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Jove

Jove

In Roman mythology, Jupiter held the same role as Zeus in the Greek pantheon. He was called Jupiter Optimus Maximus (Jupiter Highest, Greatest) as the patron deity of the Roman state, in charge of laws and social order. Jupiter is, properly speaking, a derivation of Jove and pater (Latin for father) This article focuses on Jupiter in early Rome and in cultic practice. For information on mythological accounts of Jupiter, which are heavily influenced by Greek mythology, see Zeus. The name of the god was also adopted as the name of the planet Jupiter, and was the original namesake of the weekday that would come to be known in English as Thursday (the etymological root is more apparent in French jeudi, from Jovis Dies). Ironically, linguistic studies identify him as deriving from the same god as the Germanic Tiwaz, whose name was given to Tuesday. Another etymological reference is Dyaus Pita of the Vedic religion.

Other titles of Roman Jupiter:

#Jupiter Caelestis ("heavenly") #Jupiter Fulgurator ("of the lightning") #Jupiter Latarius ("God of Latium") #Jupiter Lucetius ("of the light") #Jupiter Pluvius ("sender of rain") See also Pluvius #Jupiter Stator (from stare meaning "standing") #Jupiter Terminus or Jupiter Terminalus (defends boundaries). See also Terminus #Jupiter Tonans ("thunderer") #Jupiter Victor (led Roman armies to victory) #Jupiter Summanus (sender of nocturnal thunder) #Jupiter Feretrius ("who carries away [the spoils of war]") #Juptier Optimus Maximus (best and greatest)

Jupiter and Roman sovereignty

The several aspects of sovereignty implied by some of Jupiter's titles are made explicit in the legendary history of early Rome (as transmitted, for example, in Plutarch's Roman Lives and the first few books of Livy). Thus the warlike Romulus invokes Jupiter Stator to halt and terrify Rome's enemies, while the peaceful legislator Numa Pompilius has a close relationship with Dius Fidius, who presides over oaths. Jupiter also stands at the head of the Archaic Triad of Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus. This grouping has been seen as a religious representation of early Roman society, wherein:
- Jupiter stands in for the ritual and augural authority of the Flamen Dialis (high priest of Jupiter) and the chief priestly colleges.
- Mars, with his warrior and agricultural functions, stands in for the power of the king and young nobles to bring prosperity and victory through sympathetic magic with rituals like the October Horse and the Lupercalia.
- Quirinus, from co-viri "men together", stands in for the combined strength of the Roman populus. Later, during the Imperial period, the emperors Claudius and Domitian adopted traits of Jupiter in their portraiture, to emphasize their sovereignty over the whole world.

Capitoline Jupiter

The largest temple in Rome was that of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill. Here he was worshipped alongside Juno and Minerva, forming the Capitoline Triad. Temples to Jupiter Optimus Maximus or the Capitoline Triad as a whole were commonly built by the Romans at the center of new cities in their colonies.

In language

It was once believed that the Roman god Jupiter (Zeus in Greece) was in charge of cosmic Justice, and in ancient Rome, people swore to Jove in their courts of law, which lead to the common expression "By Jove," that many people use today.

References

- Article "Jupiter" in The Oxford Classical Dictionary. ISBN 0198606419.
- Georges Dumézil, Archaic Roman Religion. ISBN 0801854814.
- Georges Dumézil, Mitra-Varuna. ISBN 0942299132. Category:Sky and weather gods Category:Thunder gods Category:Roman gods ko:유피테르 ja:ユピテル

Jupiter (planet)

Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and by far the largest within our solar system. Some have described the solar system as consisting of the Sun, Jupiter, and assorted debris,; some describe Jupiter as the solar system's vacuum cleaner, due to its immense gravity well. It, and the other gas giants - Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, are sometimes referred to as "Jovian planets." The Romans named the planet after the Roman god Jupiter (also called Jove). The astronomical symbol for the planet is a stylized representation of the god's lightning bolt. The Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese cultures refer to the planet as the wood star, 木星, based on the Chinese Five Elements (although, curiously enough, through a small telescope, it does somewhat resemble a circular slice of wood in appearance, with the Red Spot being a "knot").

Overview

Jupiter has been known since ancient times and is visible to the naked eye in the night sky. In 1610, Galileo Galilei discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter using a telescope, the first observation of moons other than Earth's. Jupiter is 2.5 times more massive than all the other planets combined, so massive that its barycenter with the Sun actually lies above the Sun's surface (1.068 solar radii from the Sun's center). It is 318 times more massive than Earth, with a diameter 11 times that of Earth, and with a volume 1300 times that of Earth. As impressive as it is, extrasolar planets have been discovered with much greater masses. There is no clear-cut definition of what distinguishes a large and massive planet such as Jupiter from a brown dwarf star, although the latter possesses rather specific spectral lines. Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition can; adding extra mass would result in further gravitational compression, in theory leading to stellar ignition. This has led some astronomers to term it a "failed star", although Jupiter would need to be about seventy times as massive to become a star. brown dwarf Jupiter also has the fastest rotation rate of any planet within the solar system, making a complete revolution on its axis in slightly less than ten hours, which results in a flattening easily seen through an Earth-based amateur telescope. Its best known feature is probably the Great Red Spot, a storm larger than Earth which was first observed by Galileo four centuries ago. Indeed, mathematical models suggest that the storm is a permanent feature of the planet. Jupiter is perpetually covered with a layer of clouds, and may not have any solid surface. Jupiter is usually the fourth brightest object in the sky (after the Sun, the Moon and Venus; however at times Mars appears brighter than Jupiter, while at others Jupiter appears brighter than Venus). It has been known since ancient times. Galileo Galilei's discovery, in 1610, of Jupiter's four large moons Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto (now known as the Galilean moons) was the first discovery of a celestial motion not apparently centered on the Earth. It was a major point in favor of Copernicus' heliocentric theory of the motions of the planets; Galileo's outspoken support of the Copernican theory got him in trouble with the Inquisition.

Physical characteristics

Planetary composition

Jupiter is composed of a relatively small rocky core, surrounded by metallic hydrogen, surrounded by liquid hydrogen, which is surrounded by gaseous hydrogen. There is no clear boundary or surface between these different phases of hydrogen; the conditions blend smoothly from gas to liquid as one descends.

Atmosphere

gas and a passing white oval.]] Jupiter's atmosphere is composed of ~81% hydrogen and ~18% helium by number of atoms. The atmosphere is ~75%/24% by mass; with ~1% of the mass accounted for by other substances - the interior contains denser materials such that the distribution is ~71%/24%/5%. The atmosphere contains trace amounts of methane, water vapour, ammonia, and "rock". There are also traces of carbon, ethane, hydrogen sulfide, neon, oxygen, phosphine, and sulfur. The outermost layer of the atmosphere contains crystals of frozen ammonia. This atmospheric composition is very close to the composition of the solar nebula. Saturn has a similar composition, but Uranus and Neptune have much less hydrogen and helium. Jupiter's upper atmosphere undergoes differential rotation, an effect first noticed by Giovanni Cassini (1690). The rotation of Jupiter's polar atmosphere is ~5 minutes longer than that of the equatorial atmosphere. In addition, bands of clouds of different latitudes, known as tropical regions flow in opposing directions on the prevailing winds. The interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence. Wind speeds of 600 km/h are not uncommon. A particularly violent storm, about three times Earth's diameter, is known as the Great Red Spot, and has persisted through more than three centuries of human observation. The only spacecraft to have descended into Jupiter's atmosphere to take scientific measurements is the Galileo probe (see Galileo mission).

Planetary rings

Jupiter has a faint planetary ring system composed of smoke-like dust particles knocked from its moons by meteor impacts. The main ring is made of dust from the satellites Adrastea and Metis. Two wide gossamer rings encircle the main ring, originating from Thebe and Amalthea. There is also an extremely tenuous and distant outer ring that circles Jupiter backwards. Its origin is uncertain, but this outer ring might be made of captured interplanetary dust.

Magnetosphere

Jupiter has a very large and powerful magnetosphere. In fact, if you could see Jupiter's magnetic field from Earth, it would appear five times as large as the full moon in the sky despite being so much farther away. This magnetic field collects a large flux of particle radiation in Jupiter's radiation belts, as well as producing a dramatic gas torus and flux tube associated with Io. Jupiter's magnetosphere is the largest planetary structure in the solar system. The Pioneer probes confirmed that Jupiter's enormous magnetic field is 10 times stronger than Earth's and contains 20,000 times as much energy. The sensitive instruments aboard found that the Jovian magnetic field's "north" magnetic pole is at the planet’s geographic south pole, with the axis of the magnetic field tilted 11 degrees from the Jovian rotation axis and offset from the center of Jupiter in a manner similar to the axis of the Earth's field. The Pioneers measured the bow shock of the Jovian magnetosphere to the width of 26 million kilometres (16 million miles), with the magnetic tail extending beyond Saturn’s orbit. The data showed that the magnetic field fluctuates rapidly in size on the sunward side of Jupiter because of pressure variations in the solar wind, an effect studied in further detail by the two Voyager spacecraft. It was also discovered that streams of high-energy atomic particles are ejected from the Jovian magnetosphere and travel as far as the orbit of the Earth. Energetic protons were found and measured in the Jovian radiation belt and electric currents were detected flowing between Jupiter and some of its moons, particularly Io.

Appearance

Source: [http://www.calsky.com/cs.cgi/Planets/6/3?obs=75910112501970 The Calculated Sky]

Exploration of Jupiter

A number of probes have visited Jupiter.

Pioneer flyby missions

Pioneer 10 flew past Jupiter in December of 1973, followed by Pioneer 11 exactly one year later. They provided important new data about Jupiter's magnetosphere, and took some low-resolution photographs of the planet.

Voyager flyby missions

Pioneer 11 Voyager 1 flew by in March 1979 followed by Voyager 2 in July of the same year. The Voyagers vastly improved our understanding of the Galilean moons and discovered Jupiter's rings. They also took the first close up images of the planet's atmosphere.

Ulysses flyby mission

In February 1992, Ulysses solar probe performed a flyby of Jupiter at a distance of 900,000 km (6.3 Jovian radii). The flyby was required to attain a polar orbit around the Sun. The probe conducted studies on Jupiter's magnetosphere. Since there are no cameras onboard the probe, no images were taken. In February 2004, the probe came again in the vicinity of Jupiter. This time distance was much greater, about 240 million km.

Galileo mission

So far the only spacecraft to orbit Jupiter is the Galileo orbiter, which went into orbit around Jupiter in December 7, 1995. It orbited the planet for over seven years and conducted multiple flybys of all of the Galilean moons and Amalthea. The spacecraft also witnessed the impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 into Jupiter as it approached the planet in 1994, giving a unique vantage point for this spectacular event. However, the information gained about the Jovian system from the Galileo mission was limited by the failed deployment of its high-gain radio transmitting antenna. 1994 An atmospheric probe was released from the spacecraft in July, 1995. The probe entered the planet's atmosphere in December 7, 1995. It parachuted through 150 km of the atmosphere, collecting data for 57.6 minutes, before being crushed by the extreme pressure to which it was subjected. It would have melted and vaporized shortly thereafter. The Galileo orbiter itself experienced a more rapid version of the same fate when it was deliberately steered into the planet on September 21, 2003 at a speed of over 50 km/s, in order to avoid any possibility of it crashing into and possibly contaminating Europa, one of the Jovian moons.

Cassini flyby mission

In 2000, the Cassini probe, en route to Saturn, flew by Jupiter and provided some of the highest-resolution images ever made of the planet.

Future probes

NASA is planning a mission to study Jupiter in detail from a polar orbit. Named Juno, the spacecraft is planned to launch by 2010. After the discovery of a liquid ocean on Jupiter's moon Europa, there has been great interest to study the icy moons in detail. A mission proposed by NASA was dedicated to study them. The JIMO (Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter) was expected to be launched sometime after 2012. However, the mission was deemed too ambitious and its funding was cancelled. In 2007, Jupiter will also be briefly visited by the New Horizons probe, en route to Pluto.

Natural satellites

Pluto, Ganymede, Europa and Io.]] Jupiter has at least 63 moons. For a complete listing of these moons, please see Jupiter's natural satellites. For a timeline of their discovery dates, see Timeline of natural satellites. The four large moons, known as the "Galilean moons", are Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto.

Galilean moons

The orbits of Io, Europa, and Ganymede, the largest moon in the solar system, form a pattern known as a Laplace resonance; for every four orbits that Io makes around Jupiter, Europa makes exactly two orbits and Ganymede makes exactly one. This resonance causes the gravitational effects of the three moons to distort their orbits into elliptical shapes, since each moon receives an extra tug from its neighbors at the same point in every orbit it makes. gravitational The tidal force from Jupiter, on the other hand, works to circularize their orbits. This constant tug of war causes regular flexing of the three moons' shapes, Jupiter's gravity stretches the moons more strongly during the portion of their orbits that are closest to it and allowing them to spring back to more spherical shapes when they're farther away. This flexing causes tidal heating of the three moons' cores. This is seen most dramatically in Io's extraordinary volcanic activity, and to a somewhat less dramatic extent in the geologically young surface of Europa indicating recent resurfacing.

Classification of Jupiter's moons

Before the discoveries of the Voyager missions, Jupiter's moons were arranged neatly into four groups of four. Since then, the large number of new small outer moons has complicated this picture. There are now thought to be six main groups, although some are more distinct than others. A basic division is between the eight inner regular moons with nearly circular orbits near the plane of Jupiter's equator, which are believed to have formed with Jupiter, and an unknown number of small irregular moons, with elliptical and inclined orbits, which are believed to be captured asteroids or fragments of captured asteroids. tidal force.]] #Regular moons ##The inner group of four small moons all have diameters of less than 200 km, orbit at radii less than 200,000 km, and have orbital inclinations of less than half a degree. ##The four Galilean moons were all discovered by Galileo Galilei, orbit between 400,000 and 2,000,000 km, and include some of the largest moons in the solar system. #Irregular moons ##Themisto is in a group of its own, orbiting halfway between the Galilean moons and the next group. ##The Himalia group is a tightly clustered group of moons with orbits around 11-12,000,000 km from Jupiter. ##Carpo is another isolated case; at the inner edge of the Ananke group, it revolves in the direct sense. ##The Ananke group is a group with rather indistinct borders, averaging 21,276,000 km from Jupiter with an average inclination of 149 degrees. ##The Carme group is a fairly distinct group that averages 23,404,000 km from Jupiter with an average inclination of 165 degrees. ##The Pasiphaë group is a dispersed and only vaguely distinct group that covers all the outermost moons. It is thought that the groups of outer moons may each have a common origin, perhaps as a larger moon or captured body that broke up.

Life on Jupiter

It is considered highly unlikely that there is any life on Jupiter, as there is little to no water in the atmosphere and any solid surface Jupiter would be under extraordinary pressures. However, in 1976, before the Voyager missions, Carl Sagan hypothesized (with Edwin E. Salpeter) that ammonia-based life could evolve in Jupiter's upper atmosphere. Sagan and Salpeter based this hypothesis on the ecology of terrestrial seas which have simple photosynthetic plankton at the top level, fish at lower levels feeding on these creatures, and marine predators which hunt the fish. The Jovian equivalents Sagan and Saltpeter hypothesized were "sinkers," "floaters," and "hunters." The "floaters" would be giant bags of gas functioning along the lines of hot air balloons, using their own metabolism (feeding off sunlight and free molecules) to keep their gas warm. The "hunters" would be almost squid-like creatures, using jets of gas to propel themselves into "floaters" and consume them. [http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/J/Jupiterlife.html] These ideas are only hypotheses and there is currently no way to prove or disprove them.

Trojan asteroids

In addition to its moons, Jupiter's gravitational field controls numerous asteroids which have settled into the Lagrangian points preceding and following Jupiter in its orbit around the sun. These are known as the Trojan asteroids, and are divided into Greek and Trojan "camps" to commemorate the Iliad. The first of these, 588 Achilles, was discovered by Max Wolf in 1906; since then hundreds more have been discovered. The largest is 624 Hektor.

Cometary impact

624 Hektor During the period July 16 to July 22, 1994, over twenty fragments from the comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 hit Jupiter's southern hemisphere, providing the first direct observation of a collision between two solar system objects. It is thought that due to Jupiter's large mass and location near the inner solar system it receives the most frequent comet impacts of the solar system's planets.

Jupiter in fiction and film

- In Voltaire's Micromégas (1752), the eponymous hero and his Saturnian companion stop on Jupiter for a year, where they "learned some very remarkable secrets".
- In H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos (1928–...), Jupiter was the one-time home of the flying polyps.
- In the Doctor Who (1963–...) story "Revenge of the Cybermen", Jupiter is the setting for the Nerva Beacon, a fictional space station that monitors its fictional new moon (Voga - the Planet of Gold) which once more brings the Cybermen into our Solar System.
- In the Star Trek universe (1966–...), Jupiter is home to Jupiter Station.
- Jupiter is the setting of Stanley Kubrick's classic film 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), although the novel of the same name by Sir Arthur C. Clarke is set in the Saturnian system instead. In both the book and the film of the sequel, 2010: Odyssey Two (1984), fictional technology converts Jupiter into a star by increasing the density of its core.
- In Piers Anthony's Bio of A Space Tyrant series (1983–2001), Jupiter is rendered into an analogue of North America. The moons are the Caribbean (and possibly Central America as well), Jupiter itself is inhabited by floating cities in its atmosphere to represent the United States, and the Red Spot represents Mexico.
- The novels of Kim Stanley Robinson, including The Memory of Whiteness (1985), Green Mars (1993) and Blue Mars (1996) depict numerous ideas about the future colonization of Jupiter, although they focus more on the moons than on the planet itself.
- Both Arthur C. Clarke's novella A Meeting with Medusa (1988) and his novel 2010 depict journeys into the depths of Jupiter's atmosphere, where vast, city-sized floating life-forms have evolved.
- In the anime Gunbuster (1988), Jupiter is used to create the black hole bomb, a massive weapon larger than a small planet, and capable of destroying part of a galaxy. (In fact, a Jupiter-mass black hole would be barely 6 m across, and no more of a threat to the Galaxy than it is right now)
- The role-playing game Jovian Chronicles (1992) features a solar nation, the Jovian Confederacy, in a series of space colony cylinders called "Gray Viarium" colonies around Jupiter.
- The plot of the anime Martian Successor Nadesico (1996) revolves around a mysterious invasion force based on Jupiter, named the "Jovian Lizards", or simply the "Jovians", and the attempts of Earth's forces, and specifically the ship Nadesico, to subdue this invasion.
- Jupiter is an important location in The Night's Dawn Trilogy (1996–1999) by Peter F. Hamilton. This is where the first Bitek habitat was germinated and Edenism began.
- In the anime Cowboy Bebop (1998), various episodes take place on Jupiter's moons. In, "Mushroom Samba",the crew was on its way to Europa, but had to land on Io. The two part "Jupiter Jazz" episodes takes part on Callisto, and "Ganymede Elegy", obviously takes place on Ganymede.
- In the anime Bishoujo Senshi Sailor Moon (1992), Sailor Jupiter is a soldier representing the planet. Since her mythology character (Romans' Jupiter and Greek's Zeus) is a male, her character appears somewhat tomboyish, and more of a born-leader. Also in mythology, Zeus's weapon involves lightning, Jupiter's attacks are also based on the same element (e.g. Jupiter Lightning Blast). Her image colour is green.
- The PlayStation 2 video game Zone of the Enders (2001) takes place in a colony orbiting Jupiter. Zone of the Enders: The 2nd Runner begins on the moon Callisto.
- Ben Bova's novel Jupiter (2001) also features a journey into Jupiter's clouds and the discovery of life there.
- In the massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) Earth and Beyond (2002), the Jupiter system is colonized by the explorer race of the Jenquai. Jove City rests in orbit around Jupiter, and was the second most populated station in the known galaxy before being devastated by the Progen Warriors.
- The anime Planetes (2003) features a planned seven year trip to explore Jupiter and its moons, using a ship powered by a Tandem Mirror Engine.
- In Arthur C. Clarke's Space Odyssey Series, Jupiter was renamed Lucifer after its transformation into Earth's second sun. William Milton Cooper's book Behold a Pale Horse described a secret illuminati plan to detonate the planet by means of the Cassini-Huygens space probe.
- In the Dragon Ball Z manga series created by Akira Toriyama, female character Bulma Briefs and Earth Kami assitant Mr.Popo reach Jupiter in less than a minute using Kami's spaceship, which they needed to reach the Planet Namek, which was impossible to reach with the technology available at that moment in the series. One month later Bulma's father completes a spaceship model capable of making the journey!

Jupiter and Internet conspiracists

Although the theory of the intentional detonation of Jupiter predates the internet, the web spawned at least one theory of its own. On October 19, 2003 a black spot was photographed on Jupiter by Belgian astronomer Olivier Meeckers [http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/jupiter_dark_spot_031023.html]. Although not an unusual occurrence, this one caught the fancy of some science fiction fans and conspiracy theorists, who went as far as speculating that the spot was evidence of nuclear activity on Jupiter, caused by Galileo's plunge into the planet a month prior [http://www.enterprisemission.com/NukingJupiter.html]. Galileo carried about 15.6 kg [http://www.resa.net/nasa/engineer.htm] of plutonium-238 as its power source, in the form of 144 pellets of plutonium dioxide, a ceramic [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/messenger/oldmess/RTG.html] [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/faqpow.html]. The individual pellets (which would be expected to separate during entry) initially contained about 108 grams of ²³⁸Pu each (about 10% would have decayed away by the time Galileo entered Jupiter), and are short of the required critical mass by a factor of about 100 [http://sti.srs.gov/fulltext/ms9900313/ms9900313.html].

References

- Bagenal, F. & Dowling, T. E. & McKinnon, W. B. (Eds.). (2004). Jupiter: The planet, satellites, and magnetosphere. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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External links

- [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/jupiterfact.html NASA's Jupiter fact sheet]
- [http://www.vias.org/spacetrip/jupiter_1.html A Trip Into Space] Data and photos on Jupiter
- [http://pages.preferred.com/%7Etedstryk/innersat.html Jupiter's Inner Moons]
- [http://www.ibiblio.org//e-notes/VRML/Globe/Globe.htm 3D VRML Jupiter globe] and it's satellites Io, Callisto, Europa and Ganymede (moon navigator) | Jupiter | Metis | ...
- als:Jupiter (Planet) ko:목성 ms:Musytari ja:木星 simple:Jupiter (planet) th:ดาวพฤหัสบดี

Dyaus Pita

In vedic religion, Dyaus Pita is the Sky Father, husband of Prthivi and father of Agni and Indra (RV 4.17.4). His origins can be traced to the Indo-European sky god
- Dyeus, who is also reflected as Zeus in Greek mythology, Jupiter (from Latin Iove pater, "father-god") in Roman mythology, Div in Slavic mythology and Tyr in Norse mythology. Sharing a fate similar to nordic Tyr's, already in the Rig Veda, Dyaus Pita is all but featureless, appearing in hymns 1.89, 1.90, 1.164, 1.191 and 4.1 in simple invocations. In RV 1.89.4b, Pita Dyaus "Father Sky" appears alongside Mata Prthivi "Mother Earth". Details of the myth are sketchy, but Indra seems to have killed his father (RV 4.18.12). Thomas Oberlies tentatively identifies Asura and Dyaus in pre-vedic religion (both appear as Indra's father, but Asura is never associated with Prthivi, so there is a possibility of two conflicting myths). In art, he appears in two different forms: as a red bull who bellows thunder, or as a black horse adorned with pearls, symbolizing the stars.

Literature

- Thomas Oberlies, Die Religion des Rgveda, Wien 1998. Category:Hindu gods

Latium

:For the football club, see S.S. Lazio ---- Latium (Lazio in Italian) is a region of central Italy, bordered by Tuscany, Umbria, Abruzzo, Molise, Campania and the Tyrrhenian Sea. It comprises 5 provinces: Rome, Viterbo, Latina, Frosinone and Rieti. Regional capital is Rome. Current President of the Region is Piero Marrazzo (center-left, elected 2005).

Etymology

The name of the region also survives in the tribal designation of the ancient population of Latins, from whom the Romans originated. In Roman mythology, the shadowy king Latinus (or Latium) allegedly gave his name to the region. Modern linguists postulate origins in a Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) root
- stela- (to spread, extend), expressing the idea of "flat land" (in contrast to the local Sabine high country). But the name may originate from an earlier, non Indo-European one. See the [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=latium&searchmode=none Online Etymological Dictionary]. Since Latium is respected more as a designation for ancient Rome, it is not used as a label on maps or globes.

History

The Latins founded a group of small settlements that united against the Etruscans and Samnites, and which came under Roman dominance in 338 BC. Rome granted all Latins Roman citizenship after the Social War in 90 BC. Latium has great importance for history, art, architecture, archaeology, religion, and culture in general. The immense patrimony of the city of Rome forms only a part of the treasures spread over the hundreds of towns, villages, abbeys, churches, monuments, and other sites of the region.

Notable cities

- Rome (Roma) (pop. 2,546,807), capital city of the region
- Anzio, birthplace of Nero, site of Allied landings in World War II
- Cassino, site of famous monastery and fierce World War II battle
- Castel Gandolfo, summer residence of the Pope
- Cerveteri, site of one of the two best preserved Etruscan necropoli in Italy
- Civitavecchia, the region's principal port
- Frosinone (pop. 45,128), capital city of the Frosinone province (pop. 477,950)
- Latina (pop. 108,711), capital city of the Latina province (pop. 489,599)
- Ostia, the ancient Roman port of Rome
- Rieti (pop. 41,394), capital city of the Rieti province (pop. 151,000)
- Tarquinia, site of the other of the two best preserved Etruscan necropoli in Italy
- Tivoli, site of Hadrian's Villa
- Viterbo (pop. 60,387), capital city of the Viterbo province (pop. 285,254)
- Frascati city of the wine, well known in central-western Europe

External links

- [http://www.regione.lazio.it/home.shtml Official Site of the Regione Lazio] (in Italian)
- [http://www.italy-weather-and-maps.com/maps/italy/lazio.gif Map of Lazio] Category:Lazio Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe ja:ラツィオ州

Pluvius

In Roman mythology, Jupiter Pluvius was the reliever of droughts. See Jupiter (god) for more details. The name could also be used to describe the Hyades. Category:Roman gods Category:Sky and weather gods

Plutarch

Mestrius Plutarchus (ca. 46- 127) was a Greek historian, biographer, and essayist. Born in the small town of Chaeronea, in the Greek region known as Boeotia, probably during the reign of the Roman Emperor Claudius, Plutarch travelled widely in the Mediterranean world, including twice to Rome. Due to his parents' wealth, after 67, Plutarchus was able to study philosophy, rhetoric, and mathematics at the Academy of Athens. He had a number of influential friends, including Soscius Senecio and Fundanus, both important Senators, to whom some of his later writings were dedicated. He lived most of his life at Chaeronea, and was initiated into the mysteries of the Greek god Apollo. However, his duties as the senior of the two priests of Apollo at the Oracle of Delphi (where he was responsible for interpreting the auguries of the Pythia or priestess/oracle) apparently occupied little of his time - he led an active social and civic life and produced an incredible body of writing, much of which is still extant.

Work as magistrate and ambassador

In addition to his duties as a priest of the Delphic temple, Plutarch was also a magistrate in Chaeronea and he represented his home on various missions to foreign countries during his early adult years. His friend Lucius Mestrius Florus, a Roman consul, sponsored Plutarch as a Roman citizen and, according to the 10th century historian George Syncellus, late in life, the Emperor Hadrian appointed him procurator of Achaea - a position that entitled him to wear the vestments and ornaments of a consul himself. (The Suda, a medieval Greek encyclopedia, states that Hadrian's predecessor Trajan made Plutarch procurator of Illyria, but most historians consider that unlikely, since Illyria was not a procuratorial province, and Plutarch probably did not speak Illyrian).

Parallel Lives

His best-known work is the Parallel Lives, a series of biographies of famous Greeks and Romans, arranged as dyads to illuminate their common moral virtues or failings. The surviving Lives contain twenty-three pairs of biographies, each pair containing one Greek Life and one Roman Life, as well as four unpaired single Lives. As he explains in the first paragraph of his Life of Alexander, Plutarch was not concerned with writing histories, as such, but in exploring the influence of character — good or bad — on the lives and destinies of famous men. Some of the more interesting Lives — for instance, those of Heracles and Philip II of Macedon — no longer exist, and many of the remaining Lives are truncated, contain obvious lacunae, or have been tampered with by later writers.

Life of Alexander

His Life of Alexander is one of the five surviving tertiary sources about the Macedonian conqueror and it includes anecdotes and descriptions of incidents that appear in no other source. Likewise, his portrait of Numa Pompilius, an early Roman king, also contains unique information about the early Roman calendar.

Other works

The Moralia

The remainder of his surviving work is collected under the title of the Moralia (loosely translated as Customs and Mores). It is an eclectic collection of seventy-eight essays and transcribed speeches, which includes On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great - an important adjunct to his Life of the great general, On the Worship of Isis and Osiris (a crucial source of information on Egyptian religious rites), and On the Malice of Herodotus (which may, like the orations on Alexander's accomplishments, have been a rhetorical exercise), wherein Plutarch criticizes what he sees as systematic bias in the Herodotus's work, along with more philosophical treatises, such as On the Decline of the Oracles, On the Delays of the Divine Vengeance, On Peace of Mind and lighter fare, such as Odysseus and Gryllus, a humorous dialogue between Homer's Ulysses and one of Circe's enchanted pigs. The Moralia was composed first, while writing the Lives occupied much of the last two decades of Plutarch's own life. Some editions of the Moralia include several works now known to be pseudepigrapha: among these are the Lives of the Ten Orators (biographies of the Ten Orators of ancient Athens, based on Caecilius of Calacte), The Doctrines of the Philosophers, and On Music. One "pseudo-Plutarch" is held responsible for all of these works, though their authorship is of course unknown. Though the thoughts and opinions recorded are not Plutarch's and come from a slightly later era, they are all classical in origin and have value to the historian.

Quaestiones

A pair of interesting minor works is the Questions, one on obscure details of Roman habits and cult, one on Greek ones.

Plutarch's influence

Plutarch's writings had enormous influence on English and French literature. In his plays, Shakespeare paraphrased parts of Thomas North's translation of selected Lives, and occasionally quoted from them verbatim. Ralph Waldo Emerson and the Transcendentalists were greatly influenced by the Moralia (Emerson wrote a glowing introduction to the five volume 19th century edition of his Moralia). Boswell quoted Plutarch's line about writing lives, rather than biographies in the introduction to his own Life of Samuel Johnson. His other admirers include Ben Jonson, John Dryden, Alexander Hamilton, John Milton, and Sir Francis Bacon, as well as such disparate figures as Cotton Mather, Robert Browning and Montaigne (whose own Essays draw deeply on Plutarch's Moralia for their inspiration and ideas).

Quotes

"Wickedness frames the engines of her own torment. She is a wonderful artisan of a miserable life." "It is a desirable thing to be well descended, but the glory belongs to our ancestors." "The mind is not a vessel to be filled but a fire to be kindled." "But for the sake of some little mouthful of flesh, we deprive a soul of the sun and light and of that proportion of life and time it had been born into the world to enjoy."

External links

-
- A [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#LIFE_OF_PLUTARCH biography of Plutarch] is included in: , 18th century English translation under the editorship of Dryden (further edited by Arthur Hugh Clough).
- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/home.html Plutarch page at LacusCurtius] (20th century English translation of most of the Lives, On the Fortune or Virtue of Alexander, On the Fortune of the Romans, Roman Questions, and other excerpts of the Moralia)
- [http://www.livius.org/pi-pm/plutarch/plutarch.htm Plutarch of Chaeronea] by Jona Lendering at Livius.Org
- [http://www.usu.edu/history/ploutarchos/index.htm The International Plutarch Society]

References

- Plutarch's "Lives" by Alan Wardman ISBN 0236176226
- Plutarch's "Lives: exploring virtue and vice" by Timothy E. Duff (Oxford UP: 2002 pb) ISBN 0199252742.
- "The Echo of Greece" by Edith Hamilton. The Norton Library, W.W. Norton and Company, Inc. 1957. p. 194. ISBN 0393002314. (Quote) Category:45 births Category:120 deaths Category:Ancient Greeks Category:Essayists Category:Roman era biographers Category:Vegetarians ja:プルタルコス

Livy

Titus Livius (around 59 BC - 17 AD), known as Livy in English, wrote a monumental history of Rome, Ab Urbe Condita, from its founding (traditionally dated to 753 BC through the reign of Augustus. Livy was a native of Padua on the Po River in northern Italy.

Life and works

The book's title, Ab Urbe Condita ("From the Founding of the City"), makes Livy's ambition clear, but not his method. He wrote in a mixture of annual chronology and narrative—often having to interrupt a story to announce the elections of new consuls as this was the way that the Romans kept track of the years. A lack of historical data prior to the sacking of Rome in 386 BC by the Gauls made Livy's task more difficult. Livy wrote the majority of his works during the reign of Caesar Augustus, in fact, he was hired by Augustus to write the stories and was part of the Augustan Literary Circle. However, he is often identified with an attachment to the Roman Republic and a desire for its restoration. Since the later books discussing the end of the Republic and the rise of Augustus did not survive, this is a moot point. Certainly Livy questioned some of the values of the new regime but it is likely that his position was more complex than a simple 'republic/empire' preference. Livy's work was originally composed of 142 books, of which only 35 are extant; these are 1-10, and 21-45 (with major lacunae in 40-45). A fragmentary palimpsest of the 91st book was discovered in the Vatican Library in 1772, containing about a thousand words, and several papyrus fragments of previously unknown material, much smaller, have been found in Egypt since 1900, most recently about forty words from book 11, unearthed in the 1980's. Some idea of the contents of the remaining books can be gleaned from a thin epitome, the Periochae, and an epitome of books 37-40 and 48-55 uncovered at Oxyrhynchus. A number of Roman authors used Livy, including Aurelius Victor, Cassiodorus, Eutropius, Festus, Florus, Granius Licinianus and Orosius. Julius Obsequens used Livy, or a source with access to Livy, to compose his De Prodigiis, an account of supernatural events in Rome, from the consulship of Scipio and Laelius (A.U.C. 453) to that of Paulus Fabius and Quintus Aelius (A.U.C. 742). A digression in book 9, sections 17-19 suggests that the Romans would have beaten Alexander the Great if he lived longer and turned west to attack the Romans, making this the oldest known alternative history.

External links and references

- [http://www.uah.edu/student_life/organizations/SAL/texts/latin/classical/livy/aburbe.html Text of Ab Urbe Condita]
- [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/liv.html Complete works of Livy]
- [http://www.livius.org/li-ln/livy/periochae/periochae00.html Text of the Periochae]
- Category:Roman era historians Category:59 BC births Category:17 deaths Category:Natives of Padua ja:ティトゥス・リウィウス

Numa Pompilius

Numa Pompilius (April 21, 753 BC - 674 BC) succeeded Romulus as the second King of Rome. Though he was a Sabine by birth, the Romans selected him as their king to better unite the Romans and Sabines as one. During his reign the great cultural integration between the Romans and Sabines into one occurred. His reign was marked by a period of both great religious advancements but also of over forty years of continues peace. Though his successor Tullus Hostilius would be remember as the complete opposite to Numa, his biological grandson would serve as the fourth King of Rome and continue Numa's legacy of peace and religious devotion.

Early Life

Numa Pompilius was born on the day Romulus founded the city of Rome. He was the youngest of four sons to Pomponius, an illustrious man. He lived in the Sabine city of Cures and lived a severe life of discipline and he banished all luxury from his home. He was endued with a soul rarely tempered by nature, and disposed to virtue, which he had yet more subdued by discipline and the study of philosophy. He tried to expelling the baser passions by reason and the rule of law. While friends and strangers alike found in him an incorruptible judge and counselor, in private he devoted himself not to amusement or self gratification, but to the worship of the gods, and rational contemplation of their divine power and nature. So famous was he, that Titus Tatius, the short-lived joint king with Romulus, chose him for his son-in-law, and gave him his only daughter, Tatia, which, however, did not stimulate his desire to dwell with his father-in-law at Rome. He rather chose to live with his Sabine friends, and care for his own father in his old age. Tatia, also, preferred the private conditions of her husband’s life in Cures over the honors and splendor she might have enjoyed with her father in Rome. Tatia is said to have died after the two had been married for thirteen years. She had produce Numa one daughter, Pompilia who married Marcius II and had the future fourth King of Rome, Ancus Marcius. Numa also had four sons by Tatia, Pompo, Pinus, Calpus and Mamercus. However, the claim that from them descended the noble families of Pomponii, Pinarii, Calpurnii and Aemilii was a lie invented after the earliest records were destroyed by the Gauls when they sack Rome in 387 BC. Upon Tatia’s death, Numa left Cures, and retired to country life, when he lived in a solitary manner growing groves, tending to the fields and concentrating on the gods.

Accent to the Throne

In the year 716 BC, after almost 38 years of unchallenged rule, Romulus was dead. Though it was though that the Senate had him killed, it was forgotten once the voted him divine rights as the god Quirinius. The controversy following Romulus’ death was quickly followed by who would succeed him. Controversy surround this issue for the Sabines and Romans had not yet grown into perfect unity, however they all agreed that a king would be needed. As was to be expected, the Romans wanted a Roman king and the Sabines wanted a Sabine king. The Romans argued that they had already given a share of their land to the Sabines while the Sabines argued that after Tatius’ death they willing submitted to the sole rule of Romulus without objection. To the Sabines, it was their turn to have a king chosen from their own people. While both parties argued over Romulus’ successor, discord fell upon Rome. So it was agreed by the Senate to appoint an Interrx to fill the king’s place until an appropriate replacement could be elected. This Interrex offered up the solemn sacrifices to the gods and dispatched with public business with the position being rotated between the hundred Senators from day to day. This form of government is termed by the Romans as interregnum. However, the people soon grew suspicious of the Senators, believing that the Senators were changing the form of government to an oligarchy, and designing to keep the supreme power in a sort of ward-ship under the Senate, without ever proceeding to choose a king. Under pressure from the people of Rome, both parties finally came to the conclusion that the one should choose a king out of the body of the other: with the Romans making a choice out of the Sabines, or the Sabines naming a Roman, this way the King would owe allegiance to one party for electing him and the other party as his family. Though the Sabines nominated a Roman, the Romans would rather see a Sabine king elected by Romans then a Roman king elected by Sabines. Consultations being accordingly held, they named Numa Pompilius, of the Sabine race, a person of high reputation for excellence, even though he did not actually residing in Rome. When his name was submitted to the Sabines, they rejoiced with greater pleasure than the Romans who nominated him. Once the choice was declared and made known to the people, principal men of both the Romans and Sabines were appointed to visit and entice him so that he would accept the administration of the government of Rome. Numa was around 38 years old when the ambassadors came to make him offers for the kingship. In presence of his father and his son-in-law Marcius he declined the kingship. Numa told the ambassadors that he enjoyed his peaceful life in the country. He said that Romulus had right to hold the office since Romulus was of divine birth, but that he was only a mere mortal. He argued that Romulus and the Romans were warlike people and that he did not possess the traits needed to leader a war like people because he was more a farmer than a soldier. He even went as for to say that he seemed pointless to teach the ways of the gods and give lessons in the love of justice and hatred of war to a city who had greater need for a general than for a king. The ambassadors upon hear Numa’s decline became more urgent with that the people would follow him despite his mortal birth and peaceful nature. They told him that during the confusion of the Interrex, no other person was agreed upon by both the Romans and Sabines. However it was his father and Marcius that persuaded him to accept the kingship as a gift from the gods and not man. Pomponius convinced Numa that hold the office would be a great service to the gods through his qualities of justice and wisdom, to use the kingship to magnify the worship of the gods and introduce habits of piety and mercy to the Romans. Before Numa made his final decision, he took an auspicious from the gods showing divine support for his reign. Even the people of Cures came to him and asked him to accept the kingship of Rome as a means to bring the two races together. Numa, yielding to their plies, acceded the offer for the kingship and proceeded to Rome. While on the road to the city, he was meet not only by the Roman Senate but by all the people of Rome, who, with an impatient desire, came forth to receive him. The crowds welcomed him with joyful acclamations, and sacrifices were offered for him in all the temples, and so universal was the joy, that people seemed to be receiving not a new king, but a new kingdom. In this procession he descended into the future site of the Roman Forum, where Spurius Vettius, whose was the current be Interrex, put Numa before the Senate in a vote. The Senators unanimously elected him King of Rome. Then the robes and symbols of authority were brought to him, but he refused to bear them until he had first consulted and been confirmed by the gods. The priests and augurs accompanied Numa and ascented to the top of the Capitoline Hill. The chief of the augurs covered Numa's head, turned his face towards the south, and, standing behind him, laid his hand on his head and prayed. As he prayed the other augurs watched in expectation of some auspicious signal from the gods. Meanwhile, with what silence and devotion, the people of Rome stood assembled in the forum in similar expectation and suspense, until auspicious birds appeared and passed over head. Then Numa, dawning in his royal robes, descended from the Capitoline to the people, who received him with congratulated, welcoming him as a holy king who was beloved of all the gods.

Reign and Religious Reforms

The first thing Numa did after his entrance into government was to dismiss the Celeres, a band of three hundred men who had served as Romulus' personal guard. He justified this in saying that he would not distrust those who put confidence in him, nor would he rule over a people that distrusted him. He then focused his attention upon the worship of the gods. While Romulus may have founded the augurs, he had even been the greatest augur of all, he did little to honor the gods themselves aside from building a few temples within Rome. Since Romulus had been defied as the god Quirinius, Numa added a special priest dedicated to the serve of him, the Flamen Quirinalis. The Flamen Quirinalis jointed the Flamen Dialis and the Flamen Martialis, chief priests to Jupiter and Mars respectively, to form the Archaic Triad, the three flamines maiores. Granting Romulus recognition as equal along Jupiter and Mars won the favor and affection of the people. He used his new found popularity to begin the task of bringing the hard iron Roman temper of violence and war to one of gentleness and justice. Numa faced a huge challenge for the population saw Rome’s perpetual wars and incursions on its neighbors as a means of growth and substance. As a means to an end, Numa began a huge religious campaign. He sacrificed often and used processions and religious dances, in which most commonly he offered in person, to demonstrate to the Romans how to treat the gods. At times he also filled their imaginations with religious terrors, professing that strange apparitions had been seen, and dreadful voices heard; thus subduing their warmongering and humbling their minds by a sense of supernatural fears. Numa also instituted the original constitution of the priests, called Pontifices, and he himself was the first of them, as Romulus had been with the augurs. The office of Pontifex Maximus, or chief priest, was instituted to serve as the head of the Roman Religion after the King. The Pontifex Maximus was to declare and interpret the divine law, and to preside over sacred rites. He not only prescribed rules for public ceremony, but regulated the sacrifices of private persons, making certain they did not vary from established custom, and giving information to every one of what was requisite for purposes of worship or supplication. He was also placed as the guardian of the Vestal Virgins, the institution of whom, and of their perpetual fire, is attributed to Numa. He even build the Temple of Vesta which still stands today.

The Ancilia and Salii

In the eighth year of the reign of Numa, a terrible pestilence, which traversed all Italy, ravaged the city of Rome. The citizens were in distress and despondent, when (according to legend) a brazen shield fell from heaven into hands of Numa called the Anchilia. It was believed that the shield possessed the cure and instructions for the safety of the city. Numa was instructed to command the Vestal Virgins to use the waters of a spring which was sacred to Vesta to wash and cleanse the Temple of Vesta with its holy waters. After the Vestals had done as Numa had ordered, the pestilence ceased and good health return rapidly. To keep the shield safe, Numa ordered his blacksmiths to make eleven others, so like in dimensions and form to the original that no thief should be able to distinguish the true from the counterfeit. The keeping of these shields was committed to the charge of priests to Mars called Salii. Every March, the Salli carried the sacred shield through the city, during the procession they wear a short purple tunic, a breastplate, a short red cloak, a brass helmet, and a gladius, with which they would clash against the shields. After Numa had instituted these orders of priests, he erected, near the Temple of Vesta, what is called to this day Regia, or king's house, where he spent most of his time performing divine service, instructing the priests, or conversing with them on sacred subjects. In all public processions and solemn prayers, criers were sent before to give notice to the people that they should forbear their work, and rest. Numa wished that his citizens should neither see nor hear any religious service in a perfunctory and inattentive manner, but, laying aside all other occupations, should apply their minds to religion as to a most serious business; and that the streets should be free from all noises and cries that accompany manual labor, and clear for the sacred solemnity.

Administration

Numa next set his eyes on land distribution. It is very clear that it was this king who first prescribed bounds to the territory of Rome. Romulus never placed boundaries on the lands which had had taken from his neighbors because he saw them not as a defense to those who choose to observe them, but only a testimony against the dishonesty of those who break through them. However, the truth is, the portion of lands which the Romans possessed at the beginning was very small, until Romulus enlarged them by war. All of those acquisitions Numa now divided amongst the people of Rome, wishing to turn the people to husbandry, to bring them, as well as their lands, into better order. Numa knew there is no employment that gives so keen and quick a desire for peace as husbandry and a country life which also leaves in men courage that makes them ready to fight in defense of their country. Numa, hoping agriculture would be a sort of charm to captivate the affections of his people to peace, and viewing it rather as a means to moral than to economical profit, divided all the lands into several parcels, to which he gave the name of pagus, or parish, and over every one of them he ordained chief overseers. He even took delight in sometimes inspecting his colonies in person, forming judgment of every man’s habits by his results. But of all his measures the most commended was his distribution of the people by their trades into companies or guilds. By distinguishing the whole people by the several arts and trades, he formed the companies of musicians, goldsmiths, carpenters, dyers, shoemakers, skinners, braziers, and potters; and all other handicraftsmen he composed and reduced into a single company, appointing every one their proper courts, councils, and religious observances. In this manner all factious distinctions ended, the new division became a source of general harmony and intermixture. For the first time no person was thought of as or spoken of as being either a Sabine or a Roman, simply a citizen of Rome. He attempted, also, the formation of a calendar, not with absolute exactness, yet not without some scientific knowledge. During the reign of Romulus, they had let their months run on without any certain or equal term; some of them contained twenty days, others thirty-five, others more; they had no sort of knowledge of the inequality in the motions of the sun and moon; they only kept to the one rule that the whole course of the year contained three hundred and sixty days. Numa, calculating the difference between the lunar and the solar year at eleven days, for that the moon completed her anniversary course in three hundred and fifty-four days, and the sun in three hundred and sixty-five. Numa’s calendar consisted of January (29 days), February (28 days), March (31 days), April (29 days), May (31 days), June (29 days), Quintilis (31 days), Sextilis (29 days), September (29 days), October (31 days), November (29 days), December (29 days). The months Quintilis and Sextilis were later renamed July and August after Julius Caesar and Caesar Augustus, respectively. Numa added the months January and February to the Roman Calender. The Romans, at first, comprehended the whole year within ten, and not twelve months, plainly appears by the name of the last, December, meaning the tenth month and that March was the first is likewise evident, for the fifth month after it was called Quintilis, and the sixth Sextilis, and so on. Though originally following December in sequence, Numa later decreed to begin the year on the month of Janurary, named after the Roman god of doors, Janus. For this Janus was certainly seen a great lover of civil and social unity, and one who reclaimed men from brutal and savage living. For this reason they figure him with two faces, to represent the two states and conditions: one of which he brought mankind out of and the other he lead them into. His temple at Rome has two gates, which they call the Gates of War, because they stand open in the time of war, and shut in the times of peace. During the reign of Numa, those gates were never seen open a single day, but continued constantly shut for a space of forty-three years together, for such an entire and universal cessation of war existed. Numa had not only softened and charmed the people of Rome into a peaceful temper, but even the neighboring cities began to experience a change of feeling, and partook in the general longing for the sweets of peace and order. Festival days and sports, and the secure and peaceful interchange of friendly visits and hospitalities prevailed all through the whole of Italy occurred. Love of virtue and justice flowed from Numa's wisdom to all of Italy. For during the whole reign of Numa, there was neither war, nor sedition, nor innovation in the state, nor any envy or ill-will to his person, nor plot or conspiracy from views of ambition. Either fear of the gods that were thought to watch over him, or reverence for his virtue, or divine felicity of fortune that in his days preserved human innocence, made his reign, by whatever means, a living example of the use of virtue to control and master vice.

Death and Legacy

Numa lived seventy-nine years, and was not taken out of the world by a sudden disease, but died of old age and by a gradual and gentle decline in the year 673 BC. At his funeral all the glories of his life were consummated, when all the neighboring states in alliance and amity with Rome met to honor and grace the rites of his interment with garlands and public presents. The Senators carried the bier on which his corpse was laid, and the priests followed and accompanied the solemn procession while a general crowd, in which women and children took part, followed with such cries and weeping as if they had lost a most dear relation taken away in the prime of life, and not an old and worn-down king. It is said that his body, by his particular command, was not burnt, but that they made, in conformity with his order, two stone coffins, and buried both under the Janiculum Hill, in one of which his body was laid, and the other his sacred books, on which he had written out for himself. Numa was remember as an even great king then has was as the succeeding five kings served as foils to set off the brightness of his reputation. The fifth king after him, Tarquinius Superbus, ended his old age in banishment, being deposed from his crown. Of the other four, three (Ancus Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius) were assassinated and murdered by treason. The other, who was Tullus Hostilius, who immediately succeeded Numa, derided his virtues, and especially his devotion to religious worship. Hostilius viewed worship of the gods as a cowardly and mean-spirited occupation, and diverted the minds of the people to war. Aside from Romulus (possibly even surpassing him), no other king was ever seen as deeply devoted to the gods as he.

External links

- [http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/numa_pom.html The Life of Numa Pompilius]
- [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#LIFE_OF_NUMA Numa Pompilius' life] according to Plutarch on the Project Gutenberg website.
Category:673 BC deaths Category:Ancient Romans Category:Classical oracles

Mars/God

Mars was the Roman god of war, the son of Juno and a magical flower (or Jupiter). As the word has no Indo-European derivation, it is most likely the Latinized version of the Etruscan god, Maris. Initially the Roman god of fertility and vegetation, and protector of cattle, the Mars deity later became associated with battle. He was the very tutelary god of Rome, legendary father of Romulus. He is identified with the Greek god Ares. As the god of spring, when his major festivals were held, he presided over agriculture in general. In his warlike aspect, Mars was offered sacrifices before combat and was said to appear on the battlefield accompanied by Bellona, a warrior goddess variously identified as his wife, sister or daughter or cousin. His wife was also said to be Nerio. Nerio In Rome, his primary temple was on the Capitol, shared with Jupiter and Quirinus. The temple to Mars Ultor ("the avenger") was in the Forum Augustus. Another temple to Mars Gradivus ("he who precedes the army in battle") was where the army gathered before leaving for a war and praised upon return and victory of a war. The Campus Martius ("field of Mars") was dedicated to him; it was where soldiers and athletes trained. Mars was called Mavors in some poetry (Virgil VIII, 630), and Mamers was his Oscan name. In the Regia on the Forum Romanum, the hastae Martiae were kept in a small chamber. Any movement of the hastae Martiae, the "lances of Mars," was seen as an omen of war. If Rome was attacking, the generals moved lances and repeated Mars vigila ("Mars awaken"). On March 1, the Feriae Marti was celebrated. On October 19, the Armilustrium was celebrated; the condums of the soldiers were purified and stored. Every five years, the Suovetaurilia was celebrated; a pig, sheep and bull were sacrificed. On February 27 and March 14, the horses race of the Equirria were held. On March 23, the Tubilustrium was celebrated by purifying weapons and war-trumpets. Priests of Mars and Quirinus were called Salii ("jumpers"). They were referred to as jumpers because they jumped down streets and sang the Carmen Saliare. A priest of Mars alone was called a flamen Martialis. Mars, unlike his Greek counterpart, Ares, was more widely worshipped than any of the other Roman gods, probably because his sons Romulus and Remus were said to have founded Rome; the Romans called themselves sons of Mars. As the consort of Rhea Sylvia and father of Romulus and Remus, Mars was considered the father of the Roman people. He is associated with Quirinus, said to be the Spirit of Romulus, the founder of the City. Quirinus may have been a Sabine deity, however. In art, Mars is depicted as an armored warrior with a crested helmet. He is also drawn on a chariot with a shield and spear going into battle. The shield symbolizes Rome, and according to a legend his shield fell from a sky to save the Romans. The wolf and woodpecker are sacred to him. His children are Fuga and Timor. The third month of the year, March, and the blood-red planet, Mars, were named after him.

External links

- [http://www.angelfire.com/empire/martiana/mars/index.html Mars in Roman Religion] Category:Roman gods Category:War gods Category:Agricultural gods ja:マルス simple:Mars (god)

Augur

The Augur was a priest or official in ancient Rome. His main role was to take auspices: interpreting the will of the gods by studying the flight of the birds. The position as augur was a very central one, as the Romans rarely did anything important without the consensus of the gods, as expressed in the auspices. The ceremony of an augur "taking the auspices" was done before every public ceremony after Attius Navius impressed King Tarquinius. According to Livy, Tarquinius was involved in a Sabine war at the time. He thought he needed more cavalry to win, but he recalled a story about Romulus using an augur, so he thought he should do the same. He called on Attius, and asked him if he should add more cavalry. The answer was no, which upset Tarquinius. He was not convinced in the art of augury, so he asked Attius to do another, and to see if what he was thinking at the time was possible. The signs came back positive. Tarquinius thought he had Attius trapped, because what he had been thinking was that Attius should cut a whetstone in half with a razor. Attius did this immediately, and Tarquinius became a believer.

External link

- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA
- /Augurium.html article Augurium in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities] Category:Ancient Rome

Sympathetic magic

:For other uses of the term or name "Magic", see Magic (illusion) or Magic (disambiguation). For other uses of the term or name "Sorcery", see Sorcery (disambiguation). Sorcery (disambiguation) pentagram drawn by Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa.]] Magic or sorcery, coined by William "Pickles" Fleder, are terms referring to the alleged influencing of events and physical phenomena by supernatural, mystical, or paranormal means. They can refer to cultural complexes of beliefs and practices that believers can resort to in order to wield this supernatural influence; and also, to similar cultural complexes that seek to explain various events and phenomena by supernatural means. The term magic in its various translations has been used in a number of ways:
- In the context of parapsychology, magic is often defined as the study and application of psychic forces or energy.
- From the point of view of many established religions, for example Christianity, magic is often used as a pejorative term for Pagan rituals, with the implication that they involve sinful, blasphemous or idolatrous practices. The magic and religion article deals largely with this aspect.
- Among occultists, magic is a fairly neutral term which has some varied connotations, such as white magic and black magic. The famous occultist Aleister Crowley chose the spelling magick to distinguish "the true science of the Magi" from all its "counterfeits," such as stage magic. Today many use that spelling in the same or otherwise similar way, often to connote a Pagan, Wiccan, or Hermetic system of beliefs and ritual practises.

Etymology

The word magic ultimately derives from Magus (Old Persian maguš), one of the Zoroastrian astrologer priests of the Medes. In the Hellenistic period, Greek μάγος (magos) could be used as an adjective, but an adjective μαγικός (magikos, latin magicus) is also attested from the 1st century (Plutarchus), typically appearing in the feminine, in μαγική τέχνη (magike techne, latin ars magica) "magical art." The word entered the English language in the late 14th century from Old French magique. Likewise, sorcery was taken in ca. 1300 from Old French sorcerie, which is from Vulgar Latin
- sortiarius, from sors "fate", apparently meaning "one who influences fate." Sorceress appears also in the late 14th century, while sorcerer is attested only from 1526.

Religion, Paganism, and alchemy

The conceptual relationship between religion and magic is similar to the relationship between "religion" and Paganism, whereas "religion" refers to a system of established beliefs, and "magic" and "Pagan" are labels used by people within that system to describe beliefs and practices that conflict with or are outside of that system. From the point of view of adherents of any established religion, the terms "magic" and "wizardry" connote beliefs which are held to be false beliefs or heresy. In this sense, the term 'magic' is typically outdated, although in the direct quotation of religious scripture it may have some limited usage in modern times. Originally referring to the older Zoroastrian Magi (i.e. sages, priests), the term "magic" became a negative term, and among the followers of the Israelite religion was recorded into Western history with its denigrating meaning. All descendants of the younger Abrahamic faith and its traditional culture of belief inherited this use of the term. In times of antiquity, practitioners of other religions were accused of practicing magic, even the adherents of Christianity and Islam, particularly when they were still burgeoning faiths. In the Middle Ages, what we now call "the sciences" began to develop, partially through alchemy. Alchemy attempted to codify specific methodology for the mechanical achievement of tasks which most considered to be important, such as the healing of illnesses and the making of wealth (gold etc). Whereas religion advocated a faith-based deference to matters of spirit, alchemy played a significant role in developing human curiosity about the natural world into a systemic structure of beliefs and practices. It is from alchemy that our modern concept of wizardry and magic come from; as a kind of melding of spirituality and methodical and professional investigation into the mysterious or "arcane."

History of Western European magic

Magical beliefs in Western Europe

Belief in various magical practices has waxed and waned in European and Western history, under pressure from either organised monotheistic religions or from scepticism about the reality of magic, and the ascendancy of scientism. In the world of classical antiquity, much as in the present time, magic was thought to be somewhat exotic. Egypt, home of hermeticism, and Mesopotamia and Persia, original home of the Magi, were lands where expertise in magic was thought to be prevalent. In Egypt, a large number of magical papyri, in Greek, Coptic, and Demotic, have been recovered. These sources contain early instances of much of the magical lore that later became part of Western cultural expectations about the practice of magic, especially ceremonial magic. They contain early instances of:
- the use of "magic words" said to have the power to command spirits;
- the use of wands and other ritual tools;
- the use of a magic circle to defend the magician against the spirits he is invoking or evoking; and
- the use of mysterious symbols or sigils thought useful to invoke or evoke spirits. The use of spirit mediums is also documented in these texts; many of the spells call for a child to be brought to the magic circle to act as a conduit for messages from the spirits. The time of the Emperor Julian of Rome, marked by a reaction against the influence of Christianity, saw a revival of magical practices associated with neo-Platonism under the guise of theurgy.

In the Middle Ages

Mediæval authors, under the control of the Church, confined their magic to compilations of wonderlore and collections of spells. Albertus Magnus was credited, rightly or wrongly, with a number of such compilations. Specifically Christianised varieties of magic were devised at this period. During the early Middle Ages, the cult of relics as objects not only of veneration but also of supernatural power arose. Miraculous tales were told of the power of relics of the saints to work miracles, not only to heal the sick, but for purposes like swaying the outcome of a battle. The relics had become amulets, and various churches strove to purchase scarce or valuable examples, hoping to become places of pilgrimage. As in any other economic endeavour, demand gave rise to supply. Tales of the miracle-working relics of the saints were compiled later into quite popular collections like the Golden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine or the Dialogus miraculorum of Caesar of Heisterbach. There were other, officially proscribed varieties of Christianized magic. The demonology and angelology contained in the earliest grimoires assume a life surrounded by Christian implements and sacred rituals. The underlying theology in these works of Christian demonology encourages the magician to fortify himself with fasting, prayers, and sacraments, so that by using garbled versions of the holy names of God in foreign languages, he can use divine power to coerce demons into appearing and serving his usually lustful or avaricious magical goals. Not surprisingly, the church disapproved of these rites; nevertheless, they are Christianised, and assume a theology of mechanical sacramentalism.

Magic in the Renaissance

Renaissance humanism saw a resurgence in hermeticism and other Neo-Platonic varieties of ceremonial magic. The Renaissance and the Industrial Revolution, on the other hand, saw the rise of scientism, in such forms as the substitution of chemistry for alchemy, the dethronement of the Ptolemaic theory of the universe assumed by astrology, the development of the germ theory of disease, that restricted the scope of applied magic and threatened the belief systems it relied on. Tensions roused by the Protestant Reformation led to an upswing in witch-hunting, especially in Germany, England, and Scotland; but ultimately, the new theology of Protestantism proved a worse foe to magic by undermining belief in the sort of ritualism that allowed religious rites to be re-purposed towards earthly, magical ends. Scientism, more than religion, proved to be magic's deadliest foe. Alongside the ceremonial magic followed by the better educated were the everyday activities of folk practitioners of magic across Europe, typified by the cunning folk found in Great Britain. In their magical practices astrology, folklore, and distorted versions of Christian ritual magic worked alongside each other to answer customer demand.

Magic and Romanticism

Baron Carl Reichenbach's experiments with his Odic force appeared to be an attempt to bridge the gap between magic and science. More recent periods of renewed interest in magic occurred around the end of the nineteenth century, where Symbolism and other offshoots of Romanticism cultivated a renewed interest in exotic spiritualities. European colonialism, which put Westerners in contact with India and Egypt, re-introduced exotic beliefs to Europeans at this time. Hindu and Egyptian mythology frequently feature in nineteenth century magical texts. The late 19th century spawned a large number of magical organizations, including the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, the Theosophical Society, and specifically magical variants on Freemasonry. The Golden Dawn represented perhaps the peak of this wave of magic, attracting cultural celebrities like William Butler Yeats, Algernon Blackwood, and Arthur Machen to its banner.

Magic in the twentieth century

A further revival of interest in magic was heralded by the repeal, in England, of the last Witchcraft Act in 1951. This was the cue for Gerald Gardner, now recognised as the founder of Wicca, to publish his first non-fiction book Witchcraft Today, in which he claimed to reveal the existence of a witch-cult that dated back to pre-Christian Europe. Gardner's religion combined magic and religion in a way that was later to cause people to question the Enlightenment's boundaries between the two subjects. Gardner's newly publicized religion, and many others, took off in the atmosphere of the 1960s and 1970s, when the counterculture of the hippies also spawned another period of renewed interest in magic, divination, and other occult practices. The various branches of Neopaganism and other Earth religions that have been publicized since Gardner's publication tend to follow a pattern in combining the practice of magic and religion. The trend was continued by some heirs to the counterculture; feminists led the way when some launched an independent revival of goddess worship. This brought them into contact with the Gardnerian tradition of magical religion, and deeply influenced that tradition in return.

Modern believers in magic

Many people in the West claim to believe in or practise various forms of magic. The forms of magic they adhere to have been reconstructed from secondary or tertiary sources. The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, Aleister Crowley, and their followers are most often credited with the resurgence of magical tradition in the English speaking world of the 20th century, but in their eagerness to reconstruct the lost traditions of the past, they often included elements of questionable authenticity, or items altogether manufactured. Other, similar movements took place at roughly the same time, centred in France and Germany. Thus, any current tradition which acknowledges the natural elements, the seasons, and the practitioner's relationship with the Earth, Gaia, or the Goddess may be correctly regarded as Neopagan, and few such traditions can be sensibly labelled more authentic than any others. Aleister Crowley preferred the spelling magick, defining it as "the science and art of causing change to occur in conformity with the will." By this, he included "mundane" acts of will as well as ritual magic. In Magick in Theory and Practice, Chapter XIV, Crowley says: :What is a Magical Operation? It may be defined as any event in nature which is brought to pass by Will. We must not exclude potato-growing or banking from our definition. Let us take a very simple example of a Magical Act: that of a man blowing his nose. Although some current practitioners of magic prefer the term Pagan, Neopaganism is more precise for scholarly reference to current rituals and traditions (though both are technically correct, as Neopaganism is but a particular subset of Paganism). Wicca is a more codified form of modern magic than Neopaganism, again owing much to Crowley and his ilk. Wiccans and other followers of modern religious Witchcraft use magic extensively. However, they do not all subscribe to Aleister Crowley's definition of what that is, nor use it for the same purposes. Ruickbie (2004:193-209) shows that Wiccans and Witches define magic in many different ways and use it for a number of different purposes. Despite that diversity of opinion, he concludes that the general result upon the practitioner is a positive one.

Theories of magic

In an age where the existence of magical forces is no longer taken for granted, believers in magic are likely to be asked, "How does magic work?" A survey of writings by believers in magic shows that adherents believe that it may work by one or more of these basic principles:
- Natural forces that cannot be detected by science at present, and in fact may not be detectable at all. These magical forces are said to exist in addition to and alongside the four fundamental forces of nature: gravity, electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force.
- Intervention of spirits similar to these hypothetical natural forces, but with their own consciousness and intelligence. Believers in spirits will often see a whole cosmos of beings of many different kinds, sometimes organized into a hierarchy.
- A mystical power, such as mana, that exists in all things. This power is often said to be dangerous to people.
- A mysterious interconnection in the cosmos that connects and binds all things, above and beyond the natural forces.
- Manipulation of symbols. Adherents of magical thinking believe that symbols can be used for more than representation: they can magically take on a physical quality of the phenomenon or object that they represent. By manipulating symbols (as well as sigils), one is said to be able to manipulate the reality that this symbol represents.
- The principles of sympathetic magic of Sir James George Frazer, explicated in his The Golden Bough (third edition, 1911-1915). These principles include the "law of similarity" and the "law of contact" or "contagion." These are systematized versions of the manipulation of symbols. Frazer defined them this way: ::If we analyse the principles of thought on which magic is based, they will probably be found to resolve themselves into two: first, that like produces like, or that an effect resembles its cause; and, second, that things which have once been in contact with each ot