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John Toland

John Toland

:John Toland is also the name of an American author who was famous for his biography of Adolf Hitler. John Toland (November 30, 1670 - March 11, 1722) Very little is known about his true origins other than the fact that he was born in Ardagh on the Inishowen Peninsula, a predominantly Catholic and Irish speaking region, in north west Ulster. It is likely that he was originally christened "Seán Eoghain Ui Thuathalláin", thus giving rise to the sobriquet "Janus Junius Toland". After having converted to Protestantism around the age of 16, he obtained a scholarship to study theology at the University of Glasgow. He would also later attend university at Edinburgh and at Leiden in Holland. His first book Christianity Not Mysterious (1696) was burnt by the public hangman in Dublin. He escaped prosecution by fleeing to England, where he spent most of the rest of his life. He was the first person called a freethinker (by Bishop Berkeley) and went on to write over a hundred books in various domains but mostly dedicated to criticizing ecclesiastical institutions. A great deal of his intellectual activity was dedicated to writing political tracts in support of the Whig cause. Many scholars know him for his role as either the biographer or editor of notable republicans from the mid-17th century such as James Harrington, Algernon Sidney and John Milton. His works "Anglia Libera" and "State Anatomy" are prosaic expressions of an English republicanism which reconciles itself with constitutional monarchy. Toland is generally classed with the deists, but at the time when he wrote Christianity not Mysterious he was careful to distinguish himself from both skeptical atheists and orthodox theologians. After having formulated a stricter version of Locke's epistemological rationalism, Toland then goes on to show that there are no facts or doctrines from the Bible which are not perfectly plain, intelligible and reasonable, being neither contrary to reason nor incomprehensible to it. All revelation is human revelation; that which is not rendered understandable is to be rejected as jibberish. After his Christianity not Mysterious, Toland's "Letters to Serena" constitute his major contribution to philosophy. In the first three letters, he develops an historical account of the rise of superstition arguing that human reason cannot fully ever liberate itself from prejudices. In the last two letters, he founds a metaphysical materialism grounded in a critique of monist substantialism. Later on, we find Toland continuing his critique of church government in Nazarenus which was first more fully developed in his "Primitive Constitution of the Christian Church", a clandestine writing in circulation by 1705. The first book of "Nazarenus" calls attention to the right of the Ebionites to a place in the early church. The thrust of his argument was to push to the very limits the applicability of canonical scripture to establish institutionalized religion. Later works of special importance include Tetradymus wherein can be found Clidophorus, a historical study of the distinction between esoteric and exoteric philosophies. His Pantheisticon, sive formula celebrandae sodalitatis socraticae (Pantheisticon, or the Form of Celebrating the Socratic Society), of which he printed a few copies for private circulation only, gave great offence as a sort of liturgic service made up of passages from heathen authors, in imitation of the Church of England liturgy. The title also was in those days alarming, and still more so the mystery which the author threw around the question how far such societies of pantheists actually existed. See also Mosheim's Vindiciae antiquae christianorum disciplinae (1722), containing the most exhaustive account of Toland's life and writings; A Life of Toland (1722), by one of his most intimate friends; Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Mr John Toland, by Pierre Des Maizeaux, prefixed to The Miscellaneous Works of Mr John Toland (London, 1747); John Leland's View of the Principal Deistical Writers (last ed. 1837); G. V. Lechlers Aeschichte des englischen Deismus (1841); Isaac Disraeli's Calamities of Authors (new ed., 1881); article on "The English Freethinkers" in Theological Review, No. 5 (November, 1864); J. Hunt, in Contemporary Review, No. 6. This section incorporates text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, which is in the public domain.

Works

(This is non-exhaustive.)
- Christianity Not Mysterious: A Treatise Shewing, That there is nothing in the Gospel Contrary to Reason, Nor Above It: And that no Christian Doctrine can be properly cal'd A Mystery (1696)
- An Apology for Mr. Toland (1697)
- Amyntor, or the defence of Milton's life (1698)
- Amyntor, or a Defence of Miltons Life (1699)
- Edited James Harrington's Oceana and other Works (1700)
- The Art of Governing Partys (1701)
- Limitations for the next Foreign Successor, or A New Saxon Race: Debated in a Conference betwixt Two Gentlemen; Sent in a Letter to a Member of Parliament (1701)
- Propositions for Uniting the Two East India Companies (1701) Anglia Libera, or the Limitation and Succession of the Crown of England (1701)
- Reasons for Address His Majesty to Invite into England their Highnesses, the Electress Dowager and the Electoral Prince of Hanover (1702)
- Vindicius Liberius (1702)
- Letters to Serena (1704) The Primitive Constitution of the Christian Church (c.1705; posthume, 1726)
- The Account of the Courts of Prussia and Hanover (1705)
- Socinianism Truly Stated (by "A Pantheist") (1705)
- Translated A. Phillipick Schiner's Oration to Incite the English Against the French (1707)
- Adeisidaemon - or the "Man Without Superstition" (1709)
- Origines Judaicae (1709)
- The Art of Restoring (1710)
- The Jacobitism, Perjury, and Popery of High-Church Priests (1710)
- An Appeal to Honest People against Wicked Priests (1713)
- Dunkirk or Dover (1713)
- The Art of Restoring (1914) (against Robert Harley)
- Reasons for Naturalising the Jews in Great Britain and Ireland on the same foot with all Other Nations (1714) State Anatomy of Great Britain (1717) The Second Part of the State Anatomy (1717)
- Nazarenus, or Jewish, Gentile and Mahometan Christianity (1718)
- The Probability of the Speedy and Final Destruction of the Pope (1718)
- Tetradymus (1720) (translated into English in 1751)
- Pantheisticon (1720)
- History of the Celtic Religion and Learning Containing an Account of the Druids (1726)
- A Collection of Several Pieces of Mr John Toland, ed. P. Des Maizeaux, 2 vols. (1726)

External links

Toland, John Toland, John Toland, John Toland, John Toland, John Toland, John

John Toland (author)

John Toland is also the name of a British philosopher (d. 1722) who coined the term pantheism. John Willard Toland (June 29, 1912 - January 4, 2004) was an American author and historian.He was born in La Crosse,Wisconsin. He is most well-known for his biography of Adolf Hitler. According to Toland, Hitler had Nazi law defining Jewishness written to exclude Jesus Christ and himself because Hitler may have been part Jewish. [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a3_325b.html] He won a Pulitzer Prize in 1971 for his book The Rising Sun, which chronicled the Japanese empire during World War II. Toland tried to write history as a straightforward narrative, without too much analysis or judgement. One exception to this is his Infamy: Pearl Harbor and Its Aftermath about the Pearl Harbor attack and the investigations of it. Some of the sources he cited have come forward to dispute his account of their information.He died in Danbury, Connecticut. While predominantly a non-fiction author, Toland also wrote two historical novels, Gods of War and Occupation.

Books

- Adolf Hitler : The Definitive Biography, ISBN 0385420536.
- Battle: The Story of the Bulge
- But Not in Shame: The Six Months After Pearl Harbor
- Captured by History: One Man's Vision of Our Tumultuous Century
- The Dillinger Days
- Gods of War
- The Great Dirigibles: Their Triumphs & Disasters
- In Mortal Combat: Korea 1950-1953
- Infamy: Pearl Harbor And Its Aftermath
- The Last 100 Days: The Tumultuous and Controversial Story of the Final Days of World War II in Europe
- No Man's Land: 1918, The Last Year of the Great War
- Occupation
- The Rising Sun : The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936-1945, ISBN 0812968581.

References

- [http://www.cnn.com/2004/SHOWBIZ/books/01/05/obit.toland.ap/index.html CNN obituary]

External link

- [http://wiredforbooks.org/johntoland/ 1985 Audio Interview of John Toland with Don Swaim, RealAudio] Toland, John Toland, John Toland Toland, John Category:Fascist/Nazi era scholars and writers

November 30

November 30 is the 334th day (335th on leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar, with 31 days remaining, as the final day of November.

Events

- 1782 - American Revolutionary War: In Paris, representatives from the United States and the Kingdom of Great Britain sign preliminary peace articles (later formalized in the 1783 Treaty of Paris).
- 1786 - Peter Leopold Joseph of Habsburg-Lorraine, Grand Duke of Tuscany, promulgates a penal reform making his country the first state to abolish the death penalty. November 30 is therefore commemorated by 300 cities around the world as Cities for Life Day.
- 1803 - In New Orleans, Spanish representatives officially transfer Louisiana Territory to a French representative. Just 20 days later, France transfers the same land to the United States as the Louisiana Purchase.
- 1804 - The Jeffersonian Republican-controlled United States Senate begins an impeachment trial against Federalist-partisan Supreme Court of the United States Justice Samuel Chase.
- 1853 - Crimean War: The Russian navy destroys the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Sinop.
- 1864 - American Civil War: Battle of Franklin - The Army of Tennessee led by General John Bell Hood mounts a dramatically unsuccessful frontal assault on Union positions around Franklin, Tennessee (Hood lost six generals and almost a third of his troops).
- 1872 - The first-ever international football match takes place at Hamilton Crescent, Glasgow, between Scotland and England.
- 1886 - The Folies Bergère stages its first revue.
- 1902 - American Old West: Second-in-command of Butch Cassidy's Wild Bunch gang, Kid Curry Logan, is sentenced to 20 years imprisonment with hard labor.
- 1916 - Costa Rica becomes a signatory to the Buenos Aires copyright treaty.
- 1936 - In London, the Crystal Palace, built for the 1851 Great Exhibition, is destroyed in a fire.
- 1939 - Winter War: Soviet forces invade Finland and reach the Mannerheim Line, starting the war.
- 1940 - Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz are married in Greenwich, Connecticut.
- 1943 - World War II: Tehran Conference - U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Soviet leader Josef Stalin establish an agreement concerning a planned June 1944 invasion of Europe codenamed Operation Overlord.
- 1954 - In Sylacauga, Alabama, United States, an 8.5 pound sulfide meteorite crashes through a roof and hits Mrs. Elizabeth Hodges in her living room after bouncing off her radio, giving her a bad bruise, in the only unequivocally known case of a human being hit by a space rock.
- 1960 - Production of the De Soto automobile brand ceases.
- 1962 - The United Nations General Assembly elects U Thant of Burma as the new UN Secretary-General.
- 1966 - Barbados becomes independent from the United Kingdom.
- 1967 - The People's Republic of South Yemen becomes independent from the United Kingdom.
- 1972 - Vietnam War: White House Press Secretary Ron Ziegler tells the press that there will be no more public announcements concerning American troop withdrawals from Vietnam due to the fact that troop levels are now down to 27,000.
- 1979 - Pink Floyd release the album The Wall.
- 1981 - Cold War: In Geneva, representatives from the United States and the Soviet Union begin to negotiate intermediate-range nuclear weapon reductions in Europe (the meetings ended inconclusively on December 17).
- 1982 - British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher receives a parcel bomb at 10 Downing Street.
- 1988 - Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co. buys RJR Nabisco for $25.07 billion.
- 1989 - Deutsche Bank board member Alfred Herrhausen is killed by a Red Army Faction terrorist bomb.
- 1989 - Richard Mallory of Palm Harbor, Florida becomes female serial killer Aileen Wuornos's first victim.
- 1993 - U.S. President Bill Clinton signs the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act (the Brady Bill) into law.
- 1994 - Hip-hop artist Tupac Shakur is robbed of $40,000 in jewelry and survives being shot five times in a New York music studio.
- 1998 - Deutsche Bank announces a $10 billion deal to buy Bankers Trust, thus creating the largest financial institution in the world.
- 1999 - In Seattle, Washington, United States, protests against the WTO meeting by anti-globalization protesters catches police unprepared and forces the cancellation of opening ceremonies.
- 1999 - British Aerospace and Marconi Electronic Systems merge to form BAE Systems, Europe's largest defence contractor and the fourth largest aerospace firm in the world.
- 2000 - The Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 comes into force in the UK.
- 2004 - Longtime Jeopardy champion Ken Jennings finally loses, leaving him with $2,520,700, television's all-time biggest game show haul.
- 2004 - Lion Air Flight 538 crashlands in Surakarta, Central Java, Indonesia, killing 26.
- 2005 - Rt Rev John Sentamu becomes the first black archbishop in the Church of England as Archbishop of York.

Births

- 539 - Gregory of Tours, French bishop and historian (d. 594)
- 1340 - John, Duke of Berry, son of John II of France (d. 1416)
- 1364 - John FitzAlan, 2nd Baron Arundel, English soldier (d. 1390)
- 1466 - Andrea Doria, Italian naval leader (d. 1560)
- 1508 - Andrea Palladio, Italian architect (d. 1580)
- 1554 - Philip Sidney, English courtier, soldier, and writer (d. 1586)
- 1594 - John Cosin, English clergyman (d. 1672)
- 1625 - Jean Domat, French jurist (d. 1696)
- 1637 - Louis-Sébastien Le Nain de Tillemont, French historian (d. 1698)
- 1667 - Jonathan Swift, Irish writer and satirist (d.1745)
- 1670 - John Toland, Irish philosopher (d. 1722)
- 1683 - Ludwig Andreas Graf Khevenhüller, Austrian field marshal (d. 1744)
- 1719 - Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, Princess of Wales (d. 1772)
- 1722 - Theodore Gardelle, Swiss painter and enameler (d. 1761)
- 1723 - William Livingston, revolutionary Governor of New Jersey (d. 1790)
- 1756 - Ernst Chladni, German physicist (d. 1827)
- 1781 - Alexander Berry, British adventurer (d. 1873),
- 1796 - Carl Loewe, German composer (d. 1869)
- 1810 - Oliver Winchester, American gunsmith (d. 1880)
- 1813 - Louise-Victorine Ackermann, French poet (d. 1890)
- 1813 - Charles-Valentin Alkan, French composer (d. 1888)
- 1817 - Theodor Mommsen, German author and Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1903)
- 1835 - Mark Twain, American writer (d. 1910)
- 1836 - Lord Frederick Cavendish, British politician (d. 1882)
- 1857 - Bobby Abel, English test cricketer (d. 1936)
- 1858 - Jagdish Chandra Bose, Indian Physicist (d. 1937)
- 1863 - Andres Bonifacio, head of the Philippine Revolutionary Movement Katipunan (KKK) (d. 1897)
- 1869 - Gustaf Dalén, Swedish physicist and Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1937)
- 1874 - Sir Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1965)
- 1874 - Lucy Maud Montgomery, Canadian author (d. 1942)
- 1889 - Edgar Douglas Adrian, British physiologist and Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1977)
- 1898 - Firpo Marberry, American baseball player (d. 1976)
- 1904 - Clyfford Still, American painter (d. 1980)
- 1907 - Jacques Barzun, French-born historian and author
- 1912 - Gordon Parks, American photographer, film director, composer and writer
- 1915 - Brownie McGhee, American blues musician (d.1996)
- 1915 - Henry Taube, Canadian-born chemist and Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2005)
- 1918 - Efrem Zimbalist Jr., American actor
- 1920 - Virginia Mayo, American actress (d. 2005)
- 1924 - Shirley Chisholm, American politician (d. 2005)
- 1924 - Allan Sherman, American comedian (d. 1973)
- 1927 - Richard Crenna, American actor (d. 2003)
- 1927 - Robert Guillaume, American actor
- 1929 - Dick Clark, American television host
- 1929 - Joan Ganz Cooney, American children's television pioneer
- 1930 - G. Gordon Liddy, Watergate operative
- 1931 - Jack Ging, American actor
- 1931 - Bill Walsh, American football coach
- 1936 - Abbie Hoffman, American activist (d. 1989)
- 1937 - Ridley Scott, British film director
- 1937 - Paul Stookey, American folk singer (Peter, Paul & Mary)
- 1943 - Terrence Malick, American director and screenwriter.
- 1945 - Roger Glover, British bassist (Deep Purple)
- 1947 - David Mamet, American playwright
- 1951 - Christian Bernard, mystic
- 1951 - June Chadwick, British actress
- 1952 - Mandy Patinkin, American actor and singer
- 1955 - Billy Idol, British musician
- 1956 - June Pointer, American r&b/pop singer (Pointer Sisters)
- 1957 - John Ashton, British musician

March 11

11 March is the 70th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (71st in Leap year). There are 295 days remaining.

Events

- 1513 - Leo X is elected Pope.
- 1649 - The Frondeurs (rebels) and the French government sign the Peace of Rueil.
- 1702 - The first regular English-language newspaper, The Daily Courant, is published in London.
- 1708 - Queen Anne withholds Royal Assent from a militia Bill, the last time a British monarch vetoes legislation.
- 1824 - The United States War Department creates the Bureau of Indian Affairs.
- 1845 - The Flagstaff War: In New Zealand, Chiefs Hone Heke and Kawiti lead 700 Maoris to chop down the British flagpole and drive settlers out of the British colonial settlement of Kororareka because of breaches of the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi.
- 1861 - American Civil War: The Constitution of the Confederate States of America is adopted.
- 1864 - The Great Sheffield Flood: The largest man-made disaster ever to befall England kills over 250 people in Sheffield.
- 1880 - Harry H. Laughlin, American eugenicist (d. 1943)
- 1888 - The Great Blizzard of '88 begins along the eastern seaboard of the United States, shutting down commerce and killing more than 400.
- 1897 - A meteorite enters the earth's atmosphere and explodes over New Martinsville, West Virginia. The debris causes damage but no human injuries are reported.
- 1900 - Boer War: Boer leader Paul Kruger's peace overtures are rejected by Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Lord Salisbury.
- 1917 - Baghdad falls to the Anglo-Indian forces commanded by General Maude.
- 1927 - In New York City, Samuel Roxy Rothafel opens the Roxy Theatre.
- 1936 - British Prime Minister pardons five convicted Irish militants who promise to join growing conflict with Germany.
- 1941 - World War II: President Franklin Delano Roosevelt signs the Lend-Lease Act into law, allowing American-built war supplies to be shipped to the Allies on loan.
- 1942 - World War II: General Douglas MacArthur abandons Corregidor.
- 1959 - In Cannes, France, Teddy Scholten wins the fourth Eurovision Song Contest for the Netherlands singing "Een beetje" (A little bit).
- 1966 - President Sukarno of Indonesia was forced to give up his executive power.
- 1966 - A fire at two ski resorts in Numata, Japan kills 31 people.
- 1966 - Henry "Dickie" Marrow" is murdered in a violent racially-motivated crime in Oxford, N.C..
- 1977 - 130+ hostages held in Washington, D.C., by Hanafi Muslims were set free after ambassadors from three Islamic nations joined negotiations.
- 1978 - Nine Palestinian Al Fatah guerillas hijack a bus in Israel, killing 34 civilians and wounding 70 before being killed by security forces. The Israelis retaliate by invading southern Lebanon three days later, under codename Operation Litani.
- 1983 - Bob Hawke becomes 23rd Prime Minister of Australia.
- 1985 - Mikhail Gorbachev becomes Soviet leader.
- 1988 - Iran-Iraq War: Cease Fire declared.
- 1990 - Lithuania declares itself independent from the Soviet Union.
- 1990 - Patricio Aylwin is sworn-in as the first democratically elected Chilean president since 1970.
- 1991 - A curfew is imposed on black townships in South Africa after fighting between rival political gangs kills 49.
- 1993 - Janet Reno is confirmed by the United States Senate and sworn-in the next day, becoming the first female Attorney General of the United States.
- 1996 - John Howard comes to power as the twenty-fifth Prime Minister of Australia.
- 1997 - An explosion at a nuclear waste reprocessing plant in Japan exposes 35 workers to low-level radioactive contamination in the worst nuclear accident in Japan's history.
- 1999 - Infosys becomes the first Indian company listed on the NASDAQ stock exchange.
- 2003 - The International Criminal Court is founded in The Hague.
- 2004 - Simultaneous explosions on rush hour trains in Madrid kill 191 people.
- 2005 - Judge Rowland Barnes, court reporter Julie Brandau and deputy Hoyt Teasley are all murdered in the Fulton County Courthouse in Atlanta, Georgia; the main suspect being Brian Nichols who surrendered to police on the 12th.

Births

- 1544 - Torquato Tasso, Italian poet (d. 1595)
- 1725 - Henry Benedict Stuart, pretender to the throne of Great Britain (d. 1807)
- 1785 - John McLean, U.S. Supreme Court Justice (d. 1861)
- 1876 - Carl Ruggles, American composer (d. 1971)
- 1885 - Malcolm Campbell, English race car driver (d. 1948)
- 1890 - Vannevar Bush, American engineer and politician (d. 1974)
- 1892 - Raoul Walsh, American film director (d. 1980)
- 1898 - Dorothy Gish, American actress (d. 1968)
- 1899 - King Frederick IX of Denmark (d. 1972)
- 1903 - Ronald Syme, New Zealand classicist and historian (d. 1989)
- 1903 - Lawrence Welk, American musician (d. 1992)
- 1910 - Robert Havemann, German chemist (d. 1982)
- 1915 - Hans Peter Keller, German writer (d. 1988)
- 1916 - Harold Wilson, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1995)
- 1920 - Nicolaas Bloembergen, Dutch physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1921 - Frank Harary, American mathematician (d. 2005)
- 1921 - Astor Piazzolla, Argentine composer (d. 1992)
- 1926 - Reverend Ralph Abernathy, American civil rights leader (d. 1990)
- 1927 - Robert Mosbacher, United States Secretary of Commerce
- 1928 - Albert Salmi, American actor (d. 1990)
- 1929 - Timothy Carey, American actor (d. 1994)
- 1931 - Rupert Murdoch, Australian-born publisher and entrepreneur
- 1934 - Sam Donaldson, American reporter
- 1936 - Antonin Scalia, U.S. Supreme Court Justice
- 1939 - Flaco Jiménez, American musician
- 1950 - Bobby McFerrin, American singer
- 1950 - Jerry Zucker, American producer, director, and writer
- 1952 - Douglas Adams, English writer (d. 2001)
- 1955 - Nina Hagen, German singer
- 1958 - Anissa Jones, American actress (d. 1976)
- 1959 - Nina Hartley, American actress
- 1961 - Elias Koteas, Canadian actor
- 1963 - Alex Kingston, English actress
- 1964 - Vinnie Paul, American drummer (Pantera)
- 1964 - Shane Richie, British actor
- 1965 - Lawrence Llewelyn-Bowen, British television presenter
- 1968 - Lisa Loeb, American singer
- 1971 - Johnny Knoxville, American television personality
- 1974 - Bobby Abreu, baseball player
- 1978 - Didier Drogba, Ivory Coast footballer
- 1979 - Benji Madden, American musician (Good Charlotte)
- 1979 - Joel Madden, American musician (Good Charlotte)
- 1981 - David Anders, American actor
- 1981 - Lee Evans, American football player
- 1981 - Russell Lissack, English musician (Bloc Party)
- 1982 - Thora Birch, American actress
- 1987 - Victoria Valadez, Silly
- 1989 - Anton Yelchin, Russian-born actor

Deaths

- 222 - Elagabalus, Roman Emperor
- 222 - Julia Soaemias, mother of Elagabalus (b. 180)
- 1198 - Marie de Champagne, daughter of Louis VII of France (b. 1145)
- 1486 - Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg (b. 1414)
- 1514 - Donato Bramante, Italian architect (b. 1444)
- 1575 - Matthias Flacius, Croatian protestant reformer (b. 1520)
- 1602 - Emilio de' Cavalieri, Italian composer
- 1607 - Giovanni Maria Nanino, Italian composer
- 1722 - John Toland, Irish philosopher (b. 1670)
- 1759 - John Forbes, British general (b. 1710)
- 1786 - Charles Humphreys, American delegate to the Continental Congress (b. 1714)
- 1847 - Johnny Appleseed, American pioneer agronomist (b. 1774)
- 1854 - Willard Richards, American religious leader (b. 1804)
- 1869 - Vladimir Odoevsky, Russian philosopher and writer (b. [1803]])
- 1870 - King Moshoeshoe I of Lesotho
- 1907 - Jean Casimir-Périer, French politician (b. 1847)
- 1908 - Revd Benjamin Waugh, American activist (b. 1839)
- 1920 - Julio Garavito Armero, Colombian astronomer (b. 1865)
- 1931 - F.W. Murnau, German director (b. 1888)
- 1955 - Alexander Fleming, Scottish scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1881)
- 1957 - Admiral Richard E. Byrd, American explorer (b. 1888)
- 1967 - Geraldine Farrar, American soprano (b. 1882)
- 1969 - John Wyndham, British author (b. 1903)
- 1970 - Erle Stanley Gardner, American novelist (b. 1889)
- 1971 - Philo T. Farnsworth, American television pioneer (b. 1906)
- 1971 - Whitney Young, American civil rights leader (b. 1921)
- 1977 - Ulysses S. Grant IV, American geologist and paleontologist (b. 1893)
- 2002 - James Tobin, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1918)

Holidays and observances

- 1990 - Purim
- Lithuania - Reestablishment of Lithuania's Independence
- Lesotho - Moshoeshoe Day
- Red Nose Day in the United Kingdom (2005)
- Zambia - Youth Day

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/11 BBC: On This Day] ---- March 10 - March 12 - February 11 - April 11 -- listing of all days ko:3월 11일 ja:3月11日 simple:March 11 th:11 มีนาคม

Ardagh

Ardagh may refer to either of these:
- Ardagh is a village in County Donegal, Ireland.
- Ardagh is a village in County Longford, Ireland.

Inishowen

Inishowen (Irish: Inis Eoghain) is a peninsula in County Donegal, and the largest in Ireland, pre-dating the formation of the county in which it is located by centuries. The main towns and villages in Inishowen are:
- Ballyliffin
- Buncrana
- Bridgend
- Burnfoot
- Burt
- Carndonagh
- Clonmany
- Culdaff
- Fahan
- Gleneely
- Greencastle
- Killea
- Malin
- Moville
- Muff
- Newtowncunningham
- Quigley's Point

Geography

Inishowen is a peninsula of 88,433 hectares (218,523 acres), situated in the northernmost part of Ireland. It is bordered to the north by the Atlantic Ocean, to the east by Lough Foyle, and to the west by Lough Swilly. It is joined at the south to the rest of County Donegal, the part known as Tír Conaill, and by County Derry. Historically, the area of County Derry west of the Foyle also forms part of Inishowen, the Foyle forming a natural border. Most of Inishowen's population inhabit the peripheral costal areas, while the interior consists of low mountains, mostly covered in bogland, the heighest of which is "Sliabh Sneacht" (from the Irish, meaning Snow Mountain) which is 619 metres (2,030 feet) above sea level. Other major hills are located in the Malin Head peninsula, as well as the Urris hills in west Inishowen. Due to its geography, Inishowen usually has soft weather conditions, with temperatures slightly lower than other parts of Ireland in summer, and slightly warmer in winter, especially during cold spells. Inishowen has several harbours, some of which are used for commerical fishing purposes, including Greencastle, Bunagee and Leenan. A seasonal ferry service crosses the Foyle, connecting Moville with Magilligan in County Derry, while another crosses the Swilly, connecting Buncrana with Rathmullan. The village of Fahan has a privately built Marina. There are several small outlying islands off the Inishowen coast, most notably Inishtrahull and Glashedy islands, both uninhabited, although the former was inhabited until the early twentieth century. Inch, located in Lough Swilly is technically no longer an island, as it has a causeway connecting it to the mainland at Tooban, south of Fahan. Lough Swilly is a fjord-like lough, and was of strategic importance for many years to the British Empire as a deep-water harbour. Lough Foyle is important as the entrance to the river Foyle, and the city of Derry. A large area of land, most of which now forms part of Grianán Farm, one of the largest farms in Ireland, was reclaimed from a shallow area of Lough Swilly, stretching from the village of Burnfoot to Bridgend and Burt. The outline of this land is plainly visible due to its flatness proving a marked contrast to the more mountainous area surrounding it.

History

Predating the formation of Donegal by centuries, the area was named Inis Eoghain (the Island of Eoghan) after Eoghan, son of Niall of the Nine Hostages (Niall Naoigeallach, a High King of Ireland), whose name was also used for Tyrone (Irish: Tír Eoghain). Inis Eoghain is also the ancient homeland of the Mac Lochlainn clan (descended from the tribe of Eoghan), a clan that grew so formidable that they eventually came under siege by a Limerick King, who came north to Aileach, and ordered the destruction of Aileach fort, and that each soldier was to carry away a stone from the fort in order to prevent its rebuilding. Later, after the decline of the Mac Lochlainn clan, the chieftainship of Inis Eoghain was usurped by the Ó Dochartaigh clan, a as they lost their own homeland in the Laggan valley area of Tír Conaill. Inishowen has many historical monuments, dating back to early settlements, and including the ruins of several castles, and the fort at Grianán Aileach. Among the main castle ruins of Inishowen are Carrickabraghey on the Isle of Doagh, the Norman Castle at Greencastle, Inch Castle, Buncrana Castle and Elagh castle. The ancient Grianán Ailigh fort at Burt was the one time seat of the High Kings of Ireland, including both High Kings of the Mac Lochlainn Clan, who held power in Inis Eoghain for many centuries. It was restored in the nineteenth century, although some damage in recent years has resulted in the partial collapse of the south side wall.

Politics & Demographics

At the last Census of Ireland in 2002, Inishowen counted a population of 31,828 , a growth of 8.4% on 1996. On a national level, Inishowen forms part of the constituency of Donegal North East, which elects three TDs to Dáil Éireann, the Irish parliament. At the county level, Inishowen is itself an electoral area, electing councillors to Donegal County Council. Buncrana town residents also elect representatives to the Buncrana Urban Council, one of only three Urban Councils in Donegal (the others being Letterkenny and Bundoran). Buncrana is the largest town in Inishowen, and also has the largest urban-area population of any town in Donegal as of the 2002 Census. [http://www.geographyinaction.co.uk/Vernacular%20housing/Vern_background.html Traditional housing of Inishowen] Category:Peninsulas of Ireland Category:County Donegal

Ulster

:For other places and things named Ulster, see Ulster (disambiguation). :For an explanation of often confusing terms like Ulster, (Republic of) Ireland, (Great) Britain and United Kingdom see British Isles (terminology) . Ulster (Irish: Cúige Uladh, ) is one of the four provinces of Ireland.

Geography & demographics

Ulster has a population of just under 2 million people and an area of 24,481 square kilometres (8,952 square miles). Its biggest city is Belfast (Béal Feirste). Six of Ulster's nine counties, Antrim (Aontroim), Armagh (Ard Mhacha), Down (An Dún), Fermanagh (Fear Manach), Londonderry (Doire) and Tyrone (Tír Eoghain), form Northern Ireland, one of the constituent parts of the United Kingdom. Unionists sometimes refer to Northern Ireland as "Ulster", but that usage is controversial and disputed by many, especially geographers and historians who use the term exclusively to apply to the nine-county province of Ulster. Three counties in the province of Ulster, Cavan (An Cabhán), Donegal (Dún na nGall) and Monaghan (Muineachán) are part of the Republic of Ireland. About half of Ulster's population live in Antrim and Down. English is spoken by virtually everyone in Ulster, with the exception of the Donegal Gaeltacht community who speak Irish as their native lanuguage (though all can also speak English from primary school age onwards), and immigrants living in the province. Irish is the second most widely-spoken language. Cantonese is the third most common mostly due to the considerable Chinese community of Belfast, the province's largest city. Belfast has more Chinese restaurants per capita than any other European city. The biggest lake in Ireland (and the British Isles), Lough Neagh, is in eastern Ulster. The province's highest point is Slieve Donard, in Down (848 metres). The most northerly point of Ireland, Malin Head, and the second highest sea cliffs in Europe, at Slieve League, are also in Donegal. The longest river in the British Isles, the Shannon, rises in Cavan. Volcanic activity in eastern Ulster led to the formation of the Antrim Plateau and the Giant's Causeway, one of the island of Ireland's three UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The geographical centre of Ulster is near the village of Pomeroy, in Tyrone.

History & politics

Early History

Ulster (Cúige Uladh) is one of the four historic Irish provinces. Its early history extends further back than written records and is known only by legends such as the Ulster Cycle. In early medieval Ireland, Ulster was dominated by the Uí Néill dynasty who were based in Tír Eoghan (Eoghan's Country) - modern Tyrone. After the Norman invasion of the twelfth century, the east of the province was conquered by Norman barons, first De Courcy, then De Lacy, who founded the Earldom of Ulster - based around the modern counties of Antrim and Down. However, by the end of the 15th century, the Earldom had collapsed and Ulster was the only Irish province to be completely outside of English control. In the 1600s Ulster functioned as the last redoubt of the traditional Gaelic way of life, and following the defeat of the Irish forces in the Nine Years War at the battle of Kinsale (1601), Elizabeth I succeeded in subjugating Ulster and all of Ireland. The Gaelic leaders of Ulster, the O'Neills, and O'Donnells decamped en masse in 1607 to Catholic Europe, finding their power under English suzerainty limited. This allowed the Crown to settle Ulster with more loyal English and Scottish planters, which began in earnest in 1610.

Plantations and Civil Wars

The Plantation of Ulster, which was government run, settled only the counties confiscated from those Irish clans that were involved in the Nine Years War. This involved dispossessing thousands of the native Irish, who were forced by the Crown to take up poorer land. Counties Donegal, Tyrone, Armagh, Cavan, Londonderry and Fermanagh were included in the official plantation. However, the most extensive settlement in Ulster of English and Scots occurred in Antrim and Down, which were not officially planted, but had been de-populated during the war and were attractive to settlers from nearby Scotland. This unofficial settlement continued well into the 18th century, interrupted only by the Catholic uprising of 1641. This rebellion, initially led by Phelim O'Neill, was intended to be a quick siezure of power, but quickly degenerated into attacks on Protestant settlers. Thousands of Protestants were slaughtered by dispossessed Catholics, an event which remains strong in Ulster Protestant folk memory. In the ensuing wars (fought against the background of civil war in England, Scotland and Ireland), Ulster became a battleground between the Protestant settlers and the native Irish Catholics. In 1646, the Irish Catholic army under Owen Roe O'Neill inflicted a bloody defeat on a Scottish Covenanter army at Benburb in county Tyrone, but failed to follow up their victory and the war lapsed into stalemate. The war in Ulster ended with the defeat of the Irish Catholic army at the battle of Scarrifholis in 1650 and the occupation of the province by the Cromwellian New Model Army. The atrocities committed by all sides in the war poisoned the relationship between Ulster's ethno-religious communities for generations afterwards. Forty years later, in 1689, the conflict was re-fought in the Williamite war in Ireland, when Irish Catholics supported James II in the Glorious Revolution and Ulster Protestants backed William of Orange. The war provided Protestant loyalists with the iconic victories of the Siege of Derry, the Battle of the Boyne and the Battle of Aughrim, which are still commemorated today. The Williamite's victory in this war ensured British and Protestant supremecy in Ireland for over 100 years. Under the subsequent Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland, most of Ulster's population was excluded from power on religious grounds. Roman Catholics, descended from the indigenous Irish, and Presbyterians, mainly descended from Scottish planters, were both discriminated against by the Penal Laws, which gave full political rights only to Anglican Protestants, who were mostly descended from English settlers. Also in the 1690s, Scottish Presbyterians became a majority in Ulster, tens of thousands of them haveing emigrated there to escape a famine in Scotland.

Republicanism, Rebellion and communal Strife

Most of the eighteenth century saw a calming of sectarian tensions in Ulster. The economy of the province improved, as small producers exported linen and other goods. Belfast developed from a village into a bustling provincial town. However, this did not stop many thousands of Ulster people from emigrating to America in this period, where they became known as the "Scotch Irish." Political tensions resurfaced, albeit in a new form, towards the end of the century. In the 1790s, many Catholics and Presbyterians, in opposition to Anglican domination and inspired by the American and French revolutions joined together in the United Irishmen movement. This group (which was founded in Belfast) was dedicated to found a non-sectarian independent Irish republic. The United Irishmen were particularly strong in Belfast, Antrim and Down. However, paradixically, this period also saw much sectarian violence between Catholics and Protestants (principally members of the Church of Ireland (or Anglicans, who practised the state religion and had rights denied to both Presbyterians and Catholics), notably the "battle of the Diamond" in 1795, a faction fight between the rival "Defenders" (Catholic) and "Peep of Day Boys" (Anglican), which led to over 100 deaths and to the founding of the Orange Order. This event, and many others like it, came about as the Penal Laws were relaxed and Catholics began to purchase land and involve themselves in the linen trade, activities which previously had involved many onerous restrictions. Protestants, including Presbyterians, who in some parts of the province had come to identify with the Catholic community, used violence to intimidate Catholics who tried to enter the linen trade. It has been estimated that up to 7000 Catholics were expelled from Ulster during this violence. Many of them settled in northern Connacht. These refugees' influence can still be heard in the dialects of Irish spoken in Mayo, which have many similarities to Ulster Irish not found elsewhere in Connacht. Loyalist militias, primarily Anglicans, also used violence against the United Irishmen and Catholic and Protestant republicans throughout the province. In 1798, the United Irishmen led by Henry Joy McCracken launched a rebellion in Ulster, mostly supported by Presbyterians, but were swiftly put down by the British authorities, who employed severe repression after the fighting had ended. In the wake of the failure of this rebellion, and the gradual abolition of official religious discrimination after the Act of Union in 1800, Presbyterians came to identify more with the state and their Anglican neighbours, who perceived them as the lesser of two evils.

Industrialisation, Home Rule and Partition

In the 19th century, Ulster became the most prosperous province in Ireland, with the only large-scale industrialisation in the country. In the latter part of the century, Belfast overtook Dublin as the largest city on the island. Belfast became famous in this period for its huge dockyards and shipbuilding - notably of the RMS Titanic. In the 19th century sectarian divisions in Ulster became hardened into the policial categories of unionist (supporters of the Union with Britain, mostly Protestant) and nationalist (advocates of Irish independence, usually, though not only, Catholic). The origins of Northern Ireland's current politics lie in these late 19th century disputes over Home Rule for Ireland, which Ulster Protestants usually opposed - fearing for their status in an autonomous Catholic-dominated Ireland and also not trusting politicians from the agrarian south and west with supporting the more industrial economy of Ulster. To resist Home Rule, thousands of unionists, led by Edward Carson and James Craig signed the "Ulster Covenant" of 1912 pledging to resist Irish independence. This movement also saw the creation of the Ulster Volunteer Force, the first Irish paramilitary group, in order to resist British attempts to enforce Home Rule. In response, Irish nationalists created the Irish Volunteers - forerunners of the IRA to ensure the passing of the Home Rule Act 1914. This armed stand-off was interupted by the outbreak of World War I, in which thousands of Ulstermen of all religions were killed. In particlar, the heavy casualties of the 36th Ulster Division - largely composed of Volunteers from the UVF became both a source of mourning and pride for the loyalist community, down to the present day. In the aftermath of the War, Ireland saw several years of political violence, with Irish nationalists launching a guerrilla campaign against British rule (see Anglo-Irish War). In Ulster, the fighting generally took the form of street battles between Protestants and Catholics in the city of Belfast.It has been estimated that 2-3000 civilians were killed in this communal violence, the majority of victims being Catholics. The IRA was relatively quiet in Ulster, with the exception of the south Armagh area, where it was led by Frank Aiken. The formal end to hostilities were ended by the enactment of the Government of Ireland Act, 1920 followed by the Anglo-Irish Treaty which ended in the partition of Ireland between the Irish Free State (now Republic of Ireland) and Northern Ireland. However, low-level violence, often involving the B-Specials, continued in Ulster, causing Michael Collins to order a boycott on northern produce, in protest at the attacks on the Catholic/Nationalist community. In 1922 six out of Ulster's nine counties became Northern Ireland and remained in the United Kingdom, whilst the rest became part of the Irish Free State. For the subsequent history of Ulster see History of Northern Ireland and History of the Republic of Ireland.

Current Politics

Although many of the Catholics of Northern Ireland have long opposed its existence, the Ulster Protestants of the three Republic of Ireland counties have assimilated well (although there was a good deal of migration into the other six counties following partition). Few sectarian tensions remain. The Orange Order freely organises in Donegal, Cavan and Monaghan, with a large 12 July march taking place in Donegal annually with the full co-operation of the Garda Siochána and the local Catholic population. Electorally, while many of the Unionist parties were organised on religious lines, (the Democratic Unionist Party has no Catholics in elected office, while the Ulster Unionist Party has a relatively small number) no such religious demarcation exists in the three Ulster counties in the Republic of Ireland. All parties are open to all persuasions, with one Church of Ireland TD who had represented Monaghan, Erskine Hamilton Childers, being elected President of Ireland, having served as a longterm minister under Fianna Fáil Taoisigh Éamon de Valera, Sean Lemass and Jack Lynch. Eight of the eighteen MPs elected from the six counties of Northern Ireland are Catholics, reflecting the block voting of nationalists (who are mainly but not exclusively Catholic) in many cases. One of the ten TDs elected from the three counties in the Republic is a Protestant. The southern parties have long ceased to base their selection of candidates purely on any religious criteria. For most of the twentieth century they chose at least one candidate from a Protestant background to attract the protestant vote but the disappearance of a block Protestant vote voting exclusively for a candidate on the basis of religion, with Protestant voters instead voting primarily for local candidates irrespective of religion, means that selection is now based largely on considerations of geography when electing TDs to Dáil Éireann. There remains one occasional exception. Where the parties find that two candidates from a local area are seeking a nomination, and one is Protestant in an area of with a large Protestant electorate, the national party sometimes gives preference to that candidate, with sometimes the Protestant candidate being added to the ticket by the national headquarters. But it not automatic and is only used in those circumstances where a party can gain no competitive advantage from geography alone and where a candidate's ability to pick up one or two per cent extra in a part of a constituency because of their religion, could prove decisive in winning a seat. Unlike in Northern Ireland, there is no evidence of the corrollary being the case, namely that a Protestant candidate, because of their Protestantism, might lose the support of some Catholic voters. Indeed some of the most successful Protestant candidates won seats in situations where the majority of their votes can from Catholics. Though few Protestants have of late sought party nominations to run for Dáil Éireann, a larger number continues to seek nominations, and get elected, to local councils in the Donegal, Cavan and Monaghan areas. A nationwide prohibition introduced in the early 2000s that banned TDs from also being councillors, so as to separate local and national government more clearly, may discourage councillors who wish to remain on the council from seeking Dáil seats. It is unclear as of 2005 whether this may have an impact in discouraging the disproporionately high number of Protesant councillors, many of whom have long-held council seats passed on through the generations, which they may wish to hold but which they would have to give up if elected, from seeking to run from the Dáil. The flag of Ulster was the basis for the official flag of Northern Ireland until the Stormont parliament was prorogued in 1973.

Sport

In Rugby union, the Ulster branch of the Irish Rugby Football Union plays as a professional club in the Celtic League, along with clubs from Wales, Scotland and the professional clubs from the other Irish Provinces (Leinster, Munster and Connacht). Association football (soccer) is divided by the border since 1921: there is a Northern Ireland (international) team, but not an Ulster team; there are separate football championships (Irish League in Northern Ireland, League of Ireland in the rest of Ulster). Anomalously, Derry City F.C. has played in the League of Ireland since 1985. In Gaelic games, Ulster counties compete with the other Irish counties in the All-Ireland Championships and National Leagues, as well as the All-Ireland inter-club championships. The whole province fields a team to play the other provinces in the Railway Cup. Gaelic football is by far the most popular of the Gaelic games in Ulster, with counties Derry, Antrim, and Down existing as 'isolated' Hurling counties.

External links

- [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/state/nations/ BBC Nations] History of Ireland
- [http://www.macs.hw.ac.uk/britishisles/ The British Isles] Independent view of Ireland and the UK
- [http://www.psa.ac.uk/cps/1996/payt.pdf Inconvenient Peripheries Ethnic Identity and the United Kingdom Estate] The cases of “Protestant Ulster” and Cornwall’ by prof Philip Payton
- [http://www.walkingtree.com/mapsireland.html Mercator Atlas of Europe] Map of Ireland ("Irlandia") circa 1564 Category:Provinces of Ireland
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Dublin

:This article is about the city in Ireland. For other uses of the name, see Dublin (disambiguation). Dublin (Irish: Baile Átha Cliath), is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Ireland, located near the midpoint of Ireland's east coast, at the mouth of the River Liffey and at the centre of the Dublin Region. The city has served continually as Ireland's capital city since mediæval times. mediæval The city proper has a population of some 495,000 (CSO Census 2002), though the population of the Dublin metropolitan area is higher, with the development and spread of suburbs and satellite towns continuing into the surrounding areas. The population of the city and region is 1,164,400 (CSO Census 2002); although even this figure does not accurately reflect the population of "urban Dublin", failing to account for largely integrated parts of north-east Kildare and conversely, undeveloped rural areas in north Fingal. The population of urban Dublin is currently projected to be 1,274,100 for the year 2006 when the next census will take place. The term Dublin Region has become a substitute for the traditional County Dublin, whilst "Greater Dublin Area" is accepted as including Dublin city and all of counties Wicklow, Kildare, Fingal, South Dublin, Meath and Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown with the limits of the commuter belt stretching to a much greater distance. commuter belt

Culture

Dublin is a major cultural centre in Ireland. Dublin is the origin of many prominent artists and writers such as James Joyce, Oscar Wilde, Samuel Beckett, Bram Stoker, and Roddy Doyle. Dubliners is a collection of short stories by James Joyce about incidents and characters typical of residents of the city in the early part of the 20th century. Ulysses, also by James Joyce, a novel set in Dublin, is full of topographical detail and is both acclaimed and controversial. The National Print Museum of Ireland, the Irish Museum of Modern Art, the National Gallery of Ireland, the Hugh Lane Municipal Gallery, the Chester Beatty Library and three centers of the National Museum of Ireland are located in Dublin. Temple Bar is an important place for night life and often people from Britain and beyond visit for the weekend.

Multicultural Dublin

Dublin has long had a sizeable number of immigrants especially from Great Britain, the US, Australia, New Zealand, and continental Europe. More recently Dublin has also attracted significant Nigerian, Chinese, Korean, Indian, and Eastern European populations, largely attracted by Ireland's economic success since the the mid-1990's . Old and once run-down streets have rapidly become busy 'ethnic districts', such as Moore Street's tranformation into 'Little Africa' and Parnell Street East's into the city's de-facto 'Chinatown' and 'Asian Village'.

Education

Eastern European Dublin is the primary centre of education in Ireland, with three universities and several other higher education institutions. The University of Dublin is the oldest university in Ireland dating from the 16th Century. Its sole constituent college, Trinity College, Dublin (TCD), was established by Royal Charter under Elizabeth I. The National University of Ireland has its seat in Dublin which is also the location of the associated constituent university of University College Dublin (UCD), the largest university in Ireland. Dublin City University (DCU) is the most recent university created in Dublin and specialises in business, engineering, and science courses, particularly with relevance to industry. The Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI) is an independent medical school located on St. Stephen's Green in the city centre. The National University of Ireland, Maynooth, another constituent university of the NUI, is located about 25 km from Dublin. Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT) is a modern technical college and is the country's largest non-university third level institution; it specialises in technical subjects but also offers many arts and humanities courses. It is soon to move to a new campus at Grangegorman. There are also smaller Institutes of Technology at Blanchardstown and Tallaght. The National College of Art and Design (NCAD) and Dun Laoghaire Institute of Art, Design and Technology (DLIADT) support training and research in art, design and media technology. There are also various other smaller specialised colleges, including private ones, in the city. One example is The Gaiety School of Acting which hosts a two year intensive degree in acting.

Exhibitions

- 1853 - Great Industrial Exhibition (1853)
- 1865 - International Exhibition of Arts and Manufactures (1865)
- 1874 - International Exhibition of Arts and Manufactures (1874)

Northside vs Southside

International Exhibition of Arts and Manufactures (1874) Traditionally, a north versus south division has existed in Dublin with the dividing line provided by the River Liffey. The Northside is generally seen as working-class, while the Southside is seen as middle and upper middle class. This is also reflected by Dublin postal districts, with odd numbers being used for districts on the Northside, e.g: Phibsboro is in D7, and even numbers for ones on the Southside, e.g: Sandymount is in D4. This division dates back centuries, certainly to the point when the Earl of Kildare built his residence on the then less regarded Southside. When asked why he was building on the South Side, he replied "Where I go, fashion follows me", and indeed he was promptly followed by most other Irish peers. Irish peers]] The Northside/Southside divide is punctuated by examples of Dublin "sub-culture" stereotypes, with upper-middle class constituents seen as tending towards an accent and demeanour synonymous with (but not exclusive to) the D4 postcode on the Southside (see Dublin 4, Ross O'Carroll-Kelly), and working-class Dubliners seen as tending towards accents and demeanour associated with (but not exclusive to) Northside and inner-city Dublin neighbourhoods. (see Scanger) This simplification of economic and social communities in Dublin ("southside rich, liberal and snobby"/"northside poor, industrial and common") does not survive more than a few real-world examples however. For example, the President of Ireland's residence, Áras an Uachtaráin, is on the Northside, although its postal district is D8, a Southside number. Three of Dublin's wealthiest suburbs, Howth, Malahide, and Castleknock are to be found on the Northside. The Southside similarly has many working-class suburbs, like Tallaght, Palmerstown, Crumlin, and Ballyfermot. In fact, a greater division in social terms is evident between the coastal suburbs in the east of the city, both north and south, and the newer developments further to the west, though this too is only a rough guide.

Sport

Ballyfermot Dublin contains the headquarters of almost all of Ireland's sporting organisations. Croke Park, an 82,000-capacity stadium near Drumcondra and Phibsboro, is the base of the Gaelic Athletic Association and hosts Gaelic Football and Hurling games during the summer months and on St. Patrick's Day. Lansdowne Road is a 48,000 capacity stadium owned by the Irish Rugby Football Union and is also the venue for home games of the Republic's national football (soccer) team. Dalymount Park, in Phibsboro and the traditional Home of Irish Soccer, is now used only for home games of local club Bohemian FC. Rivals Shelbourne FC play at nearby Tolka Park, while St Patrick's Athletic play in Richmond Park in Inchicore on the south west edge of the city. Shamrock Rovers are originally from Ringsend but have spent the last two decades in search of a home, and hope to complete a new stadium in Tallaght by 2006. The other senior soccer clubs are University College Dublin F.C., based in Belfield, and Dublin City F.C. (formerly Home Farm F.C.). The National Aquatic Centre, located in Blanchardstown, is the first building to open in the Sports Campus Ireland. There are several race courses in the Dublin area including Shelbourne Park (Greyhound racing) and Leopardstown (Horse racing). There are also Basketball, Handball, Hockey and Athletics stadia within the city - most notably Morton Stadium in Santry, which held the athletics events of the 2003 Special Olympics.

Name

The name Dublin is an Anglicism of Dubh Linn (Irish, meaning "Black Pool"), though some doubt this derivation. Historically, in the old script used for the Irish language, 'bh' was written with a dot placed over the 'b'—thus appearing to be Dub Linn or Dublinn. The Norman French speaking English who arrived in Old Irish-speaking Ireland starting in 1169 had no idea the dot over the 'b' signified it was really 'bh,' so they omitted it and spelled the town's name as 'Dublin'. Meanwhile, the city's name in Modern Irish—Baile Átha Cliath ("The Town of the Ford of the Reed Hurdles")—actually refers to the settlement, founded in 988 by High King Mael Sechnaill II, which adjoined the town of Dubh Linn proper, at the Black Pool. Some have suggested that "Dublin" is of Scandinavian origin, cf. : "djúp lind" ("deep pond"). That does not work for two reasons. First, the name "Dubh Linn" pre-dates the arrival of the Vikings in Ireland. Second, the Old Norse name for Dublin is simply the words "Dubh Linn" re-spelled as if they were Old Norse: Dyfflin (correctly pronounced "DUEV-linn" - indeed, the letter 'y' is still pronounced like the vowel in "ewe" in Modern Norwegian, Swedish, etc., just as it was in Old Norse).

Infrastructure

Communications

Radio Telifís Éireann (RTE) is Ireland's national state broadcaster, and has its main offices and studios in Dublin. Fair City is the broadcasters' capital based soap, located in the fictional suburb of Carraigstown. TV3 the state's only private television broadcaster is also based in Dublin, though much of its programming is imported from the UK and the US. It generally aims to attract a young audience. The main infrastructure and offices of An Post and the former state telephone company Eircom, as well as Vodafone and O2 are located in the capital. The capital is also the headquarters of important national newspapers such as The Irish Times and Irish Independent, and commercial radio stations such as Today FM.

Transport

Today FM] Dublin is the centre of the transport system in Ireland (see Transport in Ireland). Dublin Port is the country's most important sea port. Dublin Airport is the most important airport in the republic and the bulk of passenger traffic travels through the airport. Heuston Station and Connolly Station are the city's major railway stations, Heuston connects with the towns and cities in the south and west of the Republic while Connolly serves the Sligo and Dublin-Belfast routes.

Road network

Dublin is also the main hub of the country's road network. The M50 motorway, a semi-ring road runs around the south, west and north of the city, connecting the most important national primary routes in the State that fan out from the capital to the regions. A toll of €1.80 applies on what is called the West-Link, two adjacent concrete bridges that tower high above the River Liffey near the village of Lucan. Construction of the M50 took almost 20 years, with the final section opening in June 2005. A court case regarding the destruction of medieval ruins at Carrickmines Castle delayed the final completion of the route. The M50 currently has two traffic lanes going either direction but plans are afoot to increase that to three. The National Roads Authority also intends to increase capacity at many of the motorway's busiest junctions by building triple-grade interchanges instead. 2005 Custom House and Liberty Hall]] To complete the ring road, an eastern bypass is also proposed for the city of Dublin. The first half of this project is currently under construction, the Dublin Port Tunnel. It is scheduled to open in early 2006 and will mainly cater for heavy vehicles. When finished, Dublin City Council hopes to ban all unnecessary trucks and lorries from the city quays. The second half of the project would involve another tunnelling project, linking Dublin Port to the road network on the southside of the city. Plans for this have never been formalised. The capital is also surrounded by what have been termed by Dublin City Council as an inner and outer orbital route. The inner orbital route runs roughly around the heart of the Georgian city from St. Stephen's Green to Mountjoy Square and from the King's Inns to St Patrick's Cathedral. The outer orbital route runs largely along the natural circle formed by Dublin's two canals, the Grand Canal and the Royal Canal, as well as the North and South Circular Roads.

Public transport

Royal Canal The Dublin Area Rapid Transit system is the only electrified railway in the country and serves stations at regular intervals on the railway line along the east coast. A 2 line light rail system called Luas opened in 2004 and has proved popular in the (limited) areas it serves. It is hoped a metro system linking Dublin Airport to the city will be the next major infrastructural project. The bulk of the public transport system in Dublin is made up of bus services operated by Bus Átha Cliath (Dublin Bus), which operates a network of nearly 200 daytime routes (identified by number and sometimes suffixed with a letter, e.g. 40, 40A, 40B, 40C, 40D) and 24 "Nitelink" overnight services which run on Monday to Saturday nights, which are identified by a number suffixed with "N" e.g. 40N). Apart from some tourist buses, all Dublin Bus' services are one-man operated, and daytime fares are determined by the number of fare stages travelled through—fares are payable in coin and only the exact fare is acceptable—if passengers overpay, they are issued "change tickets" which must be presented at the Dublin Bus office in O'Connell Street to be c