Denzel Washington as middleweight Rubin Carter
- Girlfight (2000 film)
- Ali (2001 film) Starring Will Smith
- Champion (2002 film) South Korean film about Duk Koo Kim, a South Korean boxer who died after a bout against Ray Mancini
- Undefeated (2003 TV movie) Starring John Leguizamo
- Million Dollar Baby (2004 film) Multiple Oscar winner about a female boxer directed by Clint Eastwood
- Against the Ropes (2004 film) Starring Meg Ryan as Jackie Kallen famous female boxing promoter
- Black Cloud Directed by and starring Rick Schroder
- The Calcium Kid (2004 film)
- Unforgivable Blackness: The Rise and Fall of Jack Johnson (2004 film) Documentary directed by Ken Burns
- Cinderella Man (2005 film) Based on the true story of Jim Braddock starring Russell Crowe.
- The Contender 2005 Reality TV series
- Hajime no Ippo A manga/anime about a young featherweight boxer
- Mike Tyson's Punch-Out!! A Nintendo game. Later adapted to SNES as Super Punch-Out!!
- EA Sports Fight Night (formerly Knockout Kings).

See also


- Boxing weight classes
- List of male boxers
- List of female boxers
- Boxing training

Resources


- [http://ahfaa.org/1747.htm Godfrey, John "Boxing" from Treatise Upon the Useful Science of Defense, 1747]
- [http://www.geocities.com/cinaet/price.html Price, Edmund The Science of Self Defense: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling, 1867]

References


- Patrick Myler (1997). A Century of Boxing Greats: Inside the Ring with the Hundred Best Boxers. Robson Books (UK) / Parkwest Publications (US). IS