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Jorvik

Jorvik

Jorvik was the Viking name for the English city of York and the kingdom centered there.

History

York had been founded as the Roman legionary fortress of Eboracum and revived as the Anglo-Saxon trading port of Eoforwic. It was first captured in November 866 by a large army of Swedish-led Danish Vikings, called the "Great Heathen Army" by Anglo-Saxon chroniclers, which had landed in East Anglia and made their way north, aided by a supply of horses with which King Edmund of East Anglia bought them off and by civil in-fighting between royal candidates in the Anglian Kingdom of Northumbria. Declaring a truce, the rivals for the throne of Northumbria joined forces but failed to retake the city in March 867, and with their deaths the kingdom Deira came under Viking control, and the Northumbrian royal court fled north to refuge in Bernicia. A Viking attempt against Mercia the same season failed and in 869 their efforts against Wessex were fruitless in the face of opposition from Kings Ethelred and Alfred the Great. Jorvik became the capital of a flourishing small kingdom when the war-leader, Guthrum, headed for East Anglia, while Halfdan Wide-Embrace of Sjaelland and Uppsala took the York throne in AD 876. The kingdom covered the three Ridings of Yorkshire and extending into Westmorland and Lancashire, often employing Anglian local kinglets. The area of the palace built by the Viking rulers was known as the Konungsgårthr and is today known as King's Square. New streets, lined by regular building fronts for timber houses were added to an enlarging city between AD 900 and 935, dates arrived at by tree-ring chronology carried out on remaining posts preserved in anaerobic clay subsoil. The Viking kingdom was absorbed into England in 954, without cramping its economic success: by ca 1000, the urban boom brought Viking Jorvik to a population total second only to that of London within the British Isles. William the Conqueror brought the independence of Jorvik to an end and established garrisoned castles in the city.

Archaeological findings

From 1976 to 1981, the York Archaeological Trust conducted a five-year excavation in and around the street of Coppergate, which uncovered well-preserved remains of Jorvik's timber buildings, workshops, fences, animal pens, privies, pits and wells together with artefacts of the time, preserved in anoxic wet clay. The state of preservation of thousands of everyday objects is breath-taking: A shoemaker's wooden last, and even a minter's die for striking coinage were recovered. The lack of oxygen in the dense mud meant that decay bacteria were unable to break down embedded materials. Up to 9m of stratified deposits were encountered. Wood, leather, textiles, and plant and animal remains, which do not always survive for long periods underground, were recovered in large quantities, supplementing the more durable pottery, metalwork and bones. In the 10th century, Jorvik's trading connections reached to the Byzantine Empire and beyond: a cap made of silk survives, and coins from Samarkand were familiar enough and respected enough for a counterfeit to have passed in trade. Both these items were famously recovered a millennium later as well as a large human coprolite vulgarly known as the Lloyds Bank turd. Amber from the Baltic is often expected at a Viking site and at Jorvik an impractical and presumably symbolic axehead of amber was found. A cowrie shell indicates contact with the Red Sea or the Persian Gulf. Christian and pagan objects have survived side-by-side, usually taken as a sign that Christians were not in positions of authority. The York Archaeological Trust took the decision to recreate the excavated part of Jorvik on the site, peopled with figures and sounds as well as pigsties, fish market and latrines to bring it fully to life using innovative interpretative methods. The Jorvik Viking Centre opened in April 1984 and proved to be a major visitor attraction. In 2001, the centre was refurbished and enlarged.

External links


- [http://www.britannia.com/history/york/yorkhist4.html Brenda Ralph Lewis & David Nash Ford, "York: Viking Times"]
- [http://www.britannia.com/history/saxontime3.html Timeline of Anglo-Saxon England]
- [http://www.jorvik-viking-centre.co.uk Jorvik Viking Centre]
- [http://www.yorkarchaeology.co.uk York Archaeological Trust]
- [http://www.vikingjorvik.com/ Welcome to Jorvik]: links on on-line resources Category:Archaeological sites in Britain Category:York Category:History of North Yorkshire Category:Viking Age Category:Visitor attractions in North Yorkshire

Viking

The name Viking is a borrowed word from the native Scandinavian term for the Norse warriors who raided the coasts of Scandinavia, the British Isles, and other parts of Europe from the late 8th century to the 11th century. Vikings traveled to the west and Varangians, who were best known as the Varangian Guards of the Byzantine emperors, to the east. This period of European history (generally dated to 793 - 1066 AD) is often referred to as the Viking Age. The word “Viking” was introduced to the English language with romantic connotations in the 18th century. Today, somewhat controversially, the word is also used as a generic adjective, referring to the Viking Age Scandinavians. The medieval Scandinavian population, in general, is more properly referred to as Norse.

Etymology

The etymology of "Viking" is somewhat unclear. One path might be from the Old Norse word vík, meaning "bay," "creek," or "inlet," and the suffix -ing, meaning "coming from" or "belonging to." Thus, a Viking would be a 'person of the bay', or "bayling" for lack of a better word. In Old Norse, this would be spelled vikingr. The term Viking later became synonymous with "naval expedition" or "naval raid", and a vikingr was a member of such expeditions. A second etymology suggested that the term is derived from the Old English wíc, or "trading city" (cognate to Latin vicus, "village"). The word Viking appears on several rune stones found in Scandinavia. In the Icelandic sagas, víking refers to an overseas expedition (Old Norse vikingr "to go on an expedition"), and víkingr, to a seaman or warrior taking part in such an expedition. In Old English, the word appears first in the 6th or 7th century in the Anglo-Saxon poem Widsith. In medieval use (eg, Widsith, and the writings of Adam von Bremen), a Viking is a pirate, and not a name for the people or culture in general. Indeed, when Scandinavian raiders left their boats, stole horses and rode across country, they were never referred to as "vikings" in English sources. The word disappeared in Middle English, and was reintroduced as Viking during 18th century Romanticism. During the 20th century, the meaning of the term was expanded to refer not only to the raiders, but also to the entire period; that is now, somewhat confusingly, used as a noun both in the original meaning of raiders, warriors or navigators, and sometimes to refer to the Scandinavian population in general. As an adjective, the word may be used in expressions like "Viking age," "Viking culture," "Viking colony," etc., generally referring to medieval Scandinavia. During the last century, speculations began about whether the foreign traders known as varyags, who had trade posts along the Russian rivers down to the Byzantine Empire, were of Scandinavian origin, and since then the term has been interpreted also to refer to tradesmen from Scandinavia who established colonies in Russia. Early Scandinavian colonies in North America are also labeled as "Viking" by modern English speakers. It should be noted, however, that no written sources, in the cases of Vinland, Rus', or Varyags, use the term "Viking." Scandinavians, in general, were not Vikings. They were farmers, fishers and hunters, as were most others in Europe at the time. As the Scandinavian shores were attacked by enemy forces, they established the defence fleet called the leidang, which was also used as protection against Vikings. Though it is a common practice today, calling all Northmen (Scandinavians) Vikings, rather than reserving the word solely for those involved in piracy, can lead to misunderstanding and confusion. As members of the leidang fleet, as well as farmers and fishers now and then, were attacked by Vikings, most Scandinavians probably saw Vikings as their enemies and fought against them with all their might.

Historical records

leidang in the Byzantine Empire and a Byzantine ship]] The earliest date given for a Viking raid is 787 AD when, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a group of men from Norway sailed to Portland, in Dorset. There, they were mistaken for merchants by a royal official, and they murdered him when he tried to get them to accompany him to the king's manor to pay a trading tax on their goods. The next recorded attack, dated June 8, 793 AD, was on the monastery at Lindisfarne – the "Holy Island" – on the east coast of England. For the next 200 years, European history is filled with tales of Vikings and their plundering. However, the vast majority of the Viking attacks were naturally attacks on France – as we know from the official histories – because the Emperor Charlemagne was seen as the main enemy, but other parts of the Holy Roman Empire also fell victim to such attacks as well as other Christian countries in Europe. Vikings exerted influence throughout the coastal areas of Ireland and Scotland, and conquered and colonised large parts of England (see Danelaw). They travelled up the rivers of France and Spain, and gained control of areas in Russia and along the Baltic coast. Stories tell of raids in the Mediterranean and as far east as the Caspian Sea.

Adam of Bremen

Adam of Bremen records in his book Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum, (volume four): - :Aurum ibi plurimum, quod raptu congeritur piratico. Ipsi enim piratae, 'quos illi Wichingos as appellant, nostri Ascomannos regi Danico tributum solvunt. - :"There is much gold here (in Zealand), accumulated by piracy. These pirates, which are called wichingi by their own people, and Ascomanni by our own people, pay tribute to the Danish king."

Rune stones

Rune stones bear the letters or characters of old Teutonic and Scandinavian alphabets, that are supposed to be magical and mysterious at the same time. The runes are an ancient oracle, dating back to before the New Testament. The runes are the equivalent of the tarot, and the Chinese book of changes. According to Norse mythology, the creation of the runes came about at the beginning of the creation of the world when the first man emerged out of the ice. He was given the name Ymir. Another man was freed from the ice two days later, called Buri. He had a son named Bor who married Bestla, who was the daughter of the giant Bolthum. Bor and Bestla had three sons, Odin, Vili, and Ve. There was great strife between the offspring of Ymir and the children of Bor and Bestla. Odin led his brothers against Ymir and they killed him. Ever since that time, there has been hatred and enmity between the gods and the giants. Odin and his brothers dragged Ymir's body into the void (Ginnungagap). His flesh became the earth; his blood, the sea; his bones, the mountains; his hair, the trees; and his teeth became the rune stones. Viking magic was prevalent in Norse culture as it was practiced by diviners, also known as rune masters, magicians, and berserkers (magical warriors). When divining using the runes, a number of stones are drawn at random from a bag, and laid out in a pattern representing the past, present, and future. The pattern of symbols is then interpreted to provide insight and help with decision making. The Vikings had great respect for accomplished runemasters, considering them to be blood relatives to Odin. The traditional costume of a runemaster was a blue cloak and a brass-tipped wooden staff, mirrored in the same image of Odin’s cloak and blackthorn wood staff. However, most of the knowledge and wisdom died with the rune masters. Norse mythology and tradition is filled with magical elements such as earth, air, fire, water, and the spirit of the gods, giants, dwarves and ancestors. Odin is characterized as the god of magic, the god of the runes, and when the rune stones are raised, they are in memory of fallen warriors, making Odin the god of the dead as well. Yggdrasil is the world ash tree that connects all of the Nine Worlds of Norse mythology, namely, Asgard, Alfheim, Vanheim, Niflheim, Midgard, Muspelheim, Jotunheim, Svartalfheim, and Hel. The tree survives the torment of Nithog nibbling at its roots, while the stags and goats tear the leaves and bark from the tree. The Norse sprinkle water from Urd's Well upon the roots, which helps the tree stay fresh and green. Od has an unquenchable thirst for knowledge, which he believes is power. He wants to bestow this gift to his followers. In order to discover the meaning of the runes, Odin sacrifices himself with his spear, named Gungnir, on the Yggdrasil, and remains hanging on the tree for nine days to discover the meanings of the runes. On the last day, an eagle drops words out of his mouth, including "egg, sword, and fire." Odin tells the bird that he knows about the existence of these objects already, but his plea is rendered helpless as the eagle flies away. Odin, by being the father of the gods and possessing so much power that he was feared all over Scandinavia, is able to act as the major link between the gods and mankind, passing on knowledge to the Norse people through the runes. Many rune stones in Scandinavia record the names of participants in Viking expeditions. Other rune stones mention men who died on Viking expeditions. "Today the runes are strange symbols scratched into ancient tools and weapons in some museum showcase; names of warriors, secret spells, even snatches of songs, appearing on objects as diverse as minute silver coins and towering stone crosses, scattered from Yugoslavia to Orkney, from Greenland to Greece." (Ralph W.V. Elliot, Runes)

Icelandic sagas

Norse mythology, Norse sagas and Old Norse literature tell us about their religion through tales of heroic and mythological heroes. However, the transmission of this information was primarily oral, and we are reliant upon the writings of (later) Christian scholars, such as the Icelanders Snorri Sturluson and Sæmundr fróði, for much of this. An overwhelming amount of the sagas were written in Iceland. Vikings in those sagas are described as if they often struck at accessible and poorly defended targets, usually with impunity. The sagas state that the Vikings built settlements and were skilled craftsmen and traders.
- Voluspá
- Beowulf

13th century

King Harald I of Norway finally was forced to make an expedition to the west to clear the islands and Scottish mainland of Vikings. Numbers of them fled to Iceland and the Faroe Islands, but the Norse sagas are rather subjective in their descriptions, and hence the Vikings in those sagas are sometimes characterized as heroes, later shaping the attitude towards Vikings during the 18th century Romantic period. Still, in Scandinavia, Vikings were not seen as an accepted part of society. They may even have been considered outlaws - several sources name Vikings in association with Jomsborg or Julin, which, according to modern history, was a refugee center for Slavic pirates, as opposed to the descriptions in the Norse saga.

Viking ships and Viking longships

There were no specific "Viking ships" or "Viking longships"; Vikings used any of the common Scandinavian longships. These boats were identical to those used by the Scandinavian defense fleets, known as the ledung. The term "Viking ships" has entered common usage, however, possibly because of its Romantic associations. It is suspected that most Viking ships had an average length/width ratio of 4.5:1. Scholars also debate whether or not Vikings had cooking fires aboard their ships. There is no evidence connecting any discovered longship to any particular classical Viking raid. Nor has any "Viking" boat construction site, or harbour, been found or excavated. Thus, our knowledge of the actual boats Vikings used is limited.

The Viking Age

See main article Viking Age. The period of North Germanic expansion, usually taken to last from the earliest recorded raids in the 790s until the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, is commonly called the 'Viking Age.' The Vikings may be seen as late joiners in the Migrations period, and thus the period links Late Antiquity with the high Middle Ages. Geographically, a "Viking Age" may be assigned not only to the Scandinavian lands (modern Denmark, and southern Norway and Sweden), but also to territories under North Germanic dominance, mainly the Danelaw, Scotland, the Isle of Man and Ireland. Contemporary with the European Viking Age, the Byzantine Empire experienced the greatest period of stability (circa 800–1071) it would enjoy after the initial wave of Muslim conquests in the mid-seventh century. Viking navigators also opened the road to new lands to the north and to the west, resulting in the colonization of Shetland, Orkney, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, and even a short expedition to Newfoundland, circa 1000 C.E. During three centuries, Vikings appeared along the coasts and rivers of Europe, as raiders, but increasingly also as traders, and even as settlers. From 839, there were Varangian mercenaries in Byzantine service (most famously Harald Hardrada, who campaigned in North Africa and Jerusalem in the 1030s). Important trading ports during the period include Birka, Hedeby, Kaupang, Jorvik, Staraja Ladoga, Novgorod and Kiev. Generally speaking, the Norwegians expanded to the north and west, the Danes to England, settling in the Danelaw, and the Swedes (called the Rus) to the east. But the three nations were not yet clearly separated, and still united by the common Old Norse language. The names of Scandinavian kings are known only for the later part of the Viking Age, and only after the end of the Viking Age did the separate kingdoms acquire a distinct identity as nations, which went hand in hand with their christianization. Thus it may be noted that the end of the Viking Age (9th–11th ct.) for the Scandinavians also marks the start of their relatively brief Middle Ages. :See also: History of Denmark, List of Danish monarchs, History of Iceland, History of Norway, List of Norwegian monarchs, History of Sweden, List of Swedish monarchs. Viking ship Museum of Norway

The Viking invasions: a commercial war?

According to Joel Supéry, the French author of “Le Secret des Vikings”, the Scandinavian attacks against the Frankish Empire were carried out not by raiding adventurers looking for gold and silver but by armies applying a military strategy. In 795 AD, long before the start of the Danish invasion proper in 840, Scandinavians were present in Asturias, on the northern shore of Spain, where they fought with the local king against the Moors. In 799, the Franks attacked them in Noirmoutier ; in 812, a Viking fleet was seen off Perpignan on the Mediterranean Sea. In 816, Northmen were in Pamplona fighting together with a Navarrese army against the Moors. In 823 and 825, their presence was recorded on the Ria Mundaka in Biscaya. According to Supéry, the intention of these Vikings was to create a commercial route to the Mediterranean Sea, then the centre of the world's trade. The main western European trading route between the south and the north was the Rhine-Rhône axis. The Franks initiated a form of commercial blockade in an effort to weaken the Danish kingdom. The Danes therefore decided to create their own route to the south along the Frankish coast. On this route they met the Moors, who were the masters of the Strait of Gibraltar. As this course was deemed too risky, they decided to reach the oriental markets by crossing the Pyrenees, passing through Mundaka (Guernika), Pamplona and then Tortosa, which was the main slave market in Europe. In 840, the Danes began their attacks on the Frankish Empire – not on the Seine but on the Adour. Gascony fell under their complete control as early as 844. The leader of the invasion, Björn Ironside, became the ruler of the area and gave his name to Bayonne (originally "Björnhamn"). Hastein had occupied Noirmoutier in 843. In 845 Asgeir began to settle in Saintonge in Aquitania. Effectively, by 845 all the lands around the Bay of Biscay were under Danish control. The Danish war in the north of France began with two objectives: to weaken the power of King Charles the Bald and to prevent the Franks from attacking in the south. In 858, having crushed the Frankish kingdom, Björn concluded a treaty with Charles the Bald whereby – according to Supéry – the Danes were formally granted all the country south of the river Garonne, an area which was thereafter no longer mentioned in the Frankish annals. In the following year, Björn forced the king of Navarre to make a treaty allowing the Danes to cross Navarre to reach the river Ebro and Tortosa. He then sailed with Hastein to the Mediterranean Sea. While Hastein set about disorganizing trade in the Rhine valley and Italy, Björn attacked Constantinople, after joining up with the Swedish Varyags who had come across Russia. He obtained a commercial treaty from the Byzantine Emperor intended to attract trade away from the Rhône to the Ebro. In 863, Dorestad in Frisia, the Franks' main commercial centre on the Rhine, was definitively destroyed. The first Viking war was over: the Danes had set up a new trade network in place of an older and opposing one. Then a new war began: the Danish chiefs tried to emulate the success of Björn in Gascony and to create their own overseas kingdoms. Northumbria, Mercia, Frisia, Aquitaine, Bretagne and Normandy were all affected by these attempts to found Scandinavian settlements. Gascony stayed under the Vikings’ control for 140 years. Their army was finally defeated in 982 by forces from Gascony, Périgord and Navarre. The Gascons of Nordic origin were allowed to stay in the country which had become rich under their rule, but they were condemned not to mix with other communities, becoming (according to one legend) the despised and ostracized Agotes or Cagots. Yet their continuing presence in the Biscay area may help to explain why the Basques have so many traditions (such as whale hunting) with possible Nordic origins, and perhaps why they are said to have reached America one hundred years before Christopher Colombus.

Decline

After decades of trade and settlement, Christianity was introduced into Scandinavia by the 11th century, and the process of Christianization was mostly completed during the Middle Ages. However, elements of the old faith and secret blóts remained until the 19th century (and played a role in the emergence of Asatru in the mid 20th century). The influence of the Norse, seeing themselves then as part of wider European civilization, as well as technical advances in warfare, made the Viking raids less desirable and less profitable, and eventually the political structures based on them were replaced by structures based more on continental feudalism.

Modern revivals

See also 19th century Viking revival. Early modern publications, dealing with what we now call Viking culture, appeared in the 16th century, e.g. Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus (Olaus Magnus, 1555), and the first edition of the 13th century Gesta Danorum of Saxo Grammaticus in 1514. The pace of publication increased during the 17th century with Latin translations of the Edda (notably Peder Resen's Edda Islandorum of 1665).

Romanticism

According to the Swedish writer, Jan Guillou, the word Viking was popularized, with positive connotations, by Erik Gustaf Geijer in the poem, The Viking, written at the beginning of the 19th century. The word was taken to refer to romanticized, idealized naval warriors, who had very little to do with the historical Viking culture. This renewed interest of Romanticism in the Old North had political implications. A myth about a glorious and brave past was needed to give the Swedes the courage to retake Finland, which had been lost in 1809 during the war between Sweden and Russia. The Geatish Society, of which Geijer was a member, popularized this myth to a great extent. Another author who had great influence on the perception of the Vikings was Esaias Tegnér, another member of the Geatish Society, who wrote a modern version of Friðþjófs saga ins frœkna, which became widely popular in the Nordic countries, the United Kingdom and Germany. A focus for early British enthusiasts was George Hicke, who published a Linguarum vett. septentrionalium thesaurus in 1703–1705. During the 18th century, British interest and enthusiasm for Iceland and Nordic culture grew dramatically, expressed in English translations as well as original poems, extolling Viking virtues and increased interest in anything Runic that could be found in the Danelaw, rising to a peak during Victorian times. Richard Wagner's works are strongly influenced by Norse mythology.

Fascism

The Romanticist heroic Viking ideal and the Wagnerian mythology also appealed to the Germanic supremacist thinkers of Nazi Germany as reflected, for example, in the runic emblem of the SS, the neo-Nazi youth organization Wiking-Jugend, and its Odal rune symbol (see also fascist symbolism).

Living History

Since the 1960s, there has been rising enthusiasm for historical reenactment. While the earliest groups had little claim for historical accuracy, the seriousness and accuracy of re-enactors has increased dramatically during the 1990s, including many re-enactment groups concentrating on an accurate representation of the Viking Age.

Myths about Vikings

1990s

Horned helmets

There is little evidence that the Vikings on any occasion wore horned helmets. Apart from two or three representations of helmets with protrusions that may be either snakes or horns, no depiction of Viking Age warriors' helmets, and no actually preserved helmet, has horns. The idea of horned Viking helmets is, rather, a latter-day myth created by national romantic ideas in Sweden at the end of the 19th century, notably the Geatish Society, blending the Viking Age with glimpses of the Nordic Bronze Age some 2000 years earlier for which actual horned helmets, probably for ceremonial purposes, are attested both in petroglyphs and by actual finds (See Bohuslän [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mhornedhelmet.html]). The cliche was perpetuated by cartoons like Hägar the Horrible and Vicky the Viking.

Skull cups

The use of human skulls as drinking vessels is also unhistorical. The rise of this myth can be traced back to a mistranslation of an Icelandic kenning. In the Latin translation of the Krákumál by Magnús Ólafsson (in Ole Worm's Runer seu Danica literatura antiquissima of 1636), warriors drinking ór bjúgviðum hausa [from the curved branches of skulls, i.e. from horns] were rendered as drinking ex craniis eorum quos ceciderunt [from the skulls of those whom they had slain]. (Scandinavian skalle: skall means simply "shell" or "bowl".) The skull-cup allegation may have some history also in relation with other tribes (see skull cups).

Uncleanliness

skull cups The image of wild-haired, dirty savages, sometimes associated with the Vikings in popular culture, has hardly any base in reality. The Vikings used a variety of tools for personal grooming such as combs, tweezers, razors or specialised "ear spoons". In particular, combs are among the most frequent artifacts from Viking Age graves, and one can conclude that a comb was the personal equipment of every man and woman. The Vikings also used soap, long before it was reintroduced to Europe after the fall of the Byzantine Empire. The Vikings in England even had a particular reputation of excessive cleanliness, due to their custom of bathing once a week, on Saturdays (as opposed to the local Anglo-Saxons). As for the Rus', Ibn Rustah explicitly notes their cleanliness, while Ibn Fadlan is disgusted by the women sharing the same vessel as the men to wash their faces in the morning. Ibn Fadlan's disgust is thus probably motivated by ideas of personal hygiene particular to the Muslim world (for instance, Muslims are required to wash only with running water), while the very example intended to convey the disgusting customs of the Rus' at the same time records that they did in fact wash every morning.

Famous Vikings


- Davidson, H. R. Ellis (1976). T
- Askold and Dir (legendary Varangian conquerors of Kiev)
- Björn Ironside (pillaged in Italy and son of Ragnar Lodbrok)
- Egill Skallagrímsson (popular icelandic warrior and skald, see also Egils saga)
- Erik the Red (discoverer of Greenland)
- Gardar Svavarsson (discoverer of Iceland)
- Guthrum (colonised England)
- Harald Finehair (founder and first king of Norway; some dispute, as part of the etymological dispute discussed above, whether he really merits the label "Viking" at all)
- Harald Hardrada (king of Norway and member of the Varangian Guard)
- Ingvar the Far-Travelled (the leader of the last great Swedish viking expedition, which pillaged the shores of the Caspian Sea).
- Ivar the Boneless (disabled son of Ragnar Lodbrok who, despite having to be carried on a shield, nevertheless conquered York)
- Ingólfur Arnarson (colonised Iceland)
- Leif Eriksson (discoverer of Vinland)
- Oleg of Kiev (conquered Kiev, founded Kievan Rus' and attacked Constantinople)
- Ragnar Lodbrok (captured Paris)
- Rollo of Normandy (founder of Normandy)
- Rurik (founder of the Rus' rule in Eastern Europe)
- Skagul Toste (the first Viking to exact the Danegeld)
- Styrbjörn Sterki (conqueror of Jomsborg)
- Thorfinn Karlsefni (colonizer of Vinland) - Source: “Famous Vikings of Northern Europe by Harmondsworth: Penguin. New edition 1990 by Penguin Books. ISBN 0140206701.

Books

Vikings, and Viking inspired societies have appeared in a number of works of fiction, including:
- The Last Light of the Sun by Guy Gavrieal Kay.

Movies


- The Vikings (1958)
- The Longships (1963)
- Island at the Top of the World (1974)
- The Norseman (1978)
- Erik the Viking (1989)
- The 13th Warrior (1999)
- Beowulf & Grendel (2005)
- Beowulf (In production)
- The Northmen (In production)

See also:

Culture


- Blót
- Old Norse poetry
- Norse mythology
- Norse sagas
- Norse art
- Skald

Historians


- Adam of Bremen
- Saxo Grammaticus
- Snorri Sturluson

Archaeology


- Birka
- Danelaw
- Hedeby
- Helgö
- Hill forts, Viking ring castles
- L'Anse aux Meadows
- Leidang
- Old Uppsala
- Temple at Uppsala
- Tollund Man
- Viking Age arms and armour
- Visby lenses

Popular Culture


- Monty Python's "Spam Song"

Bibliography


- Brøndsted, Johannes (1960). The Vikings, trans. Kalle Skov. Harmondsworth: Penguin. New translation 1965. ISBN 0140204598.
- Davidson, H. R. Ellis (1964). Gods and Myths he Viking Road to Byzantium. London: Allen and Unwin. ISBN 0049400495.
- Foote, Peter G., and David M. Wilson (1970) The Viking Achievement
- Graham-Campbell, J. (date?). The Viking World.
- Jones, Gwyn (1984). A History of the Vikings
- Magnusson, Magnus (1980). Vikings!
- Roesdahl, Else (date?). Viking Age Denmark.
- Sawyer, P. H. (date?). Medieval Scandinavia
- Sawyer, P. H. (1997). The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings
- Sawyer, P. H. (1962). The Age of the Vikings
- Wilson, David M. (1970) The Vikings and their Origens
- Wilson, David M. (1980) The Northern World

External links


- [http://viking.hgo.se/ Viking heritage] magazine on Viking history
- [http://www.lofotr.no/engelsk/index.htm Lofotr Viking museum]
- [http://www.khm.uio.no/english/viking_ship_museum/index.shtml The Viking ship museum in Oslo]
- [http://www.vikingeskibsmuseet.dk/default.asp?contentSection=2 The Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde]
- [http://www.moesmus.dk/my.php?top=13&language=1 The Moesgård Museum in Århus]
- [http://home.online.no/~joeolavl/viking/index.htm Vikingships and traditional Norse wooden boats]
- [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/vikings/ PBS NOVA: The Vikings]
- [http://www.lost-civilizations.net/vikings-isle-man-leif-eriksson.html Vikings - Isle of Man ~ Leif Eriksson]
- [http://www.sobresites.com.br/vikings Vikings in portuguese, Brazil site] Category:Viking Age Category:History of the Germanic peoples Category:Warriors Category:History of Europe zh-min-nan:Viking-lâng als:Wikinger ko:바이킹 ms:Viking ja:ヴァイキング simple:Vikings

York

:This article is about the historic English city. For other meanings, see York (disambiguation). York is a city in northern England, at the confluence of the Rivers Ouse and Foss. In the 2001 UK census the city had a population of 181,094 [http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/pyramids/pages/00ff.asp], of which 137,505 lived on the York urban area. Its geographic coordinates are . York is the traditional county town of Yorkshire, to which it lends its name. However, it did not form part of any of the three ridings of Yorkshire. The modern City of York, created on April 1, 1996, is a unitary authority and an administrative county in its own right. As well as York itself, it includes a number of neighbouring parishes which formerly belonged to the surrounding districts of Harrogate, Ryedale and Selby. It borders on North Yorkshire and the East Riding of Yorkshire. The city was founded in AD 71, and has a rich Roman and Viking history. The historical aspects of York attract a great deal of tourism. York is home to the University of York. The city sometimes suffers from flooding. It is also claimed to be one of the most haunted cities in Europe. York is twinned with:
- Münster, Germany
- Dijon, France
- Fanteakwa, Ghana

History and tourism

Roman York

York is renowned for its history, which is preserved in its architecture. The city was founded during the reign of Roman Emperor Vespasian in AD 71, and for much of the intervening period has been the principal city of Northern England. Every year, thousands of tourists flock to see the surviving mediaeval buildings, interspersed with Roman and Viking remains. The City Council has 27 Conservation Areas, 2,084 Listed buildings and 20 Scheduled Ancient Monuments in its care. For the Romans, York the celtic Eboracum was a major military base; Emperor Septimius Severus died there in AD 211, and Constantius Chlorus, the father of Constantine I, died there in 306. York is also the city in which Constantine's troops proclaimed him emperor. Substantial Roman remains were discovered under the Minster and a re-erected Roman column now stands on nearby Deangate. Other sites of excavated remains include a Roman bath, located under a pub in St Sampson's Square, a Roman temple, near the foot of Lendal Bridge, and the site of a Roman bridge over the River Ouse. Outside the city walls are the remains of substantial Roman cemeteries. A large number of Roman finds are now housed in the Yorkshire Museum. Anglian York was firstly capital of Deira, before shifting to control of a united kingdom and later earldom of Northumbria. Paulinus of York brought Christianity to the region in the early 7th century with the conversion of King Edwin of Northumbria and the first Minster is believed to have been built in 627, although the location of the early Minster is a matter of dispute. York became a centre of learning, its most famous scholar being Alcuin.

Viking York

:For Viking York, see Jorvik. A "great Viking army" captured York in AD 866, and in 876 the Vikings settled permanently in parts of the Yorkshire countryside. Viking kings ruled this area, known to historians as "The Viking Kingdom of Jorvik", for almost a century. In 954 the last Viking king, Eric Bloodaxe, was expelled and his kingdom was incorporated in the newly consolidated Anglo-Saxon state. Another renowned scholar of this era was Wulfstan II, Archbishop of York.

Mediaeval York

Wulfstan II, Archbishop of York Following the Norman Conquest of 1066, York was substantially damaged by the punitive harrying of the north (1069) launched by William the Conqueror in response to regional revolt. Two castles were erected in the city on either side of the River Ouse. In time York became an important urban centre as the administrative centre of the county of Yorkshire, as the seat of an archbishop, and at times in the later 13th and 14th century as an alternative seat of royal government. It was an important trading centre. Several religious houses were founded following the Conquest, including St Mary's Abbey and Holy Trinity Priory. The city as a possession of the crown also came to house a substantial Jewish community under the protection of the sheriff. On March 16, 1190 a mob of townsfolk forced the Jews in York to flee into the wooden castle, which was under the control of the sheriff. The castle was set on fire and the Jews were massacred. It is likely that various local magnates who were indebted to the Jews helped instigate this massacre or, at least, did nothing to prevent it. Commemoration of the York massacre passed into the Jewish liturgy and until 1990 orthodox Judaism forbade Jews from living within the city. York prospered during much of the later mediaeval era and this is reflected in the built environment. York Minster is the largest mediaeval cathedral in England and one of the largest gothic churches in Europe. The mediaeval city walls, with their entrance gates, known as bars, encompassed virtually the entire city and survive to this day. The city was also designated as a county corporate, giving it effective county status. county corporate The later years of the 14th and the earlier years of the 15th centuries were characterised by particular prosperity. It is in this period that the regular cycle of religious pageants (or plays) associated with the Corpus Christi cycle and performed by the various craft guilds grew up. Among the more important personages associated with this period was Nicholas Blackburn senior, Lord Mayor in 1412 and a leading merchant. He is depicted in glass in the (now) east window of All Saints' Church in North Street. The period from the later 15th century seems to have witnessed economic contraction and a dwindling in York's regional importance. The construction of the city's new guildhall around the middle of the century can be seen as an attempt to project civic confidence in the face of growing uncertainty. Dating from the later mediaeval era, and now a popular tourist attraction, is the Shambles, an old street with overhanging timber-built shops, now occupied by souvenir shops as opposed to the original butchers. York is also home to numerous Ghost Walks and also a favourite venue for hen parties.

18th Century York

York elected two members to the Unreformed House of Commons.

Modern York

Unreformed House of Commons] As well as a tourist destination, modern York is a centre of communications, education and manufacturing. It is a major railway junction, situated on the East Coast, Cross Country and Transpennine mainlines. York is also a major venue for horse racing at York Racecourse in the Knavesmire area. York is the headquarters of the confectionary manufacturer Nestlé Rowntree, and home to the KitKat, Smarties and eponymous Yorkie bar chocolate brands. Until 2005, the Terry's of York chocolate factory, makers of the Chocolate Orange, was also located in the city; but closed on 30 September 2005, moving production to Poland. However, the historic factory building can still be seen, situated next to the Knavesmire race course. The city hosts a university (the University of York), a higher education college (York St John College) and a branch of the College of Law. The City's football team (York City) was relegated from the Football League to the Nationwide Conference at the end of the 2003/4 season. York also has a rugby league side, York City Knights. The York area is served by a local newspaper, the Yorkshire Evening Press. Yorkshire Evening Press York is also noted for its wealth of pubs. The York area is said to contain one pub for every day of the year, although this is a little exaggerated. It is said, with perhaps a touch of poetic licence, that there is no point within the city walls where one can stand and not be able to see at least one pub and at least one church. The city is prone to severe flooding from the River Ouse, and has an extensive (but not always effective) network of flood defences. These include walls along the Ouse and a barrier across the Foss (see River Foss). Much land within the city has always been too flood-prone for development. Partly as a result of this, there is an unusual amount of green space. The ings are flood meadows along the River Ouse, while the strays are scattered around the city in marshy, low-lying places; another such area is the Knavesmire. In summer, when they are drier, these areas are used for recreation, and some are grazed by cattle.

Etymology

This city was originally named by the Celts as Eborakon, which means "place of yew trees". The name of the Yew is Efrawg in Brythonic, Efwr in Welsh, Iobhar in Irish Gaelic, Iorc in Scottish Gaelic, Evor in Breton and was Eburos in Gaulic. As York was a town in Roman times, its Celtic name is recorded in Roman sources, as Eboracum and Eburacum, with the ending -acumLatinized instead of -acon in celtic. After 400 AD Anglo-Saxons took over the area and adapted the name by folk etymology to Old English Eoforwīc, which means "wild-boar town". The Proto-Germanic form of Old English eofor is
- eburaz. York became Northumbria's centre of power later on. The Vikings took over the area later; who in turn adapted the name by folk etymology to Norse Jórvík meaning "horse bay", like a town in Bohuslän at the time, which was reduced to York in the centuries after the Norman Conquest.

York and Quakers

Norman Conquest York has a long association with the Religious Society of Friends. The York-born Quaker chocolate entrepreneurs and social reformers Joseph Rowntree and Benjamin Seebohm Rowntree left an indelible mark on the city, through both their business interests and their philanthropy. They built the village of New Earswick to provide quality affordable housing for their employees. They also founded two Quaker schools, Bootham and The Mount, and contributed in large part to the building of York Public Library and the creation of Rowntree Park. The four Rowntree trusts, funded from the Rowntree legacies, are based in York. The Retreat is a large Quaker mental hospital in the Walmgate area of the city. It was founded in 1796 by William Tuke; over the next century his son Henry Tuke, grandson Samuel Tuke and great-grandson Daniel Hack Tuke also devoted themselves to mental health reform, continuing to reform The Retreat and publishing a number of works on the subject. Another notable York Quaker was the sculptor Austin Wright.

Places of interest (City Centre)


- The Shambles (York), York's best-preserved medieval street
- Past Images, Period Costume Photography - be transformed into a Viking, Victorian or Medieval period Past Images Past Images
- Archaelogical Resource Centre
- Assembly Rooms, a grand Palladian public space designed by Lord Burlington, 1731–32, lies behind a rebuilt 19th century facade.
- Bar Convent Museum
- Barley Hall
- Clifford's Tower
- Jorvik, The Viking City
- The King's Manor
- Merchant Adventurers' Hall
- Micklegate Bar Museum
- National Railway Museum
- National Centre for Early Music, home of the York Early Music Festival [http://www.ncem.co.uk/yemf.shtml]
- Saint Mary's Abbey
- Treasurer's House
- York Castle Museum
- York City Art Gallery
- York City Walls (Including Monk Bar Museum)
- York Dungeon
- York Minster
- Yorkshire Museum
- Askham Bogs
- Askham Bryan Hall
- Bishopthorpe Palace, home to the Archbishop of York
- Elvington Hall
- Heslington Hall
- The Knavesmire
- Middlethorpe Hall, Middlethorpe Manor
- Osbaldwick Hall
- Skelton Hall, Skelton Manor
- Vale of York
- York Racecourse
- Yorkshire Air Museum, Elvington
- Yorkshire Museum of Farming, Murton

Districts, towns, villages


- Acaster Malbis, Acomb, Askham Bryan, Askham Richard
- Bishopthorpe, Bootham
- Clifton, Copmanthorpe, Crockey Hill
- Deighton
- Derwenthorpe (proposed new village)
- Dringhouses
- Dunnington
- Elvington
- Fishergate, Fulford
- Haxby, Heslington, Hessay, Heworth, Holgate, Holtby, Huntington
- Layerthorpe
- Kexby, Knapton
- Middlethorpe, Moor End, Murton
- Naburn, Nether Poppleton, New Earswick
- Osbaldwick
- Rawcliffe, Rufforth
- Skelton, Stockton-on-the-Forest, Strensall, South Bank
- Tang Hall, Towthorpe
- Upper Poppleton
- West Huntington, Wheldrake, Wigginton, Woodthorpe

Notable People from York

Individuals


- Mark Addy (b. 1964) (actor)
- Alcuin (c. 735-804) (Christian scholar)
- Kate Atkinson (b. 1951) (author)
- W. H. Auden (1907-1973) (poet)
- John Barry (b. 1933)) (composer)
- David Bradley (b. 1942) (actor)
- Michael Burns (actor)
- Vincent Cable (b. 1943) (politician)
- Judi Dench (b. 1934) (actress)
- Frank Dobson (b. 1940) (politician)
- Keith Drinkel (b. 1944) (actor)
- John Earle (c. 1601-1665) (clergyman and author)
- William Etty (1787-1849) (painter)
- Guy Fawkes (1570-1606) (Catholic conspirator involved in the Gunpowder Plot)
- John Flaxman (1755-1826) (sculptor and draughtsman)
- Christopher Hill (1912-2003) (Marxist historian)
- Frankie Howerd (1917-1992) (comedy actor)
- Francis Mason (1799-1874) (American missionary)
- Thomas Morton (1564-1659) (clergyman)
- Xavier Pick (b. 1972) (artist)
- Benjamin Seebohm Rowntree (1871-1954) (chocolate entrepreneur and social reformers)
- Joseph Rowntree (1836-1925) (chocolate entrepreneur and philanthropist)
- John Snow (1813-1858) (pioneer of epidemiology and anaesthesia)
- William Hepworth Thompson (1810-1886) (classical scholar)
- Henry Scott Tuke (1858-1929) (painter)
- James Hack Tuke (1819-1896) (campaigner for famine relief and social reform in Ireland)
- William Tuke (1732-1822), Henry Tuke (1755-1814), Samuel Tuke (1784-1857) and Daniel Hack Tuke (1827-1895) (campaigners for the humane treatment of the insane)

Groups


- Farrah (indie pop/rock group)
- The Mood (1980s band)
- Shed Seven (indie rock group)

See also


- Bridges of York
- Prince Andrew
- Duke of York
- Princess Beatrice of York
- Princess Eugenie of York
- York Student Television

External links

Guides and maps


-
- [http://www.york-tourism.co.uk York Tourism]
- [http://www.theyorkguide.co.uk Eating Out, Bars, Pubs & Shops in York.]

Local media


- [http://www.thisisyork.co.uk/ York Evening Press] local newspaper site, including news, sport, information & classified advertising
- [http://ystv.york.ac.uk York Student Television]
- [http://www.regiochannel.co.uk/york/index.html Websites from York by category]
- [http://www.locationyork.co.uk/ Location York] York news stories submitted by site members, with message boards and image gallery.

Academic


- [http://www.york.ac.uk The University of York]
- [http://www.yorksj.ac.uk York St John College]
- [http://www.ncem.co.uk/welcome.shtml The National Centre for Early Music]

History


- [http://www.yorkhistory.com Timeline of York's history and a few articles.]

Photos and images


- [http://library.york.gov.uk/uhtbin/cgisirsi/x/YORKIMAGES/0/57/49?user_id=YORKIMAGES Imagine York: Historic Photographs] Online Council Library Archive of historic photographs of York, searchable by keyword.
- [http://www.yorkstories.co.uk/index.htm York Stories:] photo essays of walks in York, emphasizing architecture
- [http://www.freewebs.com/huntingtonchurch/index.htm Photographs of All Saints Church at Huntington, north of York.]
- [http://www.freewebs.com/imagesofyork/index.htm Images of York] Category:Local government districts of North Yorkshire Category:North Yorkshire Category:Cities in England Category:Cities in Yorkshire Category:English county towns Category:Railway towns in England Category:Unitary authorities in England simple:York

East Anglia

, the core area of East Anglia. Cambridgeshire is to the west and Essex to the south.]] East Anglia is a region of eastern England, named after one of the ancient Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, which was named after the homeland of the Angles, Angeln in northern Germany. The kingdom consisted of Norfolk and Suffolk but the region's boundaries are vague. It includes the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, with part or all of the pre-April 1 1974 Cambridgeshire. Some people include Essex - sometimes only the northern part thereof - and a small part of southern Lincolnshire bordering The Wash. Some of the area is characterised by its flatness, consisting of fenland and reclaimed marshland, though much of Suffolk comprises gently rolling hills. East Anglia forms part of the East of England administrative region. administrative region Arable farming and horticulture have proven very successful in this fertile country. The landscape has been heavily influenced by Dutch technology, from the influx of clay pantiles to the draining of the fens. It has a wide range of small-scale holiday destinations ranging from traditional coastal resorts, through historic towns such as Bury St Edmunds, Cambridge and Ely to the modern holiday villas of Center Parcs set in Thetford Forest. The Royal Air Force constructed many airfields during World War II and a few of these remain in use. One, near Norwich, has become Norwich International Airport, a civilian airfield to serve the city. The Norfolk Broads, now part of The Broads National Park, form a network of waterways between Norwich and the coast and are popular for recreational boating. The University of East Anglia lies a few miles west of Norwich. Norwich is the largest city in East Anglia, but the East of England regional assembly is based in Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk.

History

The Kingdom of the East Angles, formed about the year 520 by the merging of the North and the South Folk, was one of the seven Anglo-Saxon heptarchy kingdoms (as defined in the 12th century writings of Henry of Huntingdon). For a brief period following a victory over the rival kingdom of Northumbria around the year 616, East Anglia was the most powerful of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England, and its king Raedwald was Bretwalda. But this did not last: over the next forty years, East Anglia was defeated by the Mercians three times, and it continued to weaken relative to the other kingdoms until in 794, Offa of Mercia had its king Aethelbert killed and took control of the kingdom himself. The independence of the East Anglians was restored by a successful rebellion against Mercia (825 - 827), in course of which two Mercian kings were killed attempting to crush it. On November 20, 870 the Danes killed King Edmund and took the Kingdom, which they named East Anglia (see Ivar the Boneless). The Saxons retook the area in 920, only to lose it again in 1015-1017, when it was conquered by Canute the Great and given as a fiefdom in 1017 to Thorkel the High. Much of East Anglia (including parts of Cambridgeshire, Lincolnshire, west Norfolk, and Suffolk), consisted of marshland and bogs until the 17th century despite the construction of early sea barriers by the Roman Empire. During the 17th century the alluvial land was converted into arable land by means of systematic drainage using a collection of drains and river diversions.

See also


- Kings of East Anglia

References

Category:Anglo-Saxon England Category:Regions of England ja:イースト・アングリア

Kingdom of Northumbria

Northumbria is primarily the name of an Anglian kingdom which was formed in Great Britain at the beginning of the 7th century, and of the much smaller earldom which succeeded the kingdom. The name reflects that of the southern limit to the kingdom's territory, which was the River Humber, and in the 12th century writings of Henry of Huntingdon the kingdom was defined as one of the Heptarchy of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. At its greatest the kingdom extended from the Humber to the Forth. The later earldom was bounded by the River Tees in the south and the River Tweed in the north (broadly similar to the modern North East England) and was recognised as part of England by the Anglo-Scottish Treaty of York in 1237. Berwick-upon-Tweed, which is north of the Tweed, was defined as subject to the laws of England by the Wales and Berwick Act of 1746 and is administered now as a part of the county of Northumberland and the region of North East England. The name appears also in the titles of today's Northumbria Police (which covers Northumberland and Tyne and Wear), Northumbria University (which has campuses in Newcastle upon Tyne, Morpeth, and Carlisle), and Northumbrian Water (which serves the region of North East England), and the name has been adopted by the English Tourist Board as a name for the region.

History

Northumbria was originally composed of the union of two independent kingdoms, Bernicia and Deira. Bernicia covered lands north of the Tees, whilst Deira corresponded roughly to modern-day Yorkshire. Bernicia and Deira were first united by Aethelfrith, a king of Bernicia who conquered Deira around the year 604. He was defeated and killed around the year 616 in battle at the River Idle by Raedwald of East Anglia, who installed Edwin, the son of Aella, a former king of Deira, as king. Edwin, who accepted Christianity in 627, soon grew to become the most powerful king in England: he was recognized as Bretwalda and conquered the Isle of Man and Gwynedd in northern Wales. He was, however, himself defeated by an alliance of the exiled king of Gwynedd, Cadwallon ap Cadfan and Penda, king of Mercia, at the Battle of Hatfield Chase in 633.

King Oswald

After Edwin's death, Northumbria was split between Bernicia, where Eanfrith, a son of Aethelfrith, took power, and Deira, where a cousin of Edwin, Osric, became king. Both of these rulers were killed during the year that followed, as Cadwallon continued his devastating invasion of Northumbria. After the murder of Eanfrith, his brother, Oswald, backed by a force of Scots sent by Domnal of Dalriada, defeated and killed Cadwallon at the Battle of Heavenfield in 634. King Oswald re-introduced Christianity to the Kingdom, but this time, by appointing St Aidan, an Irish monk from the Scottish island of Iona to convert his people. This led to the introduction of Celtic Christianity, as opposed to Roman Catholicism. A monastery was established on Lindisfarne, probably as an echo of the island monastery of Iona. War with Mercia continued, however. In 642, Oswald was killed by the Mercians under Penda at the Battle of Maserfield. In 655, Penda launched a massive invasion of Northumbria, aided by the sub-king of Deira, Aethelwald, but suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of an inferior force under Oswiu, Oswald's successor, at the Battle of Winwaed. This battle marked a major turning point in Northumbrian fortunes: Penda died in the battle, and Oswiu gained supremacy over Mercia, making himself the most powerful king in England.

Religious Union and the Loss of Mercia

In the year 664 a great synod was held at Whitby to discuss the controversy regarding the timing of the Easter festival. Much dispute had arisen between the practices of the Celtic church in Northumbria and the beliefs of the Roman church. Eventually, Northumbria was persuaded to move to the Roman faith, the Celtic Bishop Colman of Lindisfarne returned to Iona. Northumbria lost control of Mercia in the late 650s, after a successful revolt under Penda's son Wulfhere, but it retained its dominant position until it suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Picts at the Battle of Nechtansmere in 685; Northumbria's king, Ecgfrith (son of Oswiu), was killed, and its power in the north was gravely weakened. The peaceful reign of Aldfrith, Ecgfrith's half-brother and successor, did something to limit the damage done, but it is from this point that Northumbria's power began to decline, and chronic instability followed Aldfrith's death in 704.

The kingdom's rise and fall

The kingdom was famed as a centre of religious learning and arts. Initially the Northumbria was Christianised by monks from the Celtic Church, and this led to a flowering of monastic life, with a unique style of religious art that combined Anglo-Saxon and Celtic. After the Synod of Whitby in 664 the Celtic and Catholic Churches united. However the unique style was preserved, with its most famous example being the Lindisfarne Gospels. Viking and Scots invasions further reduced Northumbria to an earldom stretching from the Tees to the Tweed, and Northumbria was for a long time in territory where sovereinty was disputed between the emerging nation states of England and Scotland. The Earls of Northumbria maintained a degree of independence from both, but there were lengthy periods of fighting over control of the earldom.

Norman invasion and partition of the earldom

William the Conqueror became king of England in 1066. He soon realised he needed to control Northumbria, which had remained virtually independent of the Kings of England, to protect his kingdom from Scottish invasion. To acknowledge the remote independence of Northumbria and ensure England was properly defended from the Scots William gained the allegiance of both the Bishop of Durham and the Earl and confirmed their powers and privileges. However, anti-Norman rebellions followed. William therefore attempted to install Robert Comine, a Norman noble, as the Earl of Northumbria, but before Comine could take up office, he and his 700 men were massacred in the City of Durham. In revenge, the Conqueror led his army in a bloody raid into Northumbria, an event that became known as the Harrying of the North. Aethelwine, the Anglo-Saxon Bishop of Durham, tried to flee Northumbria at the time of the raid, with Northumbrian treasures. The bishop was caught, imprisoned, and later died in confinement; his see was left vacant. Rebellions continued, and William's son William Rufus decided to partition Northumbria. William St Carileph was made Bishop of Durham, and was also given the powers of Earl for the region south of the Rivers Tyne and Derwent, which became the County Palatinate of Durham. The remainder, to the north of the rivers, became Northumberland, where the political powers of the Bishops of Durham were limited to only certain districts, and the earls continued to rule as clients of the English throne. The city of Newcastle was founded by the Normans in 1080 to control the region by holding the strategically important crossing point of the river Tyne.

Middle Ages

The region continued to have history of revolt and rebellion against the government, as seen in the Rising of the North in Tudor times. A major reason was the strength of Catholicism in the area after the Reformation. In later times this led to strong Jacobite feelings after the Restoration. The region became a sort of wild county, where outlaws and border reivers hid from the law, as it was largely rural and unpopulated. However, after the union of the crowns of Scotland and England under King James VI and I peace was largely restored.
- St. Cuthbert
- Lindisfarne Gospels
- Norman Conquest

Flag

Norman Conquest The flag of the Kingdom was a banner of gold and red (or purple) vertical stripes. A modern version of this flag is used quite widely throughout the region (see picture).

Language

Apart from standard English, Northumbria has a series of closely related but distinctive dialects, descended from the early Germanic languages of the Angles and Vikings, and of the Celtic Romano-British tribes. Early Northumbrian is regarded as the forerunner of the Scots Language, which was called Ynglis as late as the early 16th century. (Until the end of the 15th century the name Scots (or Scottis) referred to Scottish Gaelic). There are many similarities between modern Scots (Ynglis) dialects and those of Northumbria. Three major Northumbrian dialects are Geordie, Mackem and Pitmatic. To an outsider's ear the similarities far outweigh the differences between the dialects. There is a good explanation of the Geordie dialect in the relevant Wikipedia entry. As an example of the difference in the softer County Durham/Wearside the English 'book' is pronounced 'bewk', in Geordie it becomes 'buuk' while in the Northumbrian it is 'byuk'. Due to the roots of the Northumbrian (Geordie) dialect, it is often said that visitors from Scandinavian countries often find it much easier to understand the English of Northumbria than the rest of the country.

See also


- Northumberland
- History of Northumberland
- List of monarchs of Northumbria
- Northumbrian Small Pipes
- Northumbrian Tartan

External links


- [http://www.northumbriana.org.uk/langsoc/home.htm Northumbrian Language Society]
- [http://www.northumbrianassociation.co.uk/ Northumbrian Association]
- [http://www.lowlands-l.net Lowlands-L, An e-mail discussion list for those who share an interest in the languages & cultures of the Lowlands]
- [http://www.lowlands-l.net/index.php?page=northumbrian Lowlands-L in Nothumbrian]
- [http://www.birchmore.clara.net/ Northumbrian Traditional Music]
- [http://www.nspipes.co.uk/nsp/ Northumbrian Small Pipes Encylopedia] Category:Northumberland Category:History of Northumberland Category:Anglo-Saxon England Category:Regions of England Category:Former monarchies ja:ノーサンブリア

Deira

Deira is also the ancient name of Ossett, Yorkshire, England, birthplace of South African astronomer Cyril V. Jackson. ---- Deira (from the Brythonic kingdom of Deifr, meaning "waters") was a kingdom in England during the 6th century AD. It later merged with the kingdom of Bernicia (Brythonic, Brynaich) to the north to form the kingdom of Northumbria. According to Simeon of Durham it extended from the Humber to the Tyne, but the land was waste north of the Tees. York was the capital of its kings. The first Anglian king of whom we have any record is Ælla, who flourished in the later 6th century after conquering the realm from the Britons in 581. After his death, Deira was subject to king Æthelfrith of Bernicia, who united the two kingdoms into Northumbria. Æthelfrith ruled until the accession of Ælla's son Edwin, in 616 or 617, who also ruled both kingdoms until 633. Osric, the nephew of Edwin, ruled Deira after Edwin, but his son Oswine was put to death by Oswiu in 651. For a few years subsequently Deira was governed by Aethelwald son of Oswald. Bede wrote of Deira in his Historia Ecclesiastica. For a list of the kings of Deira, see: List of monarchs of Northumbria. Category:Anglo-Saxon England Category:History of Yorkshire Category:History of Northumberland

Bernicia

Bernicia (originally called in Brythonic, "Brynaich" or "Bryneich") was a British kingdom in northern England which was invaded by Angles during the 6th and 7th centuries AD and renamed by them Bernicia. It later merged with the kingdom of Deira to form the kingdom of Northumbria. Its territory is said to have stretched from it's border with Ebrauc (later called Deira) on the Tyne northwards, ultimately reaching the Firth of Forth, while its western frontier was gradually extended westward, encroaching on the remaining Cumbric speaking kingdoms of Rheged, Gododdin and Strathclyde. Thus, English Bernicia became not only part of England's far north, but also much of the southeast of Scotland, from Edinburgh south. After Bryneichs conquest by the Angles in 547 it is thought that only a small proportion of the original Welsh/Brythonic population remained, mainly in the uplands. This led to Bernicia's contribution of the English as one of the four major ethnic groups of what later became Scotland; they are dominant in the heavily populated Scotch lowlands. Further, since those who emigrated to Northern Ireland came from the borderlands of England and Scotland, the Protestants there are predominantly English in ethnicity. The chief royal residence was Bamburgh (known as Din Guardi in Brythonic), and near it was the island of Lindisfarne (formerly known as Ynys Metcaut), which became the seat of a bishop. The Brythonic kingdom of Bryneich was formed by the division of the great northern realm of King Coel Hen between his sons in c.420AD. The kingdom was ruled from Din Guardi under his descendants until it's last king was dispossessed and driven north into the Gododdin in 547. The first Anglian king of whom we have any record is Ida, who is said to have obtained the throne about 547. Aethelfrith, king of Bernicia, united Deira with his own kingdom around the year 604 and ruled the two kingdoms (united as the kingdom of Northumbria) until he was defeated and killed by Raedwald of East Anglia (who had given refuge to Edwin, son of Aella, king of Deira) around the year 616. Edwin then became king. Following the disastrous Battle of Hatfield Chase on October 12, 633, in which Edwin was defeated and killed by Cadwallon ap Cadfan of Gwynedd and Penda of Mercia, Northumbria again was divided into Bernicia and Deira. Bernicia was then briefly ruled by Eanfrith, son of Aethelfrith, but after about a year he went to Cadwallon to sue for peace and was killed. Eanfrith's brother Oswald then raised an army and finally defeated Cadwallon at the Battle of Heavenfield in 634; after this victory, he reunited Deira with Bernicia. The kings of Bernicia were thereafter supreme in Northumbria, although Deira had its own sub-kings at times during the reigns of Oswiu and his son Ecgfrith.

Kings of Bryneich


- Garbanion ap Coel Hen (c.420 - c.445AD)
- Dyfnwal Moelmud ap Garbanion
- Cyngar ap Dyfnwal
- Bran Hen ap Dyfnwal (c.492 - c.518)
- Cuncar ap Dyfnwal
- Morcant Bulc ap Cuncar (c.560 - c.595)
- Coledauc ap Morcant (c.595 - c.610)
- Morcant II ap Coledauc (c.610 - c.620)

Kings of Bernicia


- Ida son of Eoppa (547 - 559)
- Glappa son of Ida (559 - 560)
- Adda son of Ida (560 - 568)
- Æðelric son of Ida (568 - 572)
- Þeodric son of Ida (572 - 579)
- Friþuwald (579 - 585)
- Hussa (585 - 593)
- Æðelfriþ (593 - 616) Under Deiran rule 616 - 633
- Eanfriþ son of Æðelfriþ (633 - 634)
- Oswald son of Æðelfriþ (634 - 642)
- Oswiu (642 - 670) United with Deira to form Northumbria from 634. Bede wrote about Bernicia in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum. Category:Anglo-Saxon England Category:Former countries Category:Post-Roman Scotland Category:History of Northumberland

Mercia

Mercia, sometimes spelled Mierce, was one of the kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy, in what is now England, in the region of the Midlands, with its heart in the valley of the River Trent and its tributary streams. Mercia's neighbours included Northumbria, Powys, the kingdoms of southern Wales, Wessex, Sussex, Essex, and East Anglia. The term survives today in the name of the West Mercia Constabulary and also in the new British Army infantry regiment, the Mercian Regiment. Mercia's exact evolution from the Anglo-Saxon invasions is more obscure than that of Northumbria, Kent, or even Wessex. Archeological surveys show that Angles settled the lands north of the River Thames by the sixth century. The name Mercia is Old English for "boundary folk" (see marches), and the traditional interpretation was that the kingdom originated along the frontier between the Welsh and the Anglo-Saxon invaders, although P. Hunter Blair has argued an alternative interpretation that they emerged along the frontier between the kingdom of Northumbria and the inhabitants of the Trent river valley. The earliest known king of Mercia was named Creoda, said to have been the great-grandson of Icel. He came to power about 585 and was succeeded by his son Pybba in 593. Cearl, a kinsman of Creoda, followed Pybba in 606; in 615, Cearl gave his daughter Cwenburga in marriage to Edwin, king of Deira whom he had sheltered while he was an exiled prince. The next Mercian king was Penda, who ruled from about 626 or 633 until 655. Some of what is known about Penda comes through the hostile account of Bede, who disliked him both for being an enemy king to Bede's own Northumbria, but also for being a pagan. However, Bede admits that it was Penda who freely allowed Christian missionaries from Lindisfarne into Mercia, and did not restrain them from preaching. After a reign of successful battles against all opponents, Penda was defeated and killed at the Battle of Winwaed by the Northumbrian king Oswiu in 655. The battle led to a temporary collapse of Mercian power. Penda was succeeded first by his son Peada, but in the spring of 656 Oswiu assumed control of the whole of Mercia after Peada's murder. A revolt in 658 resulted in the appearance of another son of Penda, Wulfhere, who ruled Mercia until his death in 675. Wulfhere was initially successful in restoring the power of Mercia, but the end of his reign saw a serious defeat against Northumbria. The next two kings, Aethelred and Cenred son of Wulfhere, are better known for their religious activities; the king who succeeded them (in 709), Ceolred, is said in a letter of Saint Boniface to have been a dissolute youth who died insane. So ended the rule of the direct descendants of Penda. At some point before the accession of Æthelbald, the Mercians conquered the region around Wroxeter, known to the Welsh as "The Paradise of Powys." Elegies written in the persona of its dispossessed rulers record the sorrow at this loss. The next important king of Mercia was Æthelbald (716 - 757). For the first few years of his reign, he had to face the obstacles of two strong rival kings, Wihtred of Kent and Ine of Wessex. But when Wihtred died in 725, and Ine abdicated his throne the following year to become a monk in Rome, Æthelbald was free to establish Mercia's hegemony over the rest of the Anglo-Saxons south of the