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Jones-Shafroth Act

Jones-Shafroth Act

:For the law regarding sailor rights, see the Jones Act The Jones-Shafroth Act (1917), better known as the "Jones Act" (after sponsor Congressman Walter Jones), or the "Organic Act for Puerto Rico," replaced the Foraker Act of 1900. It conferred full United States citizenship on all citizens of Puerto Rico. It created the present system of government in Puerto Rico by creating a government mirroring that of an American state, but Puerto Rico never was made a state. The Act allowed conscription to be extended to the island, which sent 20,000 soldiers to the U.S. Army during the First World War. Powers were separated among an Executive, Judicial, and Legislative branch. The law also provided civil rights to the individual (except trial by Jury) The Jines Act and created a locally elected legislature. The two houses were a Senate consisting of 19 members and a 39-member House of Representatives. All were elected by manhood suffrage for a term of four years. Acts of the Legislature could be vetoed by the governor; but his veto could be overridden by a two-thirds vote. The President had a final veto. Matters relating to franchises and concessions were vested in a public service commission consisting of the heads of the executive departments, the auditor and two elected commissioners. A resident commissioner to the United States, paid by Washinton, would be elected by popular vote for a term of four years; he represents the island in the U.S. House of Representatives, with a voice but without vote, and is recognised by all departments in Washington. Six executive departments were constituted: Justice, Finance, Interior, Education, Agriculture, Labour and Health. The governor, the attorney-general and the commissioner of education were appointed by the President with the approval of the U.S. Senate; the heads of the remaining departments by the governor of Puerto Rico, subject to the approval of the Puerto Rican Senate. The Governor of Puerto Rico was appointed by the President of the United States, and not elected. All cabinet officials had to be approved by the United States Senate, and the United States Congress had the power to veto any law passed by the Puerto Rican Legislature. Washington maintained control over fiscal and economic matters and exercised authority over mail services, immigration, defense and other basic governmental matters. Puerto Rico was not given an electoral vote because the Constitution allowed only full-fledged states to have electoral votes. The impetus for this legislation came from a complex of both local and mainland interests. Puerto Ricans lacked internationally recognized citizenship; but the local council was wary of "imposing citizenship." Luis Munoz Rivera, the resident commissioner in Washington, argued in its favor, giving several significant speeches in the House of Representatives. [http://www.libarts.ucok.edu/history/faculty/roberson/course/1493/supplements/chp20/Luis%20Munoz%20Rivera.%20P.R.%20Commissioner.htm On 5 May 1916 he demanded:] "Give us now the field of experiment which we ask of you. . . . It is easy for us to set up a stable republican government with all possible guarantees for all possible interests. And afterwards, when you . . . give us our independence . . . you will stand before humanity as a great creator of new nationalities and a great liberator of oppressed people." The act was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on March 2, 1917. Portions of the law were superseded in 1948, after which the Governor was popularly elected, and in 1952 Puerto Rico was allowed to draft its own Constitution, which allowed greater autonomy as a Commonwealth.

Scholarly Secondary Sources

- Gatell, Frank Otto. "The Art of the Possible: Luis Muñoz Rivera and the Puerto Rico Jones Bill." Americas 1960 17(1): 1-20.
- Carrion, Arturo Morales. Puerto Rico: A Political and Cultural History (1984).
- Picó, Fernando. Historia general de Puerto Rico. Río Piedras: Ediciones Huracán, (1986).

External links

- [http://ww3.definitions-legal.com:8567/admiralty-law/jones-act.htm Jones Act] -- Articles & Definitions
- [http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/jonesact.html Jones-Shafroth Act - The Library of Congress]
- [http://www.lexjuris.com/LEXLEX/lexotras/lexactajones.htm Spanish text] Category:History of Puerto Rico Category:Politics of Puerto Rico

Jones Act (sailor rights)

For the law that concerned Puerto Rico, see Jones-Shafroth Act The Jones Act (aka Merchant Marine Act) is a United States Federal statute that requires U.S.-flagged vessels to be built in the United States, owned by U.S. citizens, and documented under the laws of the United States. Documented means "registered, enrolled, or licensed under the laws of the United States." In addition, all officers and 75% of the crew must be U.S. citizens. Vessels that satisfy these requirements comprise the "Jones Act fleet". The Jones Act also allows injured sailors to obtain damages from their employers for the negligence of the shipowner, the captain, or fellow members of the crew. It operates simply, by extending similar legislation already in place that allowed for recoveries by railroad workers and providing that this legislation also applies to sailors. Its operative provision is found at 46 U.S.C. 688(a), which provides: :Any seaman who shall suffer personal injury in the course of his employment may, at his election, maintain an action for damages at law, with the right to trial by jury, and in such action all statutes of the United States modifying or extending the common-law right or remedy in cases of personal injury to railway employees shall apply. . . . The Act was enacted in 1920. The chief statute that it extends to sailors is the Federal Employers Liability Act, also known as FELA. Like other workers' compensation statutes, the Jones Act entitles injured sailors to what the Act calls "transportation, wages, maintenance and cure:" the employer or shipowner must get the sailor home, pay him wages while unable to work, and provide medical care for his injuries until the sailor has recovered all he will be able to. If the sailor's injuries are the result of negligence, whether by the employer, captain, or another crew member, the sailor may be able to obtain damages for pain and suffering from the employer or shipowner as well. The United States Supreme Court, in the case of Chandris, Inc., v. Latsis, 515 U.S. 347, 115 S.Ct. 2172 (1995), has ruled that any worker who spends more than thirty percent of his time in the service of a vessel on navigable waters qualifies as a seaman under the Jones Act. An action under the Jones Act may be brought either in a U.S. federal court or in a state court. The Jones Act should not be confused with the Longshoremen's and Harbor Workers' Compensation Act, which is a Federal statute that defines the workers' compensation rights of dockside employees whose work affects shipping upon navigable waters. The Death on the High Seas Act governs remedies for the surviving kin of sailors who die on the job.

Temporary suspension

In the wake of Hurricane Katrina, Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff temporarily waived the Jones Act upon the instruction of President George W. Bush on September 2, 2005. [http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/display?content=4781]

Foraker Act

The Foraker Act, also known as the Organic Act of 1900, established civilian government on the island of Puerto Rico newly acquired by the United States as a result of the Spanish-American War. President William McKinley signed the act on April 2, 1900 and became known as the Foraker Act for the sponsor, Ohio statesman Joseph Benson Foraker. The new government had a governor and an executive council appointed by the President of the United States, a House of Representatives with 35 elected members, a judicial system with a Supreme Court, and a non-voting Resident Commissioner in Congress. The Executive council was all appointed: 5 individuals were selected from island residents while the rest were from those in top cabinet positions, including attorney general and chief of police (also appointed by the President). The Insular Supreme Court was also appointed. In addition, all federal laws of the United States were to be in effect on the island. The first civil governor of the island under the Foraker Act was Charles H. Allen, inaugurated on May 1, 1900 in San Juan, Puerto Rico. This law was superseded in 1917 by the Jones-Shafroth Act.

External links

- [http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/foraker.html http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/foraker.html] Category:History of Puerto Rico Category:Politics of Puerto Rico

United States citizenship

Possession of Citizenship

U.S. citizens have the right to participate in the political system of the United States (with reservations for prisoners, ex-prisoners, and naturalized persons), are represented and protected abroad by the United States (through U.S. embassies and consulates), and are allowed to reside in the United States, and certain territories, without any immigration requirements. Citizens are liable for jury service. Citizens are also required to pay taxes on worldwide income, including income earned while residing abroad (regardless of the duration of the residence). Male U.S. citizens and permanent residents who reach the age of 18 are required to register under the Selective Service Act (while the U.S. does not actively use conscription, it reserves the right to do so), failure to do so is a criminal offense (up to 5 years imprisonment, $20,000 fine, and the suspension of federal educational grants/loans). The United States Government also insists that U.S. citizens travel into and out of the United States on a U.S. passport, regardless of dual nationality.

Acquisition of Citizenship

Natural-born citizens

Most United States citizens are natural-born. Generally, a natural-born United States citizen was born in the United States or born to United States citizens.

Birth within the United States

Children born in the United States (including, in most cases, Puerto Rico, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands and the U.S. Virgin Islands), are U.S. citizens at birth (unless born to a foreign diplomatic staff). A birth certificate is considered evidence of citizenship.

Through birth abroad to two United States citizens

In most cases, you are a U.S. citizen if both of the following are true: #Both your parents were U.S. citizens when you were born #At least one of your parents lived in the United States prior to your birth. Your record of birth abroad, if registered with a U.S. consulate or embassy, is proof of your citizenship. You may also apply for a passport or a Certificate of Citizenship to have your citizenship recognized.

Through birth abroad to one United States citizen

In most cases, one is a U.S. citizen if all of the following are true: #One of your parents was a U.S. citizen when you were born; #Your citizen parent lived at least 5 years in the United States before you were born; and #At least 2 of these 5 years in the United States were after your citizen parent's 14th birthday (see note below). Your record of birth abroad, if registered with a U.S. consulate or embassy, is proof of one's citizenship. You may also apply for a passport or a Certificate of Citizenship to have your citizenship recognised. Note: If you were born before November 14, 1986, you are a citizen if your U.S. citizen parent lived in the United States for at least 10 years and 5 of those years in the United States were after your citizen parent's 14th birthday.

Naturalized citizens

Naturalization is the process by which one becomes a citizen of a country. If you are not a U.S. citizen, you may be eligible to become one through naturalization. If you become a U.S. citizen through naturalization, then you are not considered a natural-born citizen. Consequently, naturalized U.S. citizens are not eligible to become President of the United States. For example, as of 2005, the current Secretary of Commerce and the current Secretary of Labor cannot succeed to the presidency because they became U.S. citizens through naturalization. Ordinarily, the Secretary of Commerce and the Secretary of Labor are tenth and eleventh in the presidential line of succession, as established by the United States Constitution and the Presidential Succession Act.

Eligibility for naturalization

To become a naturalized United States citizen, you must be a legal permanent resident of the United States, and have resided in the United States for five years less 90 days before you apply (this requirement is reduced to three years less 90 days if you (a) acquired legal permanent resident status through marriage to a US Citizen, and (b) have remained married to and living with that citizen since you were married). You must be a "person of good moral character", and must pass a test on United States history and government. Most applicants must also have a working knowledge of the English language, although this requirement is very easy to meet, since the test requires that you read and write one simple sentence in English, such as "The United States is a democracy".

Nationals who are not citizens

According to 8 U.S.C. §1408 it is possible to be a U.S. national without being a U.S. citizen. A person whose only connection to the U.S. is through birth in an outlying possession, (which as of 2005 is limited to American Samoa or Swains Island), or through descent from a person so born acquires U.S. nationality but not U.S. citizenship. Nationals who are not citizens cannot vote or hold elected office. However, they may live in the United States without restriction and naturalize as U.S. citizens under the same rules as other resident aliens. U.S. Nationals are not U.S. citizens; however, all U.S. citizens are U.S. nationals. Indeed, U.S. passports normally make no distinction between the two, mentioning only the bearer's nationality, not her or his citizenship.

Loss of U.S. citizenship

Various court decisions have ruled that citizenship is a constitutional right and cannot be deprived without due process. However, a U.S. citizen may lose citizenship for a variety of reasons which include: # Service in a foreign armed forces # Employment with a foreign government of which the person is a citizen # Renunciation of citizenship to a U.S. diplomatic officer # Renunciation of citizenship within United States to the proper authority (this only applies 'in time of war') # Naturalization as a citizen of a foreign state It is also important that the person in question has the intention during the majority of these cases of relinquishing U.S. citizenship and also that the person has another nationality to assume (a person cannot become stateless for renunciation purposes). If a dual national is required to perform military service for a foreign military, and does so without the intention of losing U.S. citizenship, this does not constitute a breach of citizenship. There are also special provisions for persons who are deemed to be avoiding U.S. taxation (which is, in theory, applicable up to ten years after the official loss of citizenship), which can result in loss of right to entry into the United States. While in practice there is little to stop a foreign citizen who has performed a said act from entering the U.S., the U.S. State Department "requires" that a Certificate of Loss of Citizenship be obtained at a U.S. embassy or consulate (though this is generally treated as a grey area, judged on a case by case basis).

External links

- [http://uscis.gov/graphics/services/natz/citizen.htm U.S. Citizenship Information]
- [http://uscis.gov/graphics/services/natz/index.htm U.S. Naturalization]
- [http://travel.state.gov/law/citizenship/citizenship_782.html Citizenship & Nationality Law - US State Department]
- [http://www.richw.org/dualcit/ Rich Wales Dual Citizenship FAQ] Citizenship Category:Immigration to the United States Category:Nationality law

Puerto Rico

:This article is about the caribbean territory of Puerto Rico. For the German board game, see Puerto Rico (game) The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (Spanish: Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico) is a self-governing unincorporated organized territory of the United States located east of the Dominican Republic in the northeastern Caribbean. Puerto Rico, the smallest of the Greater Antilles, includes the main island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller islands and keys, including Mona, Vieques, and Culebra.

History

Main article: History of Puerto Rico When Europeans first arrived, the island of Puerto Rico was inhabited by a group of Arawak Indians known as Taínos. The Taínos called the island "Borikén." The first European contact was made by Christopher Columbus during his second voyage to the Antilles, on November 19, 1493. Some say that Puerto Rico was not discovered by Columbus but by Martín Alonso Pinzón in 1492 when he separated from Columbus and went exploring on his own. The Pinzón family was given one year by the Spanish court to start a settlement in Puerto Rico which would give them a claim to the island. However, they did not succeed. Originally named San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, the island ultimately took the name of Puerto Rico (Rich Port), while the name San Juan is now delegated to its capital and largest city. Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León became the island's first governor to take office, while Vicente Yáñez Pinzón was the first appointed governor, though he never arrived on the island. The island was soon colonized and briefly became an important stronghold and port for the Spanish empire in the Caribbean. However, colonial emphasis during the late 17th–18th centuries focused on the more prosperous mainland territories, leaving the island impoverished of settlers. Concerned about threats from its European enemies, over the centuries various forts and walls were built to protect the port of San Juan. Fortresses such as La Fortaleza, El Castillo San Felipe del Morro and El Castillo de San Cristóbal were built. The French, Dutch and English made attempts to capture Puerto Rico, but failed to wrest long-term occupancy of the island. In 1809, while Napoleon occupied the majority of the Spanish peninsula, a populist assembly based in Cadiz recognized Puerto Rico as an overseas province of Spain with the right to send representatives to the Spanish Court. The representative Ramon Power y Giralt died soon after arriving in Spain; and constitutional reforms were reversed when autocratic monarchy was restored. Nineteenth century reforms augmented the population and economy, and expanded the local character of the island. After the rapid gains of independence by the South and Central American states in the first part of the century, Puerto Rico and Cuba became the sole New World remnants of the large Spanish empire. Toward the end of the 19th century, poverty and political estrangement with Spain led to a small but significant uprising in 1868 known as "El Grito de Lares." The Puerto Rican goal was to achieve personal freedom, the abolition of slavery, and full self-government. The uprising was easily and quickly crushed. Leaders of this independence movement included Ramón Emeterio Betances, considered the "father" of the Puerto Rican nation, and other political figures such as Segundo Ruiz Belvis. Later, another political stronghold was the autonomist movement originated by Roman Baldorioty de Castro and, toward the end of the century, by Luis Muñoz Rivera. In 1897, Muñoz Rivera and others persuaded the liberal Spanish government to agree to a Charters of Autonomy for Cuba and Puerto Rico. The following year, Puerto Rico's first, but short-lived, autonomous government was organized. The charter maintained a governor appointed by Spain, who held the power to annul any legislative decision he disagreed with, and a partially elected parliamentary structure. On July 25, 1898 at the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, Puerto Rico, being a colony of Spain, was invaded by the United States of America with a landing at Guánica. Spain was forced to cede Puerto Rico, along with Cuba and the Phillippines, to the United States under the Treaty of Paris (1898) . The twentieth century began under the military regime of the United States with officials, including the governor, appointed by the President of the United States. In 1917, the Jones-Shafroth Act approved by the United States Congress granted Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship. Natural disasters and the Great Depression impoverished the island. Some political leaders demanded change; some, like Pedro Albizu Campos, would lead a nationalist (The Puerto Rican Nationalist Party) movement in favor of independence. He would eventually die by what he claimed was a conspiracy set in place by the U.S. Federal Government. Muñoz Rivera initially favored independence, but saw a severe decline of the Puerto Rican economy, as well as growing violence and uprisings, at the hands of the U.S. government and opted to create the "commonwealth" option as an eventual stepping stone to full independence. Puerto Rican Nationalist Party]] Change in the nature of governance of the island came about during the latter years of the Roosevelt–Truman administrations, as a form of compromise spearheaded by Luis Muñoz Marín and others, and which culminated with the appointment by President Harry S. Truman in 1946 of the first Puerto Rican-born governor, Jesús T. Piñero. In 1948, the United States granted the right to democratically elect the governor of Puerto Rico. Luis Muñoz Marín would become the first elected governor of Puerto Rico. On November 1, 1950, Puerto Rican nationalists Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo attempted to assassinate President Harry S. Truman. In response, Truman allowed for a genuinely democratic referendum in Puerto Rico to determine the status of its relationship to the United States . Puerto Rico adopted its own constitution in 1952 which adopted a commonwealth relationship with the United States . During the 1950s Puerto Rico experienced a rapid industrialization, with such projects as Operation Bootstrap which aimed to industrialize Puerto Rico's economy from agriculture-based into manufacturing-based. Present-day Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination and a leading pharmaceutical and manufacturing center. Still, Puerto Rico continues to struggle to define its political status. A number of plebiscites have been held in recent decades to decide whether Puerto Rico should request independence, enhanced commonwealth status, or statehood. Narrow victories by commonwealth supporters over statehood advocates have not yielded substantial changes in the relationship between the island and the United States. However, commonwealth--which once had the support of well over 75% of the voting population--now has less than 50% support. This decrease has been met with an expanded support for statehood for the island, with both groups holding an equal share of support. The independence ideal, once the second leading ideology on the island in the general elections, is now supported by 3–6% of the voting population.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Puerto Rico Geography of Puerto Rico The archipelago of Puerto Rico consists of the main island of Puerto Rico and various smaller islands, including Vieques, Culebra, Mona, Desecheo, and Caja de Muertos. Of the latter five, only Culebra and Vieques are inhabited year-round. Mona is uninhabited through large parts of the year except for employees of the Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources. The mainland measures some 170 km by 60 km (105 miles by 35 miles). It has a population of approximately 4 million. The capital city, San Juan, is located on the main island's north coast and has a population of approximately 430,000. The mainland is mostly mountainous with coastal areas in the north and south regions of the island. The main mountainous range is called "La Cordillera Central" (The Central Range). The highest elevation point of Puerto Rico, Cerro de Punta (1338 meters), is located in this range. Another important peak is El Yunque with a maximum elevation of 1,065m. Some beautiful beaches on the western side of the island are Jobos Beach, Maria's Beach, Domes Beach and Sandy Beach. Puerto Rico has nine lakes (none of them natural) and more than 50 rivers. Most of these rivers are born in the "Cordillera Central." The rivers in the northern region of the island are bigger and with higher flow capacity than those of the south region.

Geology

El Yunque Puerto Rico is composed of Cretaceous to Eocene volcanic and plutonic rocks, which are overlain by younger Oligocene to recent carbonates and other sedimentary rocks. Most of the caverns and karst topography on the island occurs in the northern Oligocene to recent carbonates. The oldest rocks are approximately 190 million years old (Jurassic) and are located at Sierra Bermeja in the southwest part of the island. These rocks may represent part of the oceanic crust and are believed to come from the Pacific Ocean realm. Puerto Rico lies at the boundary between the Caribbean and North America plates. This means that it is currently being deformed by the tectonic stresses caused by the interaction of these plates. These stresses may cause earthquakes and tsunamis. These seismic events, along with landslides, represent some of the most dangerous geologic hazards in the island and in the northeastern Caribbean.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Puerto Rico The island government is based on the U.S. Republic system composed of 3 branches: the Executive branch headed by the Governor, the Legislative branch consisting of a bicameral Legislative Assembly (a Senate and a House of Representatives) and the Judicial branch. The legal system is based on a mix of the Civil Law and the Common Law systems. The governor as well as legislators are elected by popular vote every four years. Members of the Judicial branch are appointed by the governor and approved by the senate. The island is divided into 78 municipalities, which elect a mayor and municipal assembly. Puerto Rico's formal Chief of State is the President of the United States; however, most of the executive functions are carried out by the governor. The current Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved through referendum in 1952, and ratified by the U.S. Congress, which maintains ultimate sovereignty over Puerto Rico. Under the 1952 constitution, Puerto Rico is a territorial commonwealth of the United States and is permitted a high degree of autonomy. Still, Puerto Rico does not have voting representation in the U.S. Congress; neither does it have any delegates to the U.S. Electoral College, and therefore Puerto Rican citizens have no representation in the U.S. Presidential elections. A non-voting Resident Commissioner is elected by the residents of Puerto Rico to the U.S. Congress. Residents of the island do not pay federal income tax on income from island sources, although they do pay a hefty tax to local authorities. Further, island residents pay social security taxes and other federal taxes. Also, they haved limited access to several key federal programs. As U.S. citizens, Puerto Ricans are subject to military service and most federal laws. Puerto Rico's three major political parties are most distinguished by their position on the political status of Puerto Rico. The Popular Democratic Party (PPD) seeks to maintain or improve the current Commonwealth status, the New Progressive Party (PNP) seeks to fully incorporate Puerto Rico as a U.S. state, and the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP) seeks national independence. Three Puerto Rico status referenda have been held since the ratification of the 1952 constitution. Support for the commonwealth has eroded from over 60% in 1967 to about 48%, while support for statehood has grown to about 46%. In the 1998 referendum independence received 2.5%, but the "None of the above" option received more than 50%. Pro-statehooders claim that this option garnered the majority of votes due to a joint effort by commonwealth and pro-independence supporters to stop statehood. Puerto Ricans living on the island are not counted among the Hispanics residing in the U.S.; in fact, they are not included in the U.S. population count at all, although all Puerto Ricans are U.S. citizens. Puerto Rico also is not included in the Current Population Surveys that the Census Bureau conducts to update its decennial census.

U.S. Commonwealth

Although Puerto Rico is, politically speaking, a Commonwealth of the United States, Puerto Ricans and people from other nations refer to Puerto Rico as a país, the Spanish word for country or nation. This is a very common and accepted international status given to all dependent territories, also called dependent "states" by the UN. This is highlighted by the fact, for example, that Puerto Rico is an independent country in the sports world, even having their own Olympic teams. In the jargon of international law, an inhabited territory that is not a first-order administrative division, but rather forms an external, non-sovereign territory governed by a sovereign one, is both a "state" and a "country". But none of these cases —neither U.S. "states" nor dependent "states/countries"—are considered sovereign international entities.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Puerto Rico The economic conditions in Puerto Rico have improved dramatically since the Great Depression due to external investment in capital-intensive industry such as petrochemicals pharmaceuticals and technology. Once the beneficiary of special tax treatment from the U.S. government, today local industries must compete with those in more economically depressed parts of the world where wages are not subject to U.S. minimum wage legislation. In recent years, some U.S. and foreign owned factories have moved to lower wage countries in Latin America and Asia. Puerto Rico is subject to U.S. trade laws and restrictions. Puerto Ricans had a per capita GDP estimate of $17,700 for 2004 , which demonstrates a growth over the $14,412. level measured in the 2002 Current Population Survey by the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund . In that survey, Puerto Ricans have a 48.2% poverty rate. By comparison, the poorest State of the Union, Mississippi, had a median level of $21,587, according to the U.S. Census Bureau’s Current Population Survey, 2002 to 2004 Annual Social and Economic Supplements .

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Puerto Rico Puerto Rico has sometimes been said to have a "White" majority, an extinct Amerindian population, persons of mixed ancestry, Africans and a small Asian minority. However, broad US census categories have disallowed the mixed ancestry of most Puerto Ricans to be officially acknowledged; and most on the island tend to agree that what is "Puerto Rican" is generally a mixture between Amerindian, African, and Spanish genetic heritage. According to a 2003 study funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation, 61 percent of all Puerto Ricans have Amerindian mitochondrial DNA, 27 percent have African and 12 percent Caucasian . During the 1800s hundreds of Corsican, French, and Portuguese, along with a large numbers of immigrants from the Canary Islands and numerous Spanish loyalists from Spain's former colonies in South America, arrived in Puerto Rico. Other settlers have included Irish, Scots, Germans, and many others who were granted land from Spain during the Cedula de Gracias of 1815, which allowed European Catholics to settle in the island with a certain amount of free land. Emigration has been a major part of Puerto Rico's recent history as well. Starting in the Post-WWII period, due to poverty, cheap air fare, and promotion by the island government, waves of Puerto Ricans moved to the mainland United States, particularly New York City. This continued even as Puerto Rico's economy improved and the birth rate declined. Emigration continues at the present time, and this, combined with Puerto Rico's greatly lowered birth rate, suggests that the island's population will age rapidly and start to decline sometime within the next couple of decades. According to the 2000 US Census, 95% of the population consider themselves of Puerto Rican descent (regardless of race or skin color), making Puerto Rico one of the most culturally homogenous societies in the world . Since its colonization, Puerto Rico has become the permanent home of over 100,000 legal residents who immigrated from not only Spain, but from Latin America as well. Cubans, Dominicans, Colombians, Panamanians, Curacaoans, and Santomeños can also be accounted for as settlers. The variety of surnames which exist in Puerto Rico suggests widespread immigration to the island from many regions.

Languages

The official languages of the island are Spanish and English. Spanish is the primary language in business and government; English is taught as a second language in schools.

Religion

The Roman Catholic religion has been historically dominant and is the religion of the majority of Puerto Ricans, although the presence of Protestant, Latter-Day Saint (Mormon) and Jehovah's Witnesses denominations has increased under American sovereignty, making modern Puerto Rico an interconfessional country. Taíno religious practices have to a degree been rediscovered/reinvented by a few handfuls of advocates. Kongo belief, known as Mayombe or Palo, has been around since the days of the arrival of enslaved Africans. Although, Santeria (stronger and more organized in Cuba) is practiced by some, Palo Mayombe (an African belief system which originated with Bantu tribes brought into Puerto Rico as slaves for over 500 years) finds more adherence among individuals who practice some form of African Traditional Religion. See also Protestants in Puerto Rico.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Puerto Rico

Education

Education in Puerto Rico is divided into four levels. These are elementary, intermediate, high school and the university level. Students can attend either a public or a private school. Public schools are run by the state while private schools are run by private institutions, predominantly the Roman Catholic Church. The only public university system in Puerto Rico is the University of Puerto Rico.

Sports

Main article:Sports in Puerto Rico Puerto Rico currently has its own Olympic team and participates in the Summer Olympics and the Winter Olympics, as well as international representation in many other sporting events including the Pan-American Games, the Central American Games, and the Caribbean World Series. Further, it has its own representatives in beauty pageants including Miss World and Miss Universe. Boxing, basketball, and baseball are popular. They have their own professional baseball leagues, though San Juan hosted the Montréal Expos for several series in 2003 and 2004 before they moved to Washington, D.C. and became the Washington Nationals. On September 29, 2005 Major League Baseball announced that opening rounds of the newly formed World Baseball Classic, a 16-country tournament featuring top players, would be held in San Juan in March 2006.

Municipalities (Municipios)

San Juan For a complete list of the municipalities of Puerto Rico see: List of municipalities in Puerto Rico As a commonwealth associated with the United States, Puerto Rico does not have any first-order administrative divisions as defined by the U.S. Government, but there are 78 municipalities at the second level. Mona Island is not a municipality, but part of the municipality of Mayagüez). Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected for a 4 year term. The first municipality (back then called town) of Puerto Rico, San Juan, was founded in 1521. In the 16th century two more municipalities were established, Coamo (1570) and San Germán (1570). Three more municipalities were established in the 17th century. These were Arecibo (1614), Aguada (1692) and Ponce (1692). The 18th and 19th century saw an increase in settlement in Puerto Rico. 30 municipalities were established in the 18th century and 34 more were established in the 19th century. Only six municipalities were founded in the 20th century. The last municipality was Florida, founded in 1971 . The municipalities are further subdivided into barrios, and those into sectors.

External links

Official sites

- [http://www.bdepr.org Economic Development Bank]
- [http://www.gdb-pur.com Government Development Bank]
- [http://www.gobierno.pr/ Government of Puerto Rico]
- [http://www.fortaleza.gobierno.pr/ Governor]
- [http://www.icp.gobierno.pr Institute of Puerto Rican Culture]
- [http://www.ati.gobierno.pr Integrated Transport Alternative]
- [http://www.meetpuertorico.com/ Puerto Rico Convention Bureau]
- [http://www.camaradepuertorico.org/ Puerto Rico House of Representatives]
- [http://www.senadopr.us/ Puerto Rico Senate]
- [http://www.prteconline.com/ Puerto Rico Technoecnomic Corridor]
- [http://www.gotopuertorico.com Puerto Rico Tourism Company]
- [http://www.fomentocomercialpr.com Puerto Rico Trade]
- [http://www.house.gov/fortuno/ Resident Commissioner (US House)]
- [http://www.ceepur.org/ State Electoral Commission (CEEPUR)]
- [http://www.upr.edu University of Puerto Rico]
- [http://www.pridco.com Puerto Rico Industrial Development Company]

References

# [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/diplomacy/spain/sp1898.htm Treaty of Paris (1898)]. # Act of July 3, 1950, Ch. 446, 64 Stat. 319. # [http://www.lexjuris.com/lexprcont.htm Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico - in Spanish (original)]. # [http://topuertorico.org/constitu.shtml Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico - in English (translation)]. # [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/rq.html CIA - The World Factbook -- Puerto Rico]. # [http://www.prldef.org/ PRLDEF]. # [http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/medincsizeandstate.html U.S. Census - Median Family Income]. # [http://www.indiancountry.com/content.cfm?id=1065462184&print=yes Indian Country Today, October 6, 2003]. # [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=04000US72&-qr_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_DP1&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U Puerto Rico DP-1 Profile of General Demographics Characteristics : 2000]. # [http://www.linktopr.com/fundacion.html LinktoPR.com - Fundación de los Pueblos]. # [http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/8/ares8.htm General Assembly Resolutions 8th Session United Nations].

Notes

[1] See http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/8/ares8.htm Category:Former Spanish colonies Category:Insular areas of the United States Category:Puerto Rico ko:푸에르토리코 ja:プエルトリコ simple:Puerto Rico

Conscription

Conscription is the involuntary requirement of a government that certain of its citizens serve in the armed forces. It is known by various names — for example, the most recent conscription program in the United States was known colloquially as "the draft". Many nations do not maintain conscription forces, instead relying on a volunteer, or professional military, although many of these countries still reserve the possibility of conscription for wartime and "crises" of supply. (Historically, "conscription" has also sometimes been used as a general term for non-military involuntary labour demanded by some established authority; for example, Old Testament commentaries use the term to describe the levies of labour used to build the Temple.) In the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and elsewhere the term conscription is generally used only during wartime. National Service was the term used during peace-time in the United Kingdom and Singapore. In New Zealand the term Compulsory Military Training was used. In Japan during World War II, Japanese women and children were conscripted to work in factories. The term "conscription" refers only to the mandatory service; thus, those undergoing conscription are known as "conscripts" or "selectee" in the United States (from the Selective Service System or the Selective Service Initiative announced in 2004). In the USA the term "enlisted" is often used to refer only to those who have volunteered for service in roles other than as commissioned officers.

History

Conscription allowed the French Republic to form the Grande Armee, what Napoleon Bonaparte called "the nation in arms", which successfully battled European professional armies. Conscription, particularly when the conscripts are being sent to foreign wars that do not directly affect the security of the nation, has historically been highly politically contentious in democracies. For instance, during World War I, bitter political disputes broke out in Canada (see Conscription Crisis of 1917), Newfoundland, Australia and New Zealand (See Compulsory Military Training) over conscription. Canada also had a political dispute over conscription during World War II (see Conscription Crisis of 1944). Similarly, mass protests against conscription to fight the Vietnam War occurred in several countries in the late 1960s. (See also: Conscription Crisis) In developed nations, the increasing emphasis on technological firepower and better-trained fighting forces, the sheer unlikelihood of a conventional military assault on most developed nations, as well as memories of the contentiousness of the Vietnam War experience, make mass conscription unlikely in the foreseeable future. Russia and China, as well as many smaller nations, retain mainly conscript armies.

Women draftees

Some countries which draft women include the People's Republic of China, Taiwan (ROC), North Korea, Peru, Malaysia, Libya, Israel, and Eritrea. In 2002, Sweden's government asked the army to consider mandatory military service for women. Some have considered the practice of excluding women from the draft unfair, because they feel it goes against principles of equality. Some simply argue that women can be militarily useful, and that excluding them places an unnecessary limit on resources. During World War II, women were drafted into the armed forces of the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union. The United States came close to drafting women into the Nurse Corps in preparation for a planned invasion of Japan; the Japanese surrender made this unnecessary. The non-egalitarian policy practiced by some countries of drafting men and not women has often been a flash point and source of conflict. This policy is often cited by some masculists as an example of an unfair policy which benefits women over men; however, most avowed anti-feminists are strongly opposed to women in combat. Apprehension about the possible conscription of women was a key factor that led to the defeat of the Equal Rights Amendment in the United States. Conscription certainly imposes on the freedom of the individual and although some conscripts feel that they benefited from the experience others feel that their time could have been spent more productively pursuing their chosen studies or career paths [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1682777.stm See BBC news article on the end of French conscription] Individual resentment may also be compounded by the typically low wages paid to conscripts, especially in countries such as Greece. Feminists and others calling for more equal treatment of women in society have rarely extended their demands to include a call for equality for women with regards the draft. The topic of male-only conscription in the UK was the focus of a large number of books, plays and other literature, most of which portrayed the writers experience of conscription in a very negative way, emphasizing the brutality and tedium of military training. Examples include Arnold Wesker's Chips with Everything and Ginger You're barmy by David Lodge . In his book, Lodge suggests that the practice of male-only conscription helped to generate sexist attitudes by making it difficult for men to regard those who were excused the rigors of military training as their equals.

Conscientious objection

"It is debasing human dignity to force men to give up their life, or to inflict death against their will, or without conviction as to the justice of their action." -- Albert Einstein, Mahatma Gandhi, et al, in the "Manifesto Against Conscription and the Military System" A conscientious objector is an individual whose personal beliefs are incompatible with military service, or sometimes with any role in the armed forces. In some countries, conscientious objectors have special legal status which augments their conscription duties. For example, Sweden allows conscientious objectors to choose a service in the "weapons-free" branch, such as an airport fireman, nurse or telecommunications technician. The reasons for refusing to serve are varied. Many conscientious objectors are so for religious reasons -- notably, the Quakers are pacifist by doctrine, and Jehovah's Witnesses, while not strictly speaking pacifists, refuse to participate in the armed services on the grounds that they believe Christians should be neutral in worldly conflicts (also see Conscientious objection). The provisions for conscientious objection to the draft have been viewed as unfairly discriminatory, favoring religious objection over non-religious objection, and favoring those who value peace and non-violence over those who value freedom. Alternative mandatory service can assuage objections based on peace and non-violence, but do nothing for those who objections arise from strongly held convictions about freedom.

Draft evaders

Not everyone who was conscripted was willing to go to war. Many young people used their family's political connections to ensure that they were placed well away from any potential harm. They would avoid military service altogether through college deferments. Others with political influence often joined the military and served in what was termed a Champagne unit. Others used educational exemptions, became conscientious objectors or pretended to be conscientious objectors. For others, the most common method of avoiding the draft was to cross the border into another country. People who have been "called up" for military service and who attempted to avoid it in some way, were known as "draft-dodgers". U.S. draft-dodgers made their way to Canada or Mexico. Australian draft-dodgers had greater difficulty leaving their country due to the surrounding ocean. Many people looked upon draft-dodgers with scorn as being "cowards", but some supported them in their efforts.

Draft resisters

The Vietnam War saw new levels of opposition to conscription and National Service. Many people opposed to and facing conscription, chose to either plead conscientious objection or to evade the draft by fleeing to a neutral country. A small proportion, like Muhammad Ali, chose to publicly and politically fight conscription. In Australia this was known as the Draft Resistance Movement.

Countries with mandatory military service (partial list)

Muhammad Ali A number of countries have mandatory military service:

Austria

Austria has mandatory military service for fit male citizens from 18 to 35 years of age. Service lasts for 8 months but will be shortened to 6 months in 2006. Conscientious objectors join the civilian service (Zivildienst) for 12 months (reduction to 9 months in 2006).

Belarus

Belarus has mandatory military service for all fit men from 18 to 27 years of age. Military service lasts for 18 months for those without higher education, and for 12 months for those with higher education.

Bermuda

Bermuda, although a dependant territory of the United Kingdom, still maintains conscription for its local force. Males between the age of 18 and 32 are drawn by lottery to serve in The Bermuda Regiment for a period of 38 months. The commitment is only on a part time basis, however. Anyone who objects to this has the right to have their case heard by an exemption tribunal.

Brazil

Brazil has mandatory military service for men from the age of 18 to 30. However, conscientious objection is allowed.

Bulgaria

Bulgaria has mandatory military service for male citizens from 18 to 27 years of age. Currently (2004) the duration of the service depends on the degree of education. For citizens studying for or holding a bachelor degree or higher the service is 6 months, and for citizens with no higher education it is 9 months. During the last 10 years the duration of service has rapidly dropped (from 2 years in 1994) and as Bulgaria adopts a professional army mandatory service is expected to be replaced with voluntary service.

Chile

Chile has mandatory military service for all citizens between 18 and 45. The duration of service is 12 months for the army and 24 months for Navy and Air Force.

China (PRC)

Theoretically the People's Republic of China has conscription for both men and women. Women who are conscripted go into the army for two months and learn to use firearms. In practice, military service with the PLA is voluntary; all 18-year-old males have to register themselves with the government authorities, in a way similar to the Selective Service System of the United States. The main exception to this system applies to potential university students, who are required to undergo military training before their courses commence. An exception is also made for Hong Kong and Macau, whose residents are exempted from conscription as they are effectively barred from any military service.

Croatia

Croatian law prescribes military service for male citizens from 18 to 27 years old. The duration of the normal military service is six months (as of 2004), while conscientious objectors can apply for civil service which lasts for eight months. Conscription is regularly postponed for students until the end of their studies, as long as they apply before they turn 28 years of age. Over the last decade or so, the duration of military service has been halved and civil service was introduced together with the streamlining of the professional army. Should this trend continue, the mandatory service may eventually be completely replaced with voluntary service.

Cyprus

Cyprus has compulsory military service for all Greek Cypriot men between the ages of 18 and 50. Military service lasts for 25 months. After that, ex-soldiers are considered reservists and participate in military exercises for a few days every year. Conscientious objectors can either do 33 months unarmed service in the army or 38 months community work. See official pages by the [http://www.army.gov.cy/index.php?id=76 Greek Cypriot National Guard]. In North Cyprus there is compulsory military service for Turkish Cypriots. The Annan Plan for Cyprus that was rejected in the 2004 reunification referendum mandated the demilitarisation of the island and the disbanding of both Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot forces.

Denmark

Denmark has mandatory service for all able men of the age of 18 to 27. It lasts four months, however, some special service will take longer. One will typically receive a letter around the time of one's 18th birthday, asking you when you will graduate, and some time later, depending on when, you will receive a notice on when to attend to the draft office, where you will be tested physically and psychologically. However some may be deemed unfit for service and not be required to show up. Even if a person is deemed fit, or partially fit for service, he may avoid having to serve if he draws a high enough number randomly. Persons who are deemed partly fit for service will however be placed lower than those who are deemed fit for service, and therefore have a very low chance of being drafted. Conscientious objectors can choose to instead serve six months in a non-military position, for example in Redningsberedskabet (dealing with non-military disasters like fires) or foreign aid work in a third world country. [http://danmark.dk/portal/page?_pageid=34,328944&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL]

Egypt

Egypt has a mandatory military service program for males between the ages of 18 and 30. Females of comparable age serve in a civilian program. Conscription is regularly postponed for students until the end of their studies, as long as they apply before they turn 28 years of age. By the age of 30 a male is considered unfit to join the army and pays a fine. Males with no brothers, or those supporting parents are exempted from the service. Males serve for a period ranging from 14 months to 48 months depending on their education; high school dropouts serve for 48 months during which they finish their high-school education. College graduates serve for lesser periods of time, depending on their education, and college graduates with special skills are still conscripted yet at a different rank and with a different pay scale with the option of remaining with the service as a career. Some Egyptians evade conscription and travel overseas until they reach the age of 30, at which point they are tried, pay a $580 fine (as of 2004), and are dishonorably relieved of their obligation to serve in the army. Such an offense, legally considered an offense of "bad moral character", prevents the "unpatriotic" citizen from ever holding public office.

Eritrea

Eritrea has a mandatory military service program for both men and women aged 18 through 40. The term of service is 18 months. There is no alternate service. The Eritrean government is well-known for hunting down and torturing suspected draft evaders. Draft evaders often flee the country to nearby countries.

Finland

As of 2004, Finland has mandatory military service for men of at least six months (180 days), depending on the assigned position: those trained as officers or NCOs serve for twelve months (362 days), specialist troops serve for nine (270 days) or twelve months, and other rank and file serve for six months. Unarmed service is also possible, and lasts eleven months (330 days). Since 1995, women have been given the option of voluntary military service. During the first 56 days, women have an option to quit the service without having to provide a reason. After serving for 56 days, they fall under the same obligation to serve as men. Non-military service of thirteen months (395 days) is available for men whose conscience prevents them from serving in the military. Men who refuse to serve at all are sent to prison for up to 6.5 months (197 days). On principle, male citizens from the demilitarized Åland region have to serve in customs offices or lighthouses, but since this service has not been arranged, they are always exempted from the service. Jehovah's Witnesses' service is postponed every two years until they, at the age of 28, are exempted. Military service has been mandatory for men throughout the history of independent Finland since 1917. Soldiers and civil servicemen receive a daily salary of 3.60 € (days 1-180), 5.75 € (days 181-270) and 8.25 € (onward from day 271). After the training part of the service is done, the soldier enters the reserve. The reservists can be called to mandatory refresher exercises. Rank and file serves 40 days maximum, specialists 75 days and officers 100 days. For this, a salary of about 50 euro per day is paid. The service is mandatory; it is not possible to refuse an order to attend the refresher exercise. The length of non-military service has been criticized as being punitive by Amnesty International because it is over twice as long as the most common alternative, six-month military service. Several motions to shorten it have been made in the Finnish Parliament but none have passed.

Germany

:Main article at Conscription in Germany Germany has mandatory military service of nine months for men. Women may volunteer and are allowed to perform the same jobs as men. A conscientious objector may petition for permission to do civilian "alternative service" (Ersatzdienst) or "(alternative) civilian service" (Zivildienst) instead for nine months, which is usually accepted. A third option is to become a foreign "development helper" (Entwicklungshelfer) for at least eighteen months. Overall, however, during the past few years, the number of men being drafted has declined significantly. Save for a few exceptions, military service is compulsory for all men between the ages of 18 and 23 years. Those who are engaged in educational or vocational training programs prior to their military assessment are allowed to postpone service until they have completed the programs and can be called upon to perform their national duty at any time thereafter.

Greece

:Main article at Conscription in Greece As of 2004, Greece (Hellenic Republic) has mandatory military service of 12 months for men. However, it is developing a professional army system, and it is widely expected that the mandatory military service will be cut to 6 months by 2008 or even abolished completely. Although women are accepted into the Greek army, they are not obliged to join as men are. Soldiers receive no health insurance, but they can receive medical support during their army service, including hospitalization costs. They receive a symbolic salary of approximately 9 euros per month for privates, 12 euros for the rank of draft corporal and draft sergeant, and 600 euros as a draft cadet. The wages are not sufficient to sustain a draftee serving his tour away from his place of residence and most draftees depend financially on their parents to support them financially while they are on their tour.

Israel

Israel has mandatory military service for both Jewish men and women not married by the conscription age. All Israeli Jews are conscripted, except Haredim, who can choose to serve but mostly do not. Israeli Arabs are exempt from service, although they can volunteer and some communities such as the Druze, Bedouin, and Circassians do serve. Young women can generally not serve if they are married, pregnant, or otherwise - Israel is generally very lenient with Israeli women when it comes to the draft. However, most that can do serve out of patriotism. Typically, men serve for 36 months, women serve for 24 months. See also: Israel Defence Forces. There are limited number of refuseniks who resist military service, particularly in the West Bank, some of them serving short prison terms as a result (no more than a few months). See also: Refusal to serve in the Israeli military.

Lebanon

Lebanon previously had mandatory military service of one year for men. On the 4th of May 2005, a new conscription system was adopted, making for a six-month service, and pledging to end conscription within two years. See [http://www.lebarmy.gov.lb/English/FlagService.asp Official Information from Lebanese Army].

Malaysia

As of 2004, Malaysia has mandatory national service of three months for a selected group of both men and women. Twenty per cent of 18-year-olds are selected through a lottery system to join this program. Trainees are not trained to use firearms. The first training date was February 16, 2004. See [http://www.khidmatnegara.gov.my Official Information from Malaysia National Service Training Department].

Mexico

Currently, all males reaching 18 years of age must register for military service (Servicio Militar Nacional, or SMN) of one year, though selection is made by a lottery system using the following color scheme: whoever draws a black ball must serve as a "disponibility reservist", that is, they must not follow any activities whatsoever and get their discharge card at the end of the year. The ones who get a white ball serve in a Batallón del Servicio Militar Nacional (National Military Service Battalion) composed entirely of one-year SMN conscripts. Those with a community service interest may participate in Literacy Campaigns as teachers, or as Phys-Ed instructors. Military service is also (voluntarily) open to women. In certain cities, such as Mexico City and Veracruz, there is a third option: a red ball (Mexico City) and a Blue ball (Veracruz), which entails serving a full year as a recruit in a Paratrooper Battalion in the case of Mexico City residents, or a Infantería de Marina unit (Navy Marines) in Veracruz. In other cities which have a Navy HQ (such as Ciudad Madero), it is the Navy which takes charge of the conscripts, instead of the Army.

Norway

Norway has mandatory military service of 18 months for men between the ages of 18 (17 with parental consent) and 44. The actual draft time is 6 months for the national guard, and 9-12 months for the regular army and navy. The remaining months are supposed to be served in annual exercises, but very few conscripts do this due to lack of funding to the Norwegian armed forces. The decreased funding and greater reliance on high technology in the armed forces has resulted in only a third of the male population completing the service (since the late 1990's). The remaining two thirds have mostly formally been dismissed after medical tests or obtained deferral of the service due to studies or stays abroad. Many Norwegians consider it unfair that they are the "unlucky" 1/3 that have to complete the compulsory military duty when so many others are dismissed. The Norwegian armed forces will normally not draft a person who has reached the age of 28. In Norway certain voluntary specialist training programs entail extended conscription of one to eight years. Pacifists can apply for non-military service, lasting 13 months. Women can volunteer for military service in any part of the armed forces.

Poland

Poland has a compulsory service term of 12 months for all mature men. However, many of those are considered unfit for mandatory military service during peacetime. Effectively, many tens of thousands of men are drafted each autumn. Alternative service can be requested, e.g. in the police force.

Romania

Romania still has conscription. In 2003 an amendment to the Constitution allowed the Parliament to mark the military service facultative and the conscription will end in January 2007. Men serve for 12 months (6 months if they have graduated a form of higher education). As of 2004, conscripts no longer serve in the Romanian Navy. The Romanian parliament voted in October 2005 to end the draft after the October 2006 "class" of draftees reports for duty. Beginning in January 2007, 20 year-old Romanian men will have to register with the government but the men will only be liable to call up in the case of war. The parliamentary vote formalized one of many military modernization and reform programs Romania agreed to when it joined NATO. By 2012, the age to require to be is 17 year-old Romanian men l have to register for the government.

Russia

As of 2002, Russia (Russian Federation) has a mandatory two-year draft but most Russians avoid it by bribing officials and/or talking doctors into signing a letter that the draftee is in poor health and cannot serve. As a result, Russian generals have complained on numerous times that the bulk of the army is made up of drug-addicts, imbeciles, and ex-convicts, which in turn has lead to an overall decline of the morale and function of the Russian armed services. Conscripts often face brutal hazing and bullying upon their enterance into the military known as dedovschina, some dying as a result. Suicide among Russian conscripts is at an all time high. See [http://www.spacedaily.com/2002/021206145741.ooyw2y54.html Only 11 percent of Russian men enter mandatory military service]. See also [http://www.soldiersmothers.spb.org/eng/Reports/Testimonies.htm Dedovschina].

Singapore

In Singapore, the NS (Amendment) Act was passed on 14 March 1967, under which all able-bodied male citizens of 18-21 years of age were required to serve a compulsory military service of two years (down from two and a half years, amended in 2005). Upon completion of full-time NS, they undergo reservist training cycles of 40 days a year for the next 10 years. Singapore, which currently has a mandatory service period of 24 months, used to have one of the longest mandatory military service periods for males, at 30 months. It also has special policies for ethnic Malays, because of possible conflicts in allegiances with neighbour Malaysia. Some of the Malays are drafted into the police or Civil Defense. See National Service

South Korea

As of 2004, South Korea has mandatory military service of 24 months. See: [http://kn.koreaherald.co.kr/SITE/data/html_dir/2002/12/14/200212140004.asp].

Sweden

In Sweden military service is mandatory for men only. As of 2002, Sweden's government asked the army to consider mandatory military service for women. Less than one third of the country's eligible 19-year-olds are actually drafted each year. See [http://www.news-star.com/stories/062703/New_8.shtml Sweden considers mandatory military service for women]. Men may choose to do unarmed service, for instance as a firefighter. Generally, unarmed service is longer than armed.

Switzerland

Switzerland has the largest militia army in the world (220,000 including reserves). Military service for Swiss men is obligatory according to the Federal Constitution, and includes 17 weeks of basic training as well as annual 3-week-refresher courses until a number of service days which increases with rank (260 days for privates) is reached. Service for women is voluntary, but identical in all respects. Conscientious objectors can choose 450 days of community service instead of military service. Medical deferments and dismissals from basic training (often on somewhat dubious grounds) have increased significantly in the last years. Therefore, only about 33% of Swiss men actually complete basic training.

Taiwan (ROC)

The Republic of China has had mandatory military service for all males since 1949. Females from the outlying islands of Fuchien must also serve. In October 1999, the mandatory service was shortened from 24 months to 22 months. From January 2004, the mandatory service was shortened futher. At this point, the duration of mandatory military service is 18 months. Beginning Jan 1, 2006, the duration will decrease to 16 months and by 2008, it will be shortened to 12 months. ROC nationals with Overseas Chinese status are exempt from service.

Turkey

In Turkey, compulsory military service applies to all male citizens from 20 to 41 years of age (with some exceptions). Those who are engaged in higher education or vocational training programs prior to their military drafting are allowed to delay service until they have completed the programs. The duration of the basic military service varies. As of July 2003, the reduced durations are as follows: 15 months for privates (previously 18 months), 12 months for reserve officers (previously 16 months) and 6 months for short-term privates, which denotes those who have earned a university degree and not have been enlisted as reserve officers (previously 8 months). For Turkish citizens who have lived or worked abroad of Turkey for at least three years, on condition that they pay a certain fee in foreign currencies, a basic military training of one month is offered instead of the full-term military service. Also, when the General Staff assesses that the military reserve exceeds the required amount, paid military service of one-month's basic training is established. Although women have in principle no military service, they are allowed to become officers. Refusing the obligatory military service due to conscientious objection is illegal in Turkey, and punishable with imprisonment by law.

Ukraine

The options are either reserve officer training for two years (offered in universities as a part of a program), or one year regular service.

Venezuela

In Venezuela, all citizens over 18 should report to the local military authority for evaluation. If the citizen can provide enough proof that they should not serve (They are college students, or have medical reason not to) they are exempt. However if they cannot prove this, they are conscripted and must serve up to 2 years of mandatory military service. Raids are usually made in night clubs and other nocturnal entertainment places to check whether or not men inside are 'registered' as reservists.

Countries that do not currently have mandatory military service (partial list)

Argentina

Argentina abolished military conscription in 1994, yet those in service had to finish it.

Australia

:See main article: History of Australian conscription

Belgium

Belgium abolished military conscription in 1994.

Canada

:See main articles: Conscription Crisis of 1917 and Conscription Crisis of 1944 In Canada conscription has never taken place in peacetime. Conscription became an extremely controversial issue during both World War I and World War II, especially in the province of Quebec.

Czech Republic

The Czech Republic abolished compulsory military service on December 31, 2004. See [http://www.army.cz/scripts/detail.php?id=3041 announcement by the Minister of Defence] and related BBC News [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4118461.stm article].

France

France was one of the first nations to employ conscription, since during the wars following the French Revolution the army needed men to stop Austrian and British invasions. France abolished peacetime military conscription in 1996, while those born before 1979 had to complete their service (see related BBC News [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1682777.stm article]); since the Algerian War of Independence, conscripts had not been deployed abroad or in war zones, except those volunteering for such deployments.

Hungary

Hungary abolished mandatory military service by November 2004, after the parliament had modified the constitution, ending a long-standing political dispute. To restore drafting, a two-thirds vote in parliament is needed, which is unlikely in the short term. The country is currently developing a professional army, with strong emphasis on "contract soldiers" who voluntarily serve 4+4 years for a wage.

India

India has never had mandatory military service, either under British rule or since independence in 1947.

Iraq

Saddam Hussein's large Iraqi army was largely composed of conscripts, except for the elite Republican Guard. About 100,000 conscripts died during the First Gulf War, also known as Operation Desert Storm. In the intervening years, Iraq's military suffered from decay and poor leadership, but there was still compulsory service. One program of note was "Ashbal Saddam" known as "Saddam's Cubs" where children were trained to defend Iraq through "toughening" excercises such as firearms training and dismembering live chickens with their teeth. Following the Second Gulf War where the original military was disbanded, the Iraqi Army was recreated as a volunteer force with training overseen at first by the CPA and later by the American presence.

Ireland

Ireland has always had a fully volunteer military. See the [http://www.military.ie/ Irish Defence Forces]. The threat of conscription being extended to Ireland in the First World War contributed to the creation of the Irish Free State in the 1920s. (Also see: United Kingdom below).

Italy

Until January 1, 2005, Italy had mandatory military service for men between the ages of 18 and 45. Men were usually required to serve for ten months. Anyone objecting to military service for religious or ethical reasons could claim to be a conscientious objector, in which case community service was usually authorised as an alternative to the regular ten months of military service. The Italian Parliament, by a large majority, voted to abolish mandatory military service from 1 January 2005, and the Italian armed forces will be now be entirely composed of professional volunteer troops, both male and female. [http://www.repubblica.it/2004/g/sezioni/cronaca/fineleva/fineleva/fineleva.html].

Japan

Japan's Self Defence Forces have been a volunteer force since their establishment in the 1950s, following the end of the Allied occupation.

Luxembourg

Luxembourg has a volunteer military. See the [http://www.nat-military-museum.lu/ National Museum of Military History].

Netherlands

The Netherlands established conscription for a territorial militia in 1814, simultaneously establishing a standing army which was to be manned by volunteers only. However, lack of sufficient volunteers caused the two components to be merged in 1819 into a "cadre-militia" army, in which the bulk of troops were conscripts, led by professional officers and NCOs. This system remained in use until the end of the Cold War. Between 1991 and 1996, the Dutch armed forces phased out their conscript personnel and converted to an all-volunteer force. The last conscript troops were inducted in 1995 and demobilized in 1996. Formally, the Netherlands has not abolished conscription; that is to say, the laws and systems which provide for the conscription of armed forces personnel remain in place, and Dutch citizens who completed their military service prior to 1996 can still, theoretically, be mobilized in the event of a national emergency.

New Zealand

:See main article: Compulsory Military Training (in New Zealand) Conscription of men into the armed forces of New Zealand came into effect in 1940, and was abolished in 1972.

Portugal

Portugal abolished compulsory military service on November 19, 2004. See [http://www.mdn.gov.pt/destaques/2004/fim_servico_militar.htm an announcement by the Minister of Defence].

Slovenia

Slovenia's Prime Minister Anton Rop abolished mandatory military service on September 9 2003. See the [http://nato.gov.si/eng/press-centre/press-releases/2212/ official press release].

Spain

Spain abolished compulsory military service in 2001. See [http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2001/03/09/espana/984145280.html an announcement by the Minister of Defence]. Military and alternative service was 9 months long and in recent years the majority of conscripts chose to perform alternative, rather than military, service.

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom introduced conscription during both world wars. For the first two years of World War I the British relied on volunteers. But by 1916 the need for yet more soldiers to replace losses at the front, forced the British Government to introduce conscription. Ireland was initially exempt from conscription in the First World War, but it was extended to Ireland on April 9, 1918. This led a Conscription Crisis in Ireland and was a decisive factor in pushing the country into seeking its independence. The poet W.B. Yeats wrote to Lord Haldane in protest: "...it seems to me a strangely wanton thing that England, for the sake of 50,000 Irish soldiers, is prepared to hollow another trench between the countries and fill it with blood." Also in protest, Lady Gregory declared "women and children will stand in front of their men and receive the bullets, rather than let them be taken to the front." Northern Ireland was exempt from conscription in the Second World War, and was also excluded from the post-war National Service. Conscription was reintroduced in 1939 at the start of World War II. Not only was conscription used for the three branches of the armed forces, it was also introduced to aid in coal mining with the Bevin Boys, and later in the war with the introduction of conscription of women into the Women's Land Army to help with agricultural production. After World War II, the Government introduced National Service, which was abolished in 1960.

United States

:See main article: Conscription in the United States The United States has employed conscription intermittently. For example, in 1863 the imposition of a draft during the Civil War touched off the New York Draft Riots. Conscription was next used after the United States entered World War I in 1917. The first instance of conscription when the country was not at war came with the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940. Active conscription ("the draft") ended in 1973. Currently, male U.S. citizens and many male aliens living in the U.S., if aged 18 through 25, are required to register with the Selective Service System, which describes its mission as "preparing to manage a draft if and when Congress and the President so direct." [http://www.sss.gov/]

Arguments for conscription

Valuable training

Some argue that peacetime conscription is an ideal tool for teaching a population basic, important skills such as first aid, swimming, wilderness survival and so on. However, it can be argued that these skills could better be taught in the public school system than during mandatory service.

The draft as protection against democracy-destroying military coups

Some argue that conscription should be connected to democracy. A professional army can possibly become a dangerous state-within-a-state. Military virtues such as obedience to orders and respect for the chain of command can possibly be abused by aspiring dictators. Armed forces can attract - consciously or unconsciously - people who prefer authoritarian systems. The army can even become the only chance for a job and decent life in times of unemployment, or for despised minorities. Such people may come to regard the army as their home and elevate it above the state. On the other hand, once in power a number of dictators such as Napoleon, Hitler, Stalin, and Saddam Hussein have used conscription to drive their undemocratic ambitions. The most significant attempt on Hitler's life was from the professional component of his military.

Manpower

Small countries have several options to raise a sizeable army. One is to put every able-bodied man under arms. This is how Switzerland managed to stay independent despite repeated attacks throughout history. The Swiss militias were so successful that their fighting style and weapons (especially the halberd) were quickly adopted by their enemies. Many rulers even raised Swiss Guards. The rich Flemish trade cities of the early 14th century raised huge militias that could even defeat armies of knights. The famous Battle of the Golden Spurs (1302) is a good example. Other options for national defence include membership in a military alliance like NATO, as is the case for countries like Belgium and Luxembourg. Switzerland started out as a military alliance between independent counties. Also, a wealthy small country could hire a professional mercenary army. This approach does, however, require wealth and men who are willing to hire on. Moreover, it required some means to control the mercenaries if they became unruly.

Personnel diversity

Perhaps the kind of people who most strongly want to be in the military are not always the only kind of people who are needed in it. Conscripts come from various backgrounds and might have differing opinions and views. A diverse group is arguably more likely to succeed at any task. Still, the frequently lower morale and experience of conscripts may make them less useful in actual combat situations, especially in wars of aggression. This has been witnessed in the Vietnam War and Soviet-Afghan War. Personnel diversity might be bad for armies in some ways, by inhibiting communication and increasing social tension, but it also helps different people come together and realize the true nature of an all-inclusive society. For example, it helps them understand the problems of other classes, professions, cultures, and educational levels. Similar arguments have been presented in favor of desegregation in schools. However, in countries that already have desegregated schools (i.e. most of the western world) it is not clear why the armed forces would be more important in bringing different people together than the school system, or could accomplish this in ways in which the school system could not.

Conscript quality

The manpower quality of a conscript force is considered poor in many countries. However, in some countries with conscription, the personnel diversity of the conscript force is considered its greatest strength. Admittedly, there are persons who would not be employed by a professional force, but these are a minority, and can be discharged for medical reasons in extreme cases. However, the conscript force may also receive the best of the youth. Many conscripts are from such social strata that they would have much more lucrative employment or would be studying, were they not obliged to serve. These persons provide talented manpower that can easily be trained for technical and leadership duties. As junior NCO and commissioned officer positions are filled with leadership-trained conscripts, the size and cost of the professional cadre is much smaller. As these ex-conscripts, as reservists, mature and lose their fighting fitness, they can be subsequently retrained and given emergency positions corresponding their civilian expertise. For example, a transport manager who is a reserve officer might serve as a battalion logistics chief during wartime. The leadership-trained conscripts can also be recruited to the regular forces.

Political and moral motives

Jean Jacques Rousseau argued vehemently against professional armies, feeling it was the right and privilege of every citizen to participate to the defence of the whole society and a mark of moral decline to leave this business to professionals. He based this view on the development of the Roman republic which came to an end at the same time as the Roman army changed from a conscript to professional force. The right of the state to conscript its citizens can be founded on Utilitarianism principles. First, we conjecture that the army must never be used for a war of aggression, but only to preserve the state. Second, we conjecture that the occupation by a foreign country would include unbearable conditions, e.g. genocide or destruction of the local way of life. If these two requirements are fulfilled, the greatest good to the greatest number of person may be achieved by sacrificing a number of persons and thus, these persons, the reservists serving in the armed forces, should be willing to make this sacrifice out of altruism. In fact, even without accepting this, the moderate (1-10 %) chance of dying compared to the prospect of living in an occupied country may be preferable. Conscription can give the conscripts a lasting patriotic view and readiness to die for the good of the whole. Such readiness should be present in a virtuous citizen at all times, but through training, the readiness becomes a grim reality, not rhetoric. This tends to decrease the admiration of the military. On the other hand, the fact that every person understands that a war - any war - means that they themselves, friends, and relatives will be dying or at the least, facing mortal danger, decreases the willingness to enter an armed conflict. In practice, a conscript force cannot be used for an aggressive war for long, as this results in moral degradation both at home and on the front, testified by Afghanistan and Vietnam Wars. This decreases the possibility of the government to engage in foreign adventures, thus preserving peaceful relations to all nations on Earth.

Arguments against conscription

The draft as slavery

:Conscription subjects individual personalities to militarism. It is a form of servitude. That nations routinely tolerate it, is just one more proof of its debilitating influence :— Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, H.G. Wells, Bertrand Russell and Thomas Mann in [http://www.peace.ca/manifestoagainstconscription.htm Against Conscription and the Military Training of Youth--1930] Some groups, such as libertarians, say that the draft constitutes slavery, since it is mandatory work. Under the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, slavery or indentured servitude is not allowed unless it is part of punishment for a crime. They therefore see the draft as unconstitutional (at least in the U.S.) and immoral. In 1918, the Supreme Court ruled that the World War I draft did not violate the United States Constitution. Arver v. United States, 245 U.S. 366 (1918) ([http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=245&invol=366]). The Court detailed its conclusion that the limited powers of the federal government included conscription. Its only statement on the Thirteenth Amendment issue was based on a "supreme and noble duty" argument from nationalism and not legal reasoning: :Finally, as we are unable to conceive upon what theory the exaction by government from the citizen of the performance of his supreme and noble duty of contributing to the defense of the rights and honor of the nation as the result of a war declared by the great representative body of the people can be said to be the imposition of involuntary servitude in violation of the prohibitions of the Thirteenth Amendment, we are constrained to the conclusion that the contention to that effect is refuted by its mere statement. In the USSR, most of the conscripts received only very basic training and were used for forced labor unrelated to actual military service - usually digging up potatoes in the field with zero wage cost. The Soviet planned economy system thus had no incentive to produce better combined harvesting machines and Soviet agriculture remained low-tech. In Soviet-bloc Hungary, more than half of pre-1989 conscripts received a mere few weeks of rifle training and were swiftly assigned to "working squadrons" which usually hand-built rail tracks "for free", and in very poor quality. At the same time, railway tracks in Western Europe were being built to high-quality standards by semi-automatic, rail-rolling factories operated by a professional workforce. These are examples of a "military" draft used to obtain involuntary labour.They also illustrate one key theme of Adam Smith and other liberal economists that Liberty is the key method of social improvement. When compulsion takes the place of free markets and free Labour the efficiency of the economy is reduced. Compulsion also means that the Wages and working conditions of the Workers is inferior. David Hume points out that this was illustrated by the press gang. The legalised abduction of citizens by the state makes for military inefficiency as well as economic inefficiency and a denial of Constitutional freedom. When Labour is too cheap it will be wasted as other commodities are and this is one reason for the collapse of Communism in the USSR.

Discipline problems

No army can work without discipline. The discipline can either arise from the esprit de corps, motivation of the soldiers or be imposed and pressed on the troops. Volunteers seldom have disciplinary problems, but people pressed in the service against their will have little other motivation to serve than personal survival, and perhaps change to get to rape and loot enemy civilians. As motivation is based on coercion, the discipline on conscript armies is often harsh, and punishments severe. Capital punishment, usually by firing squad, is used almost universally to maintain discipline on conscription armies during the wartime. It is estimated the executions covered some 1% to 5% of all conscript losses in WWII. This can be best summarized by statement of

Executive Branch

Under the doctrine of the separation of powers, the executive is the branch of a government charged with implementing, or executing, the law and running the day-to-day affairs of the government or state. The de facto most senior figure in an executive is referred to as the head of government. The executive may be referred to as the administration, in presidential systems, or simply as the government, in parliamentary systems. In some constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom, the monarch, who is the Head of State, is the de jure and <