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Joseph Nicephore Niepce

Joseph Nicephore Niepce

Joseph Nicéphore Niépce (March 7, 1765 – July 5, 1833) was a French inventor, most noted as a pioneer in photography. His surname is often spelled Niepce (without the accent) even in French, and this may in fact be a more correct version. It is also occasionally seen as Nièpce, but this seems to be an error. He also worked on improved designs of pumps and early internal combustion engines. He was born in Chalon-sur-Saône. The first successful permanent photograph was produced by Niépce. He began experimenting with processes to set optical images in 1793. Some of his early experiments produced images, but they faded rapidly. He was said to have first produced long lasting images in 1824. The earliest known surviving example of a Niépce photograph (or any other photograph) was created in June or July of 1827 (or 1826, according to some sources). Niépce called his process "heliography", meaning "sun writing". It was a slow process which required perhaps some 8 hours of bright sunlight to affix the image; therefore it was used to photograph buildings and inanimate objects, but could not be used to photograph people. Starting in 1829 he began collaborating on improved photographic processes with Louis Daguerre. Niépce died suddenly of a stroke in 1833. As of 2004 Niépce's photograph, View from the Window at Le Gras, is on display in the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin.

External link

- [http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/permanent/wfp/ University of Texas exhibition site on "The First Photograph"] Niépce, Nicéphore Niépce, Nicéphore Niépce, Nicéphore Niépce, Nicéphore Niépce, Nicéphore

March 7

March 7 is the 66th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (67th in Leap years). There are 299 days remaining.

Events

- 161 - Roman emperor Antoninus Pius dies and is succeeded by co-Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, an unprecedented political arrangement in the Roman Empire.
- 1798 - The French army enters in Rome: the birth of the Roman Republic
- 1799 - Napoleon I of France captures Jaffa in Palestine and his troops proceed to kill more than 2,000 Albanian captives.
- 1814 - Napoleon wins the Battle of Craonne.
- 1827 - Shrigley Abduction: Ellen Turner, a wealthy heiress in Cheshire, England is abducted by Edward Gibbon Wakefield, the future politician in colonial New Zealand.
- 1848 - The Great mahele (land division) is signed in Hawaii.
- 1850 - United States Senator Daniel Webster gives his "Seventh of March" speech in which he endorses the Compromise of 1850 in order to prevent a possible civil war.
- 1862 - American Civil War: Battle of Pea Ridge - Union forces led by General Samuel Curtis defeat Confederate troops under General Earl Van Dorn at Pea Ridge in northwestern Arkansas.
- 1876 - Alexander Graham Bell is granted a patent for an invention he calls the telephone (patent # 174,464).
- 1911 - Revolution in Mexico.
- 1912 - Roald Amundsen first announces to the world that his expedition has reached the South Pole, though they had arrived on December 14, 1911.
- 1918 - World War I: Finland forms an alliance with Germany.
- 1936 - World War II: In violation of the Locarno Pact and the Treaty of Versailles, Germany reoccupies the Rhineland.
- 1945 - World War II: American troops seize the bridge over the Rhine River at Remagen, Germany and begin to cross.
- 1947 - The Kuomintang and Communist Party of China resume full-fledged Civil War.
- 1950 - Cold War: The Soviet Union issues a statement denying that Klaus Fuchs served as a Soviet spy.
- 1951 - Korean War: Operation Ripper - In Korea, United Nations troops led by General Matthew Ridgeway begin an assault against Chinese forces.
- 1965 - In Selma, Alabama, State troopers and local law enforcement forcefully break up a group of 600 civil rights marchers. The event was televised and was dubbed Bloody Sunday.
- 1968 - Vietnam War: The First Battle of Saigon begins.
- 1973 - The ultimately disappointing Comet Kohoutek is discovered by Luboš Kohoutek.
- 1983 - The Nashville Network (TNN) begins broadcasting.
- 1984 - The United States attacks San Juan del Sur in Nicaragua.
- 1987 - Mike Tyson adds the WBA World Heavyweight boxing championship to his WBC one when he beats James Smith after a 12-round fight in Las Vegas, Nevada.
- 1988 - Colombia becomes a member of the Berne Convention copyright treaty.
- 1989 - The State Council of the People's Republic of China declares martial law in Lhasa, Tibet.
- 1994 - The Supreme Court of the United States rules in Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music that parodies of an original work are generally covered by the doctrine of fair use.
- 1996 - The first democratically elected Palestinian parliament is formed.
- 1999 - American film director, Stanley Kubrick, dies in his sleep from a fatal heart attack.
- 2002 - Opening of The IX Paralympics Winter Games in Salt Lake City, Utah.
- 2002 - The Network Against Prohibition forms in Darwin, Australia.
- 2005 - Mass protest outside the National Assembly of Kuwait building for women's voting rights in Kuwait.

Births

- 189 - Publius Septimius Geta, Roman Emperor (d. 211)
- 1481 - Baldassare Peruzzi, Italian architect and painter (d. 1537)
- 1556 - Guillaume du Vair, French writer (d. 1621)
- 1671 - Robert Roy MacGregor, Scottish folk hero (d. 1734)
- 1678 - Filippo Juvara, Italian architect (d. 1736)
- 1687 - Jean Lebeuf, French historian (d. 1760)
- 1693 - Pope Clement XIII (d. 1769)
- 1715 - Ewald Christian von Kleist, German poet (d. 1759)
- 1715 - Ephraim Williams, American philanthropist (d. 1755)
- 1730 - Baron de Breteuil, French statesman (d. 1807)
- 1746 - André Michaux, French botanist (d. 1802)
- 1765 - Nicéphore Niépce, French inventor (d. 1833)
- 1792 - John Herschel, English mathematician and astronomer (d. 1871)
- 1837 - Henry Draper, American physician and astronomer (d. 1882)
- 1849 - Luther Burbank, American biologist and botanist (b. 1849)
- 1850 - Tomáš Masaryk, first President of Czechoslovakia (d. 1937)
- 1857 - Julius Wagner-Jauregg, Austrian neuroscientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1940)
- 1872 - Piet Mondrian, Dutch painter (d. 1944)
- 1875 - Maurice Ravel, French composer (d. 1937)
- 1887 - Heino Eller, Estonian composer (d. 1970)
- 1902 - Heinz Rühmann, German actor (d. 1994)
- 1904 - Ivar Ballangrud, Norwegian speed skater (d. 1969)
- 1904 - Reinhard Heydrich, Nazi official (d. 1942)
- 1908 - Anna Magnani, Italian actress (d. 1973)
- 1926 - Alan Sues, American comedian and actor
- 1930 - Antony Armstrong-Jones, Lord Snowdon
- 1934 - Willard Scott, American television broadcaster
- 1938 - David Baltimore, American biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- 1938 - Janet Guthrie, American race car driver
- 1940 - Rudi Dutschke, German student leader (d. 1979)
- 1940 - Daniel J. Travanti, American actor
- 1942 - Tammy Faye Bakker, American evangelist
- 1942 - Michael Eisner, American film studio executive
- 1944 - Stanley Schmidt, American editor
- 1944 - Townes Van Zandt, American musician and songwriter
- 1945 - John Heard, American actor
- 1945 - Arthur Lee, American musician (Love)
- 1946 - Peter Wolf, American musician (J Geils Band)
- 1947 - Richard Lawson, American actor
- 1947 - Walter Röhrl, German race car driver
- 1949 - Ghulam Nabi Azad, Indian politician
- 1950 - Iris Chacon, Puerto Rican singer and dancer
- 1950 - Franco Harris, American football player
- 1952 - Ernie Isley, American singer
- 1952 - Lynn Swann, American football player
- 1955 - Tommy Kramer, American football player
- 1956 - Bryan Cranston, American actor
- 1958 - Rik Mayall British actor
- 1960 - Joe Carter, baseball player
- 1960 - Ivan Lendl, Czech tennis player
- 1963 - Bill Brochtrup, American actor
- 1963 - Denyce Graves, American singer
- 1964 - Bret Easton Ellis, American writer
- 1964 - Wanda Sykes, American actress and comedienne
- 1965 - Jesper Parnevik, Swedish golfer
- 1971 - Rachel Weisz, British actress
- 1977 - Mitja Zastrow, German-born swimmer
- 1980 - Laura Prepon, American actress
- 1984 - Mathieu Flamini, French footballer

Deaths

- 322 BC - Aristotle, philosopher (b. 384 BC)
- AD 161 - Antoninus Pius, Roman Emperor (b. 86)
- 308 - Saint Eubulus, Christian martyr
- 851 - Nominoe, Duke of Brittany
- 1226 - William de Longespee, 3rd Earl of Salisbury, English military leader
- 1274 - Thomas Aquinas, Italian scholastic philosopher (b. 1225)
- 1578 - Margaret Douglas, Countess of Lennox (b. 1515)
- 1625 - Johann Bayer, German astronomer (b. 1572)
- 1724 - Pope Innocent XIII (b. 1655)
- 1767 - Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, French colonizer and Governor of Louisiana (b. 1680)
- 1778 - Charles De Geer, Swedish industrialist and entomologist (b. 1720)
- 1810 - Cuthbert Collingwood, 1st Baron Collingwood, British admiral (b. 1750)
- 1932 - Aristide Briand, French statesman, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1862)
- 1952 - Paramahansa Yogananda, Indian guru (b. 1893)
- 1957 - Wyndham Lewis, British author and painter (b. 1882)
- 1954 - Otto Diels, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1876)
- 1967 - Alice B. Toklas, American companion to Gertrude Stein (b. 1877)
- 1974 - Alberto Rabagliati, Italian singer and actor (b. 1906)
- 1975 - Mikhail Bakhtin, Russian philosopher (b. 1895)
- 1975 - Ben Blue, Canadian actor (b. 1901)
- 1976 - Wright Patman, American politician (b. 1893)
- 1981 - Kiril Kondrashin, Russian conductor (b. 1914)
- 1986 - Jacob Javits, American politician (b. 1904)
- 1988 - Divine, American actor (b. 1945)
- 1991 - Cool Papa Bell, baseball player (b. 1903)
- 1995 - Georges J.F. Kohler, German biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1946)
- 1997 - Rabbi Emanuel Bronner, German-American soap magnate and philosopher (b. 1908)
- 1997 - Edward Mills Purcell, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1912)
- 1999 - Sidney Gottlieb, American Central Intelligence Agency official (b. 1918)
- 1999 - Stanley Kubrick, American film director (b. 1928)
- 2000 - Charles Gray, British actor (b. 1928)
- 2000 - Jack Sanford, baseball player (b. 1929)
- 2002 - Doris Allen, American psychologist (b. 1901)
- 2004 - Paul Winfield, American actor (heart attack) (b. 1941)

Holidays and observances

- Catholicism - Feast day of Ss. Perpetua and Felicity
- Albania - Teacher's Day
- Illinois - Casimir Pulaski Day observed, 2005 (First Monday of March)

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/7 BBC: On This Day] ---- March 6 - March 8 - February 7 - April 7 -- listing of all days ko:3월 7일 ja:3月7日 simple:March 7 th:7 มีนาคม

1765

1765 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar).

Events

- March 9 - After a public campaign by the writer Voltaire, judges in Paris posthumously exonerate Jean Calas of murdering his son. Calas had been tortured and executed in 1762 on the charge, though his son had actually committed suicide.
- March 22 - The British Parliament passes the Stamp Act which is the first direct tax levied from England on the American colonies.
- March 24 - Great Britain passes the Quartering Act that requires the 13 American colonies to house British troops
- May 18 - Fire destroys one quarter of town of Montreal, Quebec.
- June 21 - The Isle of Man is brought under British control.
- November 1 - The British Parliament enacts the Stamp Act on the 13 colonies in order to help pay for British military operations in North America.
- The first true restaurant opens in Paris, where a tavern-keeper named Boulanger sells cooked dishes at an all-night place on the Rue Bailleul
- Nicholas Cugnot pioneers the automobile with a three-wheel gun tractor
- James Watt supersedes the 1705 Newcomen engine with a more effective steam engine
- In Lisbon, the auto-da-fe parade (often an excuse for violence against Jews or Christian 'heretics') is abolished
- Josef II becomes Holy Roman Emperor
- The Isle of Man comes under the British crown
- Horace Walpole publishes The Castle of Otranto

Births

- January 11 - Antoine Alexandre Barbier, French librarian (d. 1825)
- February 1 - Charles Hatchett, English chemist (d. 1847)
- March 7 - Nicéphore Niépce, French inventor (d. 1833)
- March 27 - Franz Xaver von Baader, German philosopher and theologian (d. 1841)
- April 1 - Luigi Schiavonetti, Italian engraver (d. 1810)
- April 6 - Duke Charles Felix of Savoy (d. 1831)
- April 26 - Emma, Lady Hamilton, English mistress of Horatio Nelson (d. 1815)
- June 15 - Henry Thomas Colebrooke, English orientalist (d. 1831)
- July 26 - Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Count d'Erlon, French marshal (d. 1844)
- August 21 - King William IV of the United Kingdom (d. 1837)
- September 18 - Pope Gregory XVI (d. 1837)
- October 8 - Harman Blennerhassett, Irish-American lawyer (d. 1831)
- October 17 - Henry Jacques Guillaume Clarke, duc de Feltre, French marshal and politician (d. 1818)
- October 24 - James Mackintosh, Scottish publicist (d. 1832)
- November 14 - Robert Fulton, American inventor (d. 1815)
- November 17 - Étienne-Jacques-Joseph-Alexandre MacDonald, French marshal (d. 1840)
- November 20 - Sir Thomas Fremantle, British captain and politician (d. 1819)
- December 8 - Eli Whitney, American inventor (d. 1825)
- James Smithson, English-born minerologist and chemist (b. 1829)
- Peter Bagration, Russian general (d. 1812)

Deaths

- March 3 - William Stukeley, English archaeologist (b. 1687)
- April 5 - Edward Young, English poet (b. 1683)
- April 15 - Mikhail Lomonosov, Russian author and scientist (b. 1711)
- April 20 - Abigail Williams, American accuser in the Salem witch trials (b. 1674)
- May 17 - Alexis Claude Clairault, French mathematician (b. 1713)
- July 15 - Charles-André van Loo, French painter (b. 1705)
- August 18 - Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1708)
- September 2 - Henry Bouquet, Swiss-born British army officer (b. 1719)
- October 10 - Lionel Sackville, 1st Duke of Dorset, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1688)
- October 21 - Giovanni Paolo Pannini, Italian painter and architect (b. 1691)
- October 31 - Prince William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, English military leader (b. 1721)
- November 30 - George Glas, Scottish merchant and adventurer (b. 1725)
- December 3 - Lord John Philip Sackville, English cricketer (b. 1713)
- December 25 - Vaclav Prokop Divis, Czech scientist (b. 1698) Category:1765 ko:1765년

1833

1833 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 3, British invades the Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic.
- March 2, President Andrew Jackson signs the Force Bill, which authorizes him to use troops to enforce Federal law in South Carolina.
- March 3 -Ayya Vaikundar incarnated in a human body from the sea of Thiruchendur.
- May 11 - French-American farmhand Antoine le Blanc murders family of three.
- May 28 - Royal pretender Karl Wilhelm Naundorf arrives in Paris on foot
- June 6, US President Andrew Jackson becomes the first President to ride a train.
- August 29 - Child labor - in United Kingdom, parliament passes an act that makes illegal to employ children less than 9 years old in factories and limits the child workers 9 to 13 years of age to maximum of 9 hours a day
- September 2, Oberlin College is founded by John Shipherd and Philo P. Stewart.
- September 29, the infant Isabella II becomes Queen of Spain, under the regency of her mother, Maria Cristina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies. Her uncle Don Carlos, Conde de Molina challenges her claim, beginning the First Carlist War.
- December 14, assassination of Kaspar Hauser, dies three days later in December 17
- Charles Babbage described his analytical engine. (see also history of computing hardware)
- The dawn of biochemistry: discovery of the first enzyme, diastase, by Anselme Payen
- The British Parliament passes the Slavery Abolition Act giving all slaves in the British Empire their freedom.

Births

- January 1 - Robert Lawson, New Zealand architect (d. 1902)
- February 11 - Melville Weston Fuller 8th Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court (d. 1910)
- February 19 - Élie Ducommun, Swiss journalist and activist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1906)
- February 25 - John St. John, American temperance movement leader (d. 1916)
- February 28 - Alfred von Schlieffen, German field marshal (d. 1913)
- May 7 - Johannes Brahms, German composer (d. 1897)
- July 27 - Thomas George Bonney, English geologist (d. 1923)
- August 20 - Benjamin Harrison, 23rd President of the United States (d. 1901)
- September 20 - Ernesto Teodoro Moneta, Italian pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1918)
- October 21 - Alfred Nobel, Swedish inventor of dynamite, creator of the Nobel Prize (d. 1896)
- November 6 - Jonas Lie, Norwegian author (d. 1908)
- November 9 - Émile Gaboriau, French writer (d. 1873)
- November 12 - Alexander Borodin, Russian composer (d. 1887)

Month/day of birth unknown

- Francis Anstie, British physician and medical researcher (d. 1874)

Deaths

- January 10 - Adrien-Marie Legendre, French mathematician (b. 1752)
- January 23 - Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth, British admiral (b. 1757)
- April 7 - Antoni Radziwiłł, Polish politician (b. 1775)
- April 22 - Richard Trevithick, English inventor (b. 1771)
- July 2 - Gervasio Antonio de Posadas, Argentine leader (b. 1757)
- July 5 - Nicéphore Niépce, French photography pioneer (b. 1765)
- September 27 - Roy, Ram Mohan, Hindu reformer (b. 1772)
- September 29 - King Ferdinand VII of Spain (b. 1784)
- November 23 - Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, French marshal (b. 1762)
- Ninian Edwards, Governor of Illinois and Senator from Illinois (b. 1775) Category:1833 ko:1833년 ms:1833 simple:1833

Inventor

An inventor is a person who creates new inventions, typically technical devices such as mechanical, electrical or software devices or methods. Although some inventors may also be scientists, most of them are engineers in fact as they base their work on the discoveries of other scientists, experimenting with practical applications and combinations of those discoveries, and with improvements and combinations of existing devices, to create new useful devices. Inventorship is a key determination in establishing patent rights. The system of patents was established to encourage inventors by granting limited-term, limited monopoly on inventions determined to be sufficiently novel, non-obvious, and useful. In the U.S. the patent right originates from the intellectual property clause of the Constitution. The capacity to invent can be developed. See TRIZ, the theory of inventive problem-solving.

Etymology

The word "inventor" comes form the latin verb invenire, invent-, to find. [http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=inventor&db=
- ][http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=invent]

Inventors clubs

Inventors clubs provide a support infrastructure for inventors, especially useful for lone inventors who otherwise may not have anyone impartial they can freely talk to about their inventions. There are hundreds, if not thousands of such clubs around the world (see also national associations or local UK clubs on [http://www.wrti.org.uk/clubs WRTI Clubs], the web site of the Wessex Round Table of Inventors).

External links

- [http://eepatents.com/collection.html A collection of patents for pioneering electrical engineering technologies, including some by the inventors listed above]
- [http://www.inventions.org/ Inventors Assistance League] (Non-profit organization operating since 1963)
- Associations of inventors
- [http://www.erfinder.at/tag-der-erfinder/ European Inventor's Day (German)] (Tag der Erfinder) (Germany)
- [http://www.inventor.hu/ Association of Hungarian Inventors (MAFE)] (Hungary)
- [http://www.uppfinnareforeningen.se/ The Swedish Inventors' Association] (Sweden)
- [http://www.wrti.org.uk Wessex Round Table of Inventors] (WRTI) (United Kingdom)
- [http://www.communityconnection.org/resource_pages/42646.html Inventors Association of St. Louis (IASL)] (United States)
- Category:Patent law ja:発明家

Internal combustion engine

The internal combustion engine is a heat engine in which combustion occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. Combustion of a fuel creates high temperature/pressure gases, which are permitted to expand. The expanding gases are used to directly move a piston, turbine blades, rotor(s), or the engine itself thus doing useful work. Internal combustion engines can be powered by any fuel that can be combined with an "oxidizer" in the chamber. By way of contrast, an external combustion engine such as a steam engine does work when the combustion process heats a separate working fluid, such as water or steam, which then in turn does work. Jet engines, most rockets and many gas turbines are strictly classed as internal combustion engines, but the term internal combustion engine is also used to refer specifically to reciprocating engines, Wankel engines and similar designs in which combustion is intermittent. Today, in some published discussions, internal combustion engine is abbreviated to the acronym ICE.

History

Wankel engine English inventor Sir Samuel Morland used gunpowder to drive water pumps in the 17th century. For more conventional, reciprocating internal combustion engines the fundamental theory for two-stroke engines was established by Sadi Carnot in France in 1824, whilst the American Samuel Morey received a patent on April 1, 1826 for a "Gas Or Vapor Engine". The Italians Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci patented the first working, efficient version of an internal combustion engine in 1854 in London (pt. Num. 1072). Despite these and other attempts, it wasn't until 1859 that the Frenchman Étienne Lenoir (1822 - 1900) designed an engine that ran on a mixture of explosive gas and air. In 1860, Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine not dissimilar in appearance to a steam beam engine. This closelly resembled a horizontal double acting steam engine, with cylinders, pistons, connecting-rods and fly wheel in which the gas essentially took the place of the steam. In 1870 in Vienna Siegfried Marcus put the first mobile gasoline engine on a handcart. Nikolaus Otto working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in the 1870's developed the four-stroke cycle (Otto cycle) engine.

Applications

Internal combustion engines are most commonly used for mobile propulsion systems. In mobile scenarios internal combustion is advantageous, since it can provide high power to weight ratios together with excellent fuel energy-density. These engines have appeared in almost all cars, motorbikes, many boats, and in a wide variety of aircraft and locomotives. Where very high power is required, such as jet aircraft, helicopters and large ships, they appear mostly in the form of gas turbines. They are also used for electric generators and by industry. For low power mobile and many non-mobile applications an electric motor is a competitive alternative. In the future, electric motors may also become competitive for most mobile applications. However, the high cost and weight and poor energy density of batteries and lack of affordable onboard electric generators such as fuel cells has largely restricted their use to specialist applications.

Operation

All internal combustion engines depend on the exothermic chemical process of combustion: the reaction of a fuel, typically with air, although other oxidisers such as nitrous oxide may be employed. Also see stoichiometry. The most common fuels in use today are made up of hydrocarbons and are derived from petroleum. These include the fuels known as diesel, gasoline and liquified petroleum gas. Most internal combustion engines designed for gasoline can run on natural gas or liquified petroleum gases without modifications except for the fuel delivery components. Liquid and gaseous biofuels of adequate formulation can also be used. Some have theorized that in the future hydrogen might replace such fuels. Furthermore, with the introduction of hydrogen fuel cell technology, the use of internal combustion engines may be phased out. The advantage of hydrogen is that its combustion produces only water. This is unlike the combustion of hydrocarbons, which also produces carbon dioxide, a major cause of global warming, as well as carbon monoxide, resulting from incomplete combustion. The big disadvantage of hydrogen in many situations its storage. Liquid hydrogen has extremely low density- 14 times lower than water and requires extensive insulation, whilst gaseous hydrogen requires very heavy tankage. While hydrogen is light and therefore has a higher specific energy, the volumetric efficiency is still roughly five times lower than petrol. This is why hydrogen must be compressed if there is to be a useful amount of stored energy. All internal combustion engines must have a means of ignition to promote combustion. Most engines use either an electrical or a compression heating ignition system. Electrical ignition systems generally rely on a lead-acid battery and an induction coil to provide a high voltage electrical spark to ignite the air-fuel mix in the engine's cylinders. This battery can be recharged during operation using an alternator driven by the engine. Compression heating ignition systems (Diesel engines and HCCI engines) rely on the heat created in the air by compression in the engine's cylinders to ignite the fuel. Once successfully ignited and burnt, the combustion products (hot gases) have more available energy than the original compressed fuel/air mixture (which had higher chemical energy). The available energy is manifested as high temperature and pressure which can be translated into work by the engine. In a reciprocating engine, the high pressure product gases inside the cylinders drive the engine's pistons. Once the available energy has been removed the remaining hot gases are vented (often by opening a valve or exposing the exhaust outlet) and this allows the piston to return to its previous position (Top Dead Center - TDC). The piston can then proceed to the next phase of its cycle (which varies between engines). Any heat not translated into work is a waste product and is removed from the engine either by an air or liquid cooling system.

Parts

heat The parts of an engine vary depending on the engine's type. For a four-stroke engine, key parts of the engine include the crankshaft (purple), one or more camshafts (red and blue) and valves. For a two-stroke engine, there may simply be an exhaust outlet and fuel inlet instead of a valve system. In both types of engines, there are one or more cylinders (grey and green) and for each cylinder there is a spark plug (darker-grey), a piston (yellow) and a crank (purple). A single sweep of the cylinder by the piston in an upward or downward motion is known as a stroke and the downward stroke that occurs directly after the air-fuel mix in the cylinder is ignited is known as a power stroke. A Wankel engine has a triangular rotor that orbits in an epitroichoidal (figure 8 shape) chamber around an eccentric shaft. The four phases of operation (intake, compression, power, exhaust) take place in separate locations, instead of one single location as in a reciprocating engine. A Bourke Engine uses a pair of pistons integrated to a scotch yoke that transmits reciprocating force through a specially designed bearing assembly to turn a crank mechanism. Intake, compression, power, and exhaust all occur in each stroke of this yoke.

Classification

There is a wide range of internal combustion engines corresponding to their many varied applications. Likewise there is a wide range of ways to classify internal-combustion engines, some of which are listed below. Although the terms sometimes cause confusion, there is no real difference between an "engine" and a "motor." At one time, the word "engine" (from Latin, via Old French, ingenium, "ability") meant any piece of machinery. A "motor" (from Latin motor, "mover") is any machine that produces mechanical power. Traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as "engines," but combusion engines are often referred to as "motors."

Principles of operation

electric motor Reciprocating:
- Two-stroke engine
- Four-stroke engine
- Bourke Engine Rotary:
- Demonstrated:
- Wankel engine
- Proposed:
- orbital engine
- quasiturbine Continuous combustion:
- gas turbine
- jet engine
- rocket engine

Engine cycle

Engines based on the two-stroke cycle use two strokes (one up, one down) for every power stroke, relying on the action of the bottom of the piston within the crankcase to help move the fuel-air mixture, and are used where small size and weight are important, such as snowmobiles, lawnmowers, mopeds, outboard motors and some motorcycles. Gasoline two-stroke engines are generally louder, less efficient, more polluting, and smaller than their four-stroke counterparts, although large two-stroke diesel engines are not subject to these complaints and are used in many applications, for instance some locomotives built by EMD. Engines based on the four-stroke cycle or Otto cycle have one power stroke for every four strokes (up-down-up-down) and are used in cars, larger boats and many light aircraft. They are generally quieter, more efficient and larger than their two-stroke counterparts. There are a number of variations of these cycles, most notably the Atkinson and Miller cycles. Most truck and automotive Diesel engines use a four-stroke cycle, but with a compression heating ignition system it is possible to talk separately about a diesel cycle. The Wankel engine operates with the same separation of phases as the four-stroke engine (but with no piston strokes, would more properly be called a four-phase engine), since the phases occur in separate locations in the engine; however like a two-stroke piston engine, it provides one power 'stroke' per revolution per rotor, giving it similar space and weight efficiency. The Bourke cycle's combustion phase more closely approximates constant volume combustion than either four stroke or two stroke cycles do. It also uses less moving parts, hence needs to overcome less friction than the other two reciprocating types have to. In addition, its greater expansion ratio also means more of the heat from its combustion phase is utilized than is used by either four stroke or two stroke cycles.

Fuel and oxidiser types

Fuels used include gasoline (aka petrol), Liquified Petroleum Gas, Vapourized Petroleum Gas, Compressed Natural Gas, hydrogen, diesel fuel, JP18 (jet fuel), landfill gas, biodiesel, peanut oil, ethanol, methanol (methyl or wood alcohol). Engines that use gases for fuel are called gas engines and those that use liquid hydrocarbons are called oil engines. However, gasoline engines are often called gas engines for short. The only limitations are that the fuel must be easily transportable through the fuel system to the combustion chamber, and that the fuel release sufficient energy in the form of heat upon combustion to make use of the engine practical. The oxidiser is typically air, but can be pure oxygen, nitrous oxide or hydrogen peroxide. Other chemicals such as chlorine or fluorine have seen experimental use; but mostly are impractical. Diesel engines are generally heavier, noisier and more powerful at lower speeds than gasoline engines. They are also more fuel-efficient in most circumstances and are used in heavy road-vehicles, some automobiles (increasingly more so for their increased fuel-efficiency over gasoline engines), ships and some locomotives and light aircraft. Gasoline engines are used in most other road-vehicles including most cars, motorcycles and mopeds. Note that in Europe, sophisticated diesel-engined cars are far more prevalent, representing around 40% of the market. Both gasoline and diesel engines produce significant emissions. There are also engines that run on hydrogen, methanol, ethanol, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and biodiesel. Paraffin and Tractor vaporising oil (TVO) engines are no longer seen. Tractor vaporising oil

Cylinders

Internal combustion engines can contain any number of cylinders with numbers between one and twelve being common, though as many as 28 have been used. Having more cylinders in a engine yields two potential benefits: First. the engine can have a larger displacement with smaller individual reciprocating masses (that is, the mass of each piston can be less) thus making a smoother running engine (since the engine tends to vibrate as a result of the pistons moving up and down). Second, with a greater displacement and more pistons, more fuel can be combusted and there can be more combustion events (that is, more power strokes) in a given period of time, meaning that such an engine can generate more torque than a similar engine with fewer cylinders. The down side to having more pistons is that, over all, the engine will tend to weigh more and tend to generate more internal friction as the greater number of pistons rub against the inside of their cylinders. This tends to decrease fuel efficiency and rob the engine of some of its power. For high performance gasoline engines using current materials and technology (such as the engines found in modern automobiles), there seems to be a break point around 10 or 12 cylinders, after which addition of cylinders becomes an overall detriment to performance and efficiency, although exceptions such as the W-16 engine from Volkswagen exist.
- Most car engines have four to eight cylinders, with some high performance cars having ten, twelve, or even sixteen, and some very small cars and trucks having two or three. In previous years some quite large cars, such as the DKW and Saab 92, had two cylinder, two stroke engines.
- Radial aircraft engines, now obsolete, had from five to 28 cylinders. A row contains an odd number of cylinders, so an even number indicates a two- or four-row engine.
- Motor cycles commonly have from one to four cylinders, with a few high performance models having six.
- Snowmobiles usually have two cylinders. Some larger (not necessarily high-performance, but also touring machines) have four.
- Small appliances such as chainsaws and domestic lawn mowers most commonly have one cylinder, although two-cylinder chainsaws exist.

Ignition system

Internal combustion engines can be classified by their ignition system. Today most engines use an electrical or compression heating system for ignition. However outside flame and hot-tube systems have been used historically. Nikola Tesla gained one of the first patents on the mechanical ignition system with , "Electrical Igniter for Gas Engines", on 16 August 1898.

Fuel systems

Often for simpler reciprocating engines a carburetor is used to supply fuel into the cylinder. However, exact control of the correct amount of fuel supplied to the engine is impossible. Larger gasoline engines such as used in cars have mostly moved to Fuel injection systems. LPG engines use a mix of Fuel injection systems and closed loop carburetors. Diesel engines always use fuel injection. Other internal combustion engines like Jet engines use burners, and rocket engines use various different ideas including impinging jets, gas/liquid shear, preburners and many other ideas.

Engine configuration

Internal combustion engines can be classified by their configuration which affects their physical size and smoothness (with smoother engines producing less vibration). Common configurations include the straight or inline configuration, the more compact V configuration and the wider but smoother flat or boxer configuration. Aircraft engines can also adopt a radial configuration which allows more effective cooling. More unusual configurations, such as "H", "U", "X", or "W" have also been used. Multiple-crankshaft configurations do not necessarily need a cylinder head at all, but can instead have a piston at each end of the cylinder, called an opposed piston design. This design was used in the Junkers Jumo 205 diesel aircraft engine, using two crankshafts, one at either end of a single bank of cylinders, and most remarkably in the Napier Deltic diesel engines, which used three crankshafts to serve three banks of double-ended cylinders arranged in an equilateral triangle with the crankshafts at the corners. It was also used in single-bank locomotive engines, and continues to be used for marine engines, both for propulsion and for auxiliary generators. The Gnome Rotary engine, used in several early aircraft, had a stationary crankshaft and a bank of radially arranged cylinders rotating around it.

Engine capacity

An engine's capacity is the displacement or swept volume by the pistons of the engine. It is generally measured in litres or cubic inches for larger engines and cubic centimetres (abbreviated to cc's) for smaller engines. Engines with greater capacities are usually more powerful and provide greater torque at lower rpms but also consume more fuel. Apart from designing an engine with more cylinders, there are two ways to increase an engine's capacity. The first is to lengthen the stroke and the second is to increase the piston's diameter. In either case, it may be necessary to make further adjustments to the fuel intake of the engine to ensure optimal performance. An engine's quoted capacity can be more a matter of marketing than of engineering. The Morris Minor 1000, the Morris 1100, and the Austin-Healey Sprite Mark II all had engines of the same stroke and bore according to their specifications, and were from the same maker. However the engine capacities were quoted as 1000cc, 1100cc and 1098cc respectively in the sales literature and on the vehicle badges.

Engine pollution

Generally internal combustion engines, particularly reciprocating internal combustion engines, produce moderately high pollution levels, due to incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuel, leading to carbon monoxide and some soot along with oxides of nitrogen & sulphur and some unburnt hydrocarbons depending on the operating conditions and the fuel/air ratio. Diesel engines produce a wide range of pollutants including aerosols of many small particles that are believed to penetrate deeply into human lungs.
- Many fuels contain sulfur leading to sulfur oxides (SOx) in the exhaust, promoting acid rain.
- The high temperature of combustion creates greater proportions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), demonstrated to be hazardous to both plant and animal health.
- Net carbon dioxide production is not a necessary feature of engines, but since most engines are run from fossil fuels this usually occurs. If engines are run from biomass, then no net carbon dioxide is produced as the growing plants absorb as much, or more carbon dioxide while growing.
- Hydrogen engines only produce water, in theory.

Bibliography

- Singer, Charles Joseph; Raper, Richard, A history of technology : The Internal Combustion Engine, edited by Charles Singer ... [et al.], Clarendon Press, 1954-1978. pp.157-176[http://proxy.bib.uottawa.ca:2398/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=acls&cc=acls&idno=heb02191.0005.001&q1=bicycle&frm=frameset&seq=5]

External links

- [http://www.keveney.com/Engines.html Animated Engines] - explains a variety of types
- [http://auto.howstuffworks.com/engine3.htm How Internal Combustion Works] - with animation Category:Energy conversion Category:Engines ja:内燃機関

Chalon-sur-Saône

:Not to be confused with Châlons-en-Champagne, formerly known as Châlons-sur-Marne. Chalon-sur-Saône is part of the Burgundy region, it was once a well known river port, as a point to distribute local wines up and down the Saône river.

History

Chalon is best known as the birthplace of photography. Its most famous resident, Nicéphore Niépce also has a high school (sixth form college, Brit.) named after him. There is a museum which contains some early photography relics is on the Quai des Messageries in the town, containing more than two million photographs and many old artefacts such as cameras and other equipment for old and modern photography. The Saint-Vincent cathedral, on the Place Saint-Vincent (a city square), has certain architectural elements dating from the 8th century, and a neoclassical 19th century façade. This city square also has a number of cafés and is host to a busy market on Sundays. Another famous resident is Dominique Vivant Denon (1747-1825) who was involved in the creation of the Louvre Museum, converting the palace into a Museum after the French Revolution.

Geography

Chalon-sur-Saône is located on the Saône river. A town in central France, in the Saône-et-Loire département, of which it is a sous-préfecture. Population (1999): 52,260.

External link

- [http://www.chalonsursaone.fr/e.php?lsd=1x149&cc=616&tc=1 City council website] (in French) Category:Communes of Saône-et-Loire

1793

1793 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 2 - Russia and Prussia partition Poland
- January 9 - Jean-Pierre Blanchard becomes the first to fly in a balloon in the United States.
- January 21 - After being found guilty of treason by the French Convention, "Citizen Capet" ie. Louis XVI of France is guillotined.
- February 1 - France declares war on Great Britain, the Netherlands (see French Revolutionary Wars)
- February 12 - The Congress of the United States passes a law legally requiring the return of slaves escaping from slave states into free territory or states, the Fugitive Slave Act
- February 25 - George Washington holds the first Cabinet meeting as President of the United States.
- February 27 - The Giles resolutions are introduced to the United States House of Representatives asking the House to condemn Alexander Hamilton's handling of loans.
- March 1 - John Langdon becomes President Pro Tempore of the United States Senate until March 3
- March 5 - French troops are defeated by Austrian forces and Liège is recaptured
- March 7 - France declares war on Spain
- April 1 - Unsen volcano erupts in Japan and causes an earthquake. About 53.000 dead
- April 6 - Committee of Public Safety established in France with Georges Danton as its head.
- April 22 - George Washington signs the Neutrality Proclamation.
- May 31 - Regular troops under Francois Hanriet demand that the Girondins must be expelled from the national convention
- June 2 - Girondins overthrown
- June 10 - The Jardin des Plantes museum opened in Paris (a year later it would become the first public zoo).
- July 9 - Act Against Slavery passed in Upper Canada
- July 13 – Charlotte Corday kills Jean-Paul Marat in his bath
- July 22 - Alexander Mackenzie reaches the Pacific Ocean becoming the first Euro-American to complete a transcontinental crossing north of Mexico
- July 29 - John Graves Simcoe decides to build a fort and settlement at Toronto, having sailed into the bay there
- August 10 - Feast of Unity - Crowds in Paris burn monarchist emblems
- August 23 - Universal conscription in France
- September 5 - In France, the French National Convention votes to implement terror measures to repress French Revolutionary activities. The ensuing "Reign of Terror" will last until the spring of 1794 and causes death of 35,000-40,000 people.
- October 12 - The cornerstone of Old East, the oldest state university building in the United States, is laid in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, on the campus of the University of North Carolina. The 12th of October is now celebrated at the University as University Day.
- November 8 - In Paris, the French Revolutionary government opens the Louvre to the public as a museum
- October 16 - Execution of Marie Antoinette
- October 28 - Eli Whitney applied for a patent for his cotton gin, (the patent was granted the following March).
- October 31 - Execution of arrested Girondist leaders in France in a guillotine
- November 24 – French Revolutionary Calendar begins
- December 8 - Execution of Madame du Barry
- December 9- New York City's first daily newspaper, the American Minerva, is established by Noah Webster.
- December 17 - French forces under Napoleon capture Toulon from royalists and British troops

Unknown dates

- British admiralty begins to supply citrus juice to Navy ships to prevent scurvy.
- Claude Chappe presents his semaphore in France - 15 stations built within a year.
- In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania more than 4000 die from yellow fever
- Roman Catholicism banned in France.
- First Coalition against France formed.
- Holy Roman Empire declares war on France.
- First year of regular production for the United States Mint.
- Construction begins on the United States Capitol building.
- Niccolò Paganini debuts as a violin virtuoso at age 11.

Ongoing events

- French Revolution (1789-1799)
- French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802)-First Coalition

Births

- January 3 - Lucretia Mott, American women's rights activist and abolitionist (d. 1880)
- March 2 - Sam Houston, President of the Republic of Texas (d. 1863)
- March 4 - Karl Lachmann, German philologist (d. 1851)
- April 19 - Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria (d. 1875)
- June 6 - Edward C. Delevan, American temperance movement leader (d. 1871)
- November 3 - Stephen F. Austin, American pioneer (d. 1836)

Deaths

- January 1 - Francesco Guardi, Italian painter (b. 1712)
- January 21 - King Louis XVI of France (executed) (b. 1754)
- February 1 - William Wildman Shute Barrington, British statesman (b. 1717)
- February 6 - Carlo Goldoni, Italian playwright (b. 1707)
- March 2 - Carl Gustaf Pilo, Swedish-born artist
- March 4 - Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon, duc de Penthièvre, French admiral (b. 1725)
- March 20 - William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, Scottish judge and politician (b. 1705)
- March 26 - John Mudge, English physician and inventor (b. 1721)
- April 15 - Ignacije Szentmartony, Croatian Jesuit missionary and geographer (b. 1718)
- April 29 - Yechezkel Landau, Polish rabbi and Talmudist (b. 1713)
- April 29 - John Michell, English scientist (b. 1724)
- May 3 - Martin Gerbert, German theologian and historian (b. 1720)
- May 7 - Pietro Nardini, Italian composer (b. 1722)
- May 20 - Charles Bonnet, Swiss naturalist (b. 1720)
- June 26 - Gilbert White, English ornithologist (b. 1720)
- July 13 - Jean Paul Marat, Swiss-born French Revolutionary leader (assassinated) (b. 1743)
- July 17 - Charlotte Corday, French assassin of Jean Paul Marat (executed) (b. 1768)
- July 23 - Roger Sherman, American signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. 1721)
- August 22 - Louis, 4th duc de Noailles, Marshal of France (b. 1713)
- August 28 - Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine, French general (executed) (b. 1740)
- October 7 - Wills Hill, 1st Marquess of Downshire, English politician (b. 1718)
- October 8 - John Hancock, American patriot and businessman (b. 1737)
- October 9 - Jean Joseph Marie Amiot, French Jesuit missionary (b. 1718)
- October 16 - Marie Antoinette, Queen of France (executed) (b. 1755)
- October 31 - Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud, French revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1744)
- October 31 - Claude Fauchet, French revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1754)
- October 31 - Armand Gensonné, French revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1758)
- October 31 - Jacques Pierre Brissot, French revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1754)
- November 3 - Olympe de Gouges, French playwright (executed) (b. 1748)
- November 6 - Louis Philip II, Duke of Orléans, French noble and revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1747)
- November 8 - Madame Roland, French Revolutionary hostess (executed) (b. 1754)
- November 10 - Jean Marie Roland, French revolutionary leader (suicide) (b. 1734
- November 24 - Clément Charles François de Laverdy, French statesman (b. 1723)
- November 29 - Antoine Barnave, French revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1761)
- December 4 - Armand-Guy-Simon de Coetnempren, comte de Kersaint, French revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1742)
- December 5 - Jean-Paul Rabaut Saint-Etienne French revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1743)
- December 7 - Joseph Bara, French Revolution child-hero (b. 1780)
- December 8 - Étienne Clavière, French financier and politician (suicide) (b. 1735)
- December 8 - Madame du Barry, French courtesan (executed) (b. 1743)
- December 23 - Johann Adolph Hasse, German composer (b. 1699) Category:1793 ko:1793년 ms:1793

1824

1824 was a leap year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 22 - Ashanti crush British forces in the Gold Coast (See also Wars between Britain and Ashanti in Ghana and Ashanti Confederacy).
- March 17 signing of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824.
- March 11 - The United States War Department creates the Bureau of Indian Affairs and Ely S. Parker of the Seneca tribe becomes its first director.
- September 13 With his crew and 29 convicts aboard the Amity, John Oxley arrives at and founds the Moreton Bay Penal Settlement at what is now Redcliffe, Queensland, Australia, after leaving Sydney.
- September 16 Charles X succeeds Louis XVIII as King of France.
- October 10 - Edinburgh Town Council makes a decision to found the Edinburgh Municipal Fire Brigade, the first fire brigade in Britain.
- November 15-16 - Huge fire breaks out on Old Assembly Close in Edinburgh. It destroys two tenements and Tron Kirk church. 11 residents and 2 firemen die, 400 homeless.
- November 5- first technological university in the English-speaking world founded: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
- December 1 - U.S. presidential election, 1824: Since no candidate received a majority of the total electoral college votes in the election, the United States House of Representatives is given the task of deciding the winner (as stipulated by the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution).
- December 9 - At the Battle of Ayacucho, Peruvian forces defeat Spanish.
- Simón Bolívar proclaimed Emperor of Peru.
- The British take Rangoon.
- Frontier treaty between United States and Russia is signed.
- Egyptians capture Crete.
- Turks seize island of Ipsara from Greeks but are defeated at Mytilene.
- Beethoven's 9th symphony debuts
- Cimetière du Montparnasse established
- The Dutch sign the Masang Agreement temporarily ending hostilities in the Padri War

Ongoing events

- First Burmese War (1823–1826)

Births

- January 8 - Wilkie Collins, British novelist (d. 1889)
- January 21 - Thomas Jonathan "Stonewall" Jackson, American Confederate general (d. 1863)
- February 7 - William Huggins, British astronomer (d. 1910)
- February 16 - Peter Kozler, Slovenian cartographer and geographer (d. 1879)
- March 2 - Bedrich Smetana, Czech composer (d. 1885)
- March 9 - Amasa Leland Stanford, Governor of California (d. 1893)
- March 12 - Gustav Kirchhoff, German physicist (d. 1887)
- March 19 - William Allingham, Irish author (d. 1889)
- May 6 - Tokugawa Iesada, Japanese shogun (d. 1858)
- May 16 - Levi P. Morton, 22nd Vice President of the United States (d. 1920)
- May 23 - Ambrose Burnside, American Civil War general (d. 1881)
- June 26 - William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, Irish-born physicist and engineer (d. 1907)
- June 28 - Paul Pierre Broca, French anthropologist (d. 1880)
- July 12 - Eugène Boudin, French painter (d. 1898)
- July 27 - Alexandre Dumas, fils, French writer (d. 1895)
- September 4 - Anton Bruckner, Austrian composer (d. 1896)
- October 5 - Henry Chadwick, baseball writer and historian (d. 1908)
- December 10 - George MacDonald, English writer (d. 1905)
- December 14 - Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, French painter (d. 1898)
- Gideon T. Stewart, American temperance movement leader (d. 1907)

Deaths

- January 21 - Jean Baptiste Drouet, French revolutionary (b. 1765)
- January 26 - Théodore Géricault, French painter (b. 1791)
- February 5 - Marie Duplessis, French courtesan (tuberculosis)
- February 21 - Eugène de Beauharnais, son of Josephine de Beauharnais (b. 1781)
- April 19 - George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron, English poet (b. 1788)
- May 26 - Capel Lofft, English writer (b. 1751)
- June 18