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Józef Haller De Hallenburg

Józef Haller de Hallenburg

Józef Haller de Hallenburg (August 13, 1873 - June 4, 1960) was a Polish general and politician. Haller studied at Vienna's Technical Military Academy and subsequently served with the Austrian Army. In 1916, during the First World War, he became commander of the Second Brigade of the Polish Legion, and commanded Polish units under French Command in World War I, which became known as the Blue Army (or Haller's Army). Blue Army In 1918, in the aftermath of the "Charge at Rarańcza," as commander of the 2nd Polish Auxiliary Corps with the Austrian Army, he broke through the Austro-Russian front line to Ukraine, where he united his troops with Polish detachments which had left the Tsarist army. Under the pressure of the Germans, who after the Peace of Brest-Litovsk regarded the presence of Polish troups in Ukraine as illegal, and a fierce battle between Poles and Germans at Kaniów (May 10th, 1918, 2500 casualties) his corps was interned, while the Brigadier himself managed to escape to Moscow. Subsequently, by the way of Murmansk, he arrived in France, where on behalf of the Polish National Committee he created what was known as the Blue Army (from the color of its French uniforms). In 1919, at the new army's head, he arrived in Poland and was dispatched to the Ukrainian front. Ukrainian In 1920 Haller seized Pomerania and entered Danzig (Gdańsk) in the name of Poland, and during the Polish-Soviet War he commanded an army of volunteers. He was also Inspector General of the Army and a member of the War Council. Polish-Soviet War. Painting by Wojciech Kossak.]] In 1920-1927 he was a deputy to the Sejm. After the election of Gabriel Narutowicz as President of the Republic in December 1922, Haller fell into disfavor. After the 1926 May Coup, he was ordered into retirement. He co-organized an opposition party, the "Front Morges." At the time of the September campaign (1939), Haller was living abroad. In 1940-1943 he served as Minister of Education in Władysław Sikorski's government. After 1945 he settled down in London and did not partake in any political activities of exiled Poles.
See also

- The Blue Army
- Poland's wedding to the sea
External link

- [http://www.geocities.com/hallersarmy/index.html Józef Haller and the Blue Army]
- [http://wikipedia.de/wiki/Haller_%28Familie%29 Haller Family article on German Wiki] Haller de Hallenburg, Jozef Haller de Hallenburg, Jozef Haller, Jozef Haller, Jozef Haller

August 13
August 13 is the 225th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (226th in leap years), with 140 days remaining.
Events

- 3114 BC - According to the Lounsbury corollation, the Maya calendar starts.
- 523 - John succeeds Hormisdas as Pope.
- 1099 - Paschal II elected Pope.
- 1315 - Louis X of France marries Clemence d'Anjou.
- 1326 - Aradia de Toscano, according to legend/folklore, is initiated into a Dianic witchcraft cult, subsequently founds the tradition of Stregheria later known as the Malandanti.
- 1415 - Henry V of England lands at Chef-en-Caux, France with 8000 men.
- 1516 - Treaty of Noyon between France and Spain signed. In it, Francis recognizes Charles's claim to Naples, and Charles recognizes Francis's claim to Milan.
- 1521 - Tenochtitlán (present day Mexico City) falls to conquistador Hernán Cortés
- 1536 - Buddhist monks from Kyoto's Enryaku Temple set fire to 21 Nichiren temples throughout Kyoto in the Tenbun Hokke Disturbance. (Traditional Japanese date: July 27, 1536).
- 1553 - Michael Servetus arrested by John Calvin in Geneva as a heretic.
- 1704 - War of the Spanish Succession: Battle of Blenheim - English and Austrians victorious over French and Bavarians.
- 1814 - The Convention of London, a treaty between the United Kingdom and the United Provinces, is signed in London.
- 1905 - Norway holds referendum in favour of dissolving the union with Sweden.
- 1913 - Otto Witte, an acrobat, is crowned King of Albania.
- 1913 - Invention of stainless steel by Harry Brearley.
- 1918 - Women enlist in the United States Marine Corps for the first time. Opha Mae Johnson is the first woman to enlist.
- 1920 - Polish-Soviet War: Battle of Warsaw begins, lasts till August 25. The Red Army is defeated.
- 1923 - First major sea-going ship arrives at Gdynia, newly constructed Polish seaport.
- 1937 - The Japanese attack Shanghai, China.
- 1940 - World War II: Battle of Britain begins - The Luftwaffe launches a series of attacks on British fighter bases and radar installations.
- 1942 - Walt Disney's fifth animated feature, Bambi, premiers.
- 1960 - The Central African Republic declares independence from France.
- 1961 - The German Democratic Republic closes the border between the eastern and western sectors of Berlin, to thwart its inhabitants' attempts to escape to the West.
- 1987 - U.S. President Ronald Reagan assumes responsibility for his role in the Iran-Contra scandal.
- 1996 - Marc Dutroux, his wife Michelle Martin, and Michel Lelièvre are arrested on suspicion of kidnapping. All are found guilty on June 22, 2004, with sentences of life, 30, and 25 years, respectively.
- 1997 - South Park debuts on Comedy Central.
- 2004 - The 28th Summer Olympics opens in Athens, Greece.
- 2004 - Hurricane Charley, a Category 4 storm, strikes the Fort Myers, Florida, area.
- 2004 - Black Friday crackdown by NSS on a peaceful protest in the capital city of Maldives, Malé.
- 2004 - 156 Congolese Tutsi refugees massacred at the Gatumba refugee camp in Burundi.
- 2004 - Adam Curry's first Daily Source Code is created, launching podcasting.
Births

- 582 - Arnulf of Metz, French bishop and saint (d. 640)
- 1311 - King Alfonso XI of Castile and Leon (d. 1350)
- 1313 - Aradia de Toscano, Italian insurrectionist, teacher, and witch
- 1584 - Theophilus Howard, 2nd Earl of Suffolk, English politician (d. 1640)
- 1625 - Rasmus Bartholin, Danish physician, mathematician, and physicist (d. 1698)
- 1662 - Charles Seymour, 6th Duke of Somerset, English politician (d. 1748)
- 1666 - William Wotton, English scholar (d. 1727)
- 1700 - Heinrich, count von Brühl, German statesman (d. 1763)
- 1717 - Louis François I, Prince of Conti, French military leader (d. 1776)
- 1721 - Jacques Lelong, French bibliographer (b. 1665)
- 1792 - Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, queen of William IV of the United Kingdom (d. 1849)
- 1803 - Vladimir Odoevsky, Russian philosopher and writer (d. 1869)
- 1814 - Anders Jonas Ångström, Swedish physicist (d. 1874)
- 1818 - Lucy Stone, American suffragette (d. 1893)
- 1820 - Sir George Grove, English music historian (d. 1900)
- 1823 - Goldwin Smith, English-born historian and journalist (d. 1910)
- 1851 - Felix Adler, German-born educator (d. 1933)
- 1860 - Annie Oakley, American sharpshooter (d. 1926)
- 1866 - Giovanni Agnelli, Italian industrialist (d. 1945)
- 1872 - Richard Willstätter, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1942)
- 1879 - John Ireland, English composer (d. 1962)
- 1887 - Julius Freed, American inventor and banker (d. 1952)
- 1888 - John Logie Baird, Scottish television pioneer (d. 1946)
- 1895 - Bert Lahr, American actor (d. 1967)
- 1899 - Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock, English film director (d. 1980)
- 1902 - Felix Wankel, German engineer and inventor (d. 1988)
- 1904 - Charles 'Buddy' Rogers, American actor (d. 1999)
- 1907 - Sir Basil Spence, Scottish architect (d. 1976)
- 1912 - Ben Hogan, American golfer (d. 1997)
- 1912 - Salvador Luria, Italian-born biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1991)
- 1913 - Fred Davis, English snooker player (d. 1998)
- 1918 - Frederick Sanger, English chemist, Nobel Pirze laureate
- 1919 - George Shearing, British musician
- 1920 - Neville Brand, American actor (d. 1992)
- 1926 - Fidel Castro, Cuban revolutionary and politician
- 1930 - Don Ho, American musician
- 1933 - Doctor Joycelyn Elders, United States Surgeon General
- 1941 - Erin Fleming, Canadian actress (d. 2003)
- 1944 - Kevin Tighe, American actor
- 1948 - Kathleen Battle, American soprano
- 1949 - Bobby Clarke, Canadian hockey player
- 1951 - Dan Fogelberg, American singer
- 1952 - Herb Ritts, American photographer (d. 2004)
- 1959 - Danny Bonaduce, American actor
- 1967 - Amélie Nothomb, Belgian writer
- 1969 - Midori Ito, Japanese figure skater
- 1970 - Matthew Hyson, American professional wrestler
- 1970 - Alan Shearer, English footballer
- 1973 - Brittany Andrews, American model and actress
- 1975 - Joe Perry, English snooker player
- 1977 - Michael Klim, Australian swimmer
- 1979 - Taizo Sugimura, Japanese politician
Deaths

- 586 - Radegund, queen of Clotaire I
- 900 - Zwentibold, last King of Lotharingia (b. 870)
- 1382 - Eleanor of Aragon, queen of John I of Castile (b. 1358)
- 1523 - Gerard David, Flemish painter
- 1617 - Johann Jakob Grynaeus, Swiss protestant clergyman (b. 1540)
- 1667 - Jeremy Taylor, Irish author and bishop (b. 1613)
- 1686 - Louis Maimbourg, French-born historian (b. 1610)
- 1744 - John Cruger, Dutch-born Mayor of New York (b. 1678)
- 1749 - Johann Elias Schlegel, German critic and poet (b. 1719)
- 1755 - Francesco Durante, Italian composer (b. 1684)
- 1826 - René Laënnec, French physician (b. 1781)
- 1863 - Eugène Delacroix, French painter (b. 1798)
- 1865 - Ignaz Semmelweis, Austro-Hungarian physician (b. 1818)
- 1910 - Florence Nightingale, English nurse (b. 1820)
- 1912 - Jules Massenet, French composer (b. 1842)
- 1917 - Eduard Buchner, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1860)
- 1946 - H. G. Wells, English writer (b. 1866)
- 1958 - Otto Witte, acrobat and King of Albania (b. 1868)
- 1965 - Ikeda Hayato, Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1899)
- 1984 - Tigran Petrosian, Georgian chess player (b. 1929).
- 1989 - Tim Richmond, American race car driver (b. 1955)
- 1994 - Elias Canetti, Bulgarian-born writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1905)
- 1995 - Jan Křesadlo, Czech-born writer (b. 1926)
- 1995 - Mickey Mantle, baseball player (b. 1931)
- 1996 - David Tudor, American pianist and composer (b. 1926).
- 1999 - Jaime Garzón, Colombian journalist and comedian, murdered (b. 1960)
- 2003 - Ed Townsend, American songwriter and producer (b. 1929).
- 2004 - Julia Child, American chef and television personality (b. 1912)
- 2005 - Lakshman Kadirgamar, Sri Lankan Foreign Minister (assassinated) (b.1932)
- 2005 - David Lange, Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1942)
Holidays and observances

- Roman festivals - Vertumnalias in honor of Vertumnus, and also Diana, on the Aventine hill
- RC saints - Pontianus and Hippolytus, Radegunde (help against the pox), Cassianus of Imola (patron of shorthand-writers)
- International Lefthanders Day
- In Brasil, Friday the 13th of August (agosto) is considered to be especially filled with sorrow (desgosto)
External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/13 BBC: On This Day] ---- August 12 - August 14 - July 13 - September 13 -- listing of all days ko:8월 13일 ms:13 Ogos ja:8月13日 simple:August 13 th:13 สิงหาคม

June 4

June 4 is the 155th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (156th in leap years), with 210 days remaining.

Events

- 780 BC - The first historic solar eclipse is recorded in China.
- 1039 - Henry III becomes King of Germany.
- 1615 - Forces under the shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu take Osaka Castle in Japan.
- 1760 - Great Upheaval: New England planters arrive to claim land in Nova Scotia Canada taken from the Acadians.
- 1769 - A transit of Venus is followed five hours later by a total solar eclipse, the shortest such interval in the historical past.
- 1792 - Captain George Vancouver claims Puget Sound for Great Britain.
- 1794 - British troops capture Port-au-Prince in Haiti.
- 1812 - Following Louisiana's admittance as a U.S. state, the territory previously known by that name was renamed the Missouri Territory.
- 1859 - Italian Independence wars: in the Battle of Magenta, the French army, under Louis-Napoleon, defeats an Austrian army.
- 1862 - American Civil War: Confederate troops evacuate Fort Pillow on the Mississippi River, leaving the way clear for Union troops to take Memphis, Tennessee.
- 1876 - An express train called the Transcontinental Express arrives in San Francisco, California, via the First Transcontinental Railroad only 83 hours and 39 minutes after having left New York City.
- 1878 - Cyprus Convention: The Ottoman Empire cedes Cyprus to the United Kingdom but retains nominal title.
- 1896 - Henry Ford test-drives the first automobile he designed – the Quadricycle (it was also the first automobile he ever drove).
- 1913 - Emily Davison, a suffragette, runs out in front of the king's horse, Anmer, at the Epsom Derby. She is trampled and dies a few days later, never having regained consciousness.
- 1917 - The very first Pulitzer Prizes are awarded: Laura E. Richards, Maude H. Elliott, and Florence Hall receive the first Pulitzer for a biography (for Julia Ward Howe). Jean Jules Jusserand receives the first Pulitzer for history for his work With Americans of Past and Present Days. Herbert B. Swope receives the first Pulitzer for journalism for his work for the New York World.
- The Order of the British Empire is introduced.
- 1919 - Women's rights: The U.S. Congress approves the 19th Amendment to the United States Constitution, which would guarantee suffrage to women, and sends it to the U.S. states for ratification.
- 1920 - Hungary loses 71% of its territory and 63% of its population when the Treaty of Trianon is signed in Paris.
- 1926 - Robert Earl Hughes sets current record for world's heaviest human.
- 1936 - Léon Blum becomes Prime Minister of France.
- 1939 - Holocaust: The SS St. Louis, a ship carrying 963 Jewish refugees, is denied permission to land in Florida, United States, after already having been turned away from Cuba. Forced to return to Europe, most of its passengers later die in Nazi concentration camps.
- 1940 - The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter by Carson McCullers is published.
- World War II: Dunkirk evacuation ends; British forces complete evacuation of 300,000 troops from Dunkirk in France.
- The Destroyer War Badge for Kriegsmarine was instituted.
- 1942 - World War II: Reinhard Heydrich dies in Prague due to the assassination of Czechoslovak paratroopers (Operation Anthropoid).
- World War II: Battle of Midway begins. Japanese Admiral Chuichi Nagumo orders a strike on Midway Island with much of the Imperial Japanese navy.
- 1943 - Military coup in Argentina ousts Ramón Castillo.
- 1944 - World War II: A hunter-killer group of the United States Navy capture the German submarine U-505, marking the first time a U.S. Navy vessel captured an enemy vessel at sea since the 19th century.
- World War II: Rome falls to the Allies, the first Axis powers capital to fall.
- 1961 - Lake Bodom murders in Finland.
- 1970 - Tonga gains independence from the United Kingdom.
- 1973 - patent for the ATM granted to Don Wetzel, Tom Barnes and George Chastain.
- 1974 - Baseball: The Cleveland Indians host "Ten Cent Beer Night", but have to forfeit the game to the Texas Rangers due to drunken and unruly fans.
- 1986 - Jonathan Pollard pleads guilty to espionage for selling top secret United States military intelligence to Israel.
- 1988 -The Canadian Heraldic Authority is founded.
- 1989 - The Tiananmen Square protests are suppressed in Beijing and are covered live on television.
- Solidarity's victory in the first partly free parliamentary elections in post-war Poland sparks off a succession of peaceful anti-communist revolutions in Eastern Europe and leads to creation of the so-called Contract Sejm.
- Ufa train disaster: A natural gas explosion near Ufa, Russia, kills 575 as two trains passing each other throw sparks near a leaky pipeline.
- 1991 - Britain's Conservative government announces that some British regiments would disappear or be merged into others – the largest armed forces cuts in almost twenty years.
- 1998 - Terry Nichols is sentenced to life in prison for his role in the Oklahoma City bombing.
- 2003 - U.S. lifestyle guru Martha Stewart and her broker are indicted for using privileged investment information and then obstructing a federal investigation. Stewart also resigns as chairperson and chief executive officer of Martha Stewart Living.
- 2005 - First day of Einstein Symposium in Alexandria, Egypt.

Births

470 BC to 1899

- 470 BC - Socrates, Greek philosopher (d. 399 BC)
- 1489 - Antoine, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1544)
- 1665 - Zacharie Robutel de La Noue, Canadian soldier (d. 1733)
- 1694 - François Quesnay, French economist (d. 1774)
- 1704 - Benjamin Huntsman, English inventor and manufacturer (d. 1776)
- 1738 - King George III of Great Britain (d. 1820)
- 1754 - Franz Xaver, Baron Von Zach, Austrian scientific editor and astronomer (d. 1832)
- 1801 - Sir James Pennethorne, English architect (d. 1871)
- 1821 - Apollon Maykov, Russian poet (d. 1897)
- 1867 - C.G.E. Mannerheim, President of Finland (d. 1951)
- 1877 - Heinrich Wieland, German biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1957)

1900 to 1999

- 1907 - Rosalind Russell, American actress (d. 1976)
- 1910 - Christopher Sydney Cockerell, British engineer and inventor (d. 1999)
- 1916 - Robert F. Furchgott, American chemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- 1919 - Robert Merrill, American baritone (d. 2004)
- 1924 - Dennis Weaver, American actor
- 1926 - Alfredo Di Stéfano, Argentine-Spanish footballer
- 1928 - Dr. Ruth Westheimer, German-American sex therapist and author
- 1932 - John Drew Barrymore, American actor (d. 2004)
- 1932 - Maurice Shadbolt, New Zealand writer
- 1936 - Bruce Dern, American actor
- 1937 - Freddy Fender, American musician
- 1937 - Robert Fulghum, American author
- 1944 - Michelle Phillips, American actress, singer
- 1945 - Gordon Waller, Scottish musician (Peter and Gordon)
- 1947 - Viktor Klima, Chancellor of Austria
- 1952 - Parker Stevenson, American actor and director
- 1956 - Keith David, American actor
- 1956 - John Hockenberry, American journalist
- 1965 - Mick Doohan, Australian motorcycle racer
- 1966 - Cecilia Bartoli, Italian mezzo-soprano
- 1966 - Tiffany Million, American actress
- 1966 - Vladimir Voevodsky, Russian mathematician
- 1969 - Horatio Sanz, Chilean-born comedian
- 1970 - David Pybus, British musician
- 1971 - Noah Wyle, American actor
- 1972 - Derian Hatcher, American hockey player
- 1974 - Andrew Gwynne, British politician
- 1975 - Angelina Jolie, American actress
- 1977 - Quinten Hann, Australian snooker player
- 1983 - Emmanuel Eboue, Ivory Coast footballer
- 1986 - Shane Kippel, Canadian actor

Deaths

1039 to 1899

- 1039 - Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor
- 1135 - Emperor Huizong of China (b. 1082)
- 1206 - Adèle of Champagne, queen of Louis VII of France
- 1257 - Duke Przemysl I of Poland
- 1394 - Mary de Bohun, wife of Henry IV of England
- 1463 - Flavio Biondo, Italian humanist (b. 1392)
- 1585 - Muretus, French humanist (b. 1526)
- 1663 - William Juxon, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1582)
- 1798 - Giacomo Casanova, Italian lover and writer (b. 1725)
- 1801 - Frederick Muhlenberg, first Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (b. 1750)
- 1872 - Johan Rudolf Thorbecke, Dutch politician (d. 1798)
- 1875 - Eduard Mörike, German poet (b. 1804)

1900 to 1999

- 1928 - Chang Tso-lin, Chinese warlord (b. 1873)
- 1939 - Tommy Ladnier, American musician (b. 1900)
- 1941 - Kaiser Wilhelm II, last German emperor (b. 1859)
- 1942 - Reinhard Heydrich, Nazi official (b. 1904)
- 1951 - Serge Koussevitsky, Russian conductor (b. 1874)
- 1964 - Samuil Marshak, Russian poet (b. 1887)
- 1968 - Dorothy Gish, American actress (b. 1898)
- 1971 - Georg Lukács, Hungarian philosopher (b. 1885)
- 1973 - Maurice René Fréchet, French mathematician (b. 1878)
- 1990 - Stiv Bators, American musician (The Dead Boys) (b. 1949)

2000 onwards

- 2001 - King Dipendra of Nepal (b. 1971)
- 2001 - John Hartford, American musician, composer (b. 1937)
- 2002 - Fernando Belaúnde Terry, President of Peru (b. 1912)
- 2004 - Steve Lacy, American saxophonist (b. 1934)

Holidays and observances

- Feast day of St Francis Caracciolo
- Feast day of Saint Petrock of Cornwall
- International Innocent Child Abuse Victim Day
- Tonga - National Day
- Finland - National flag day of the Finnish Defence Forces (on Mannerheim's birthday)

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/4 BBC: On This Day] ---- June 3 - June 5 - May 4 - July 4 – listing of all days ko:6월 4일 ms:4 Jun ja:6月4日 simple:June 4 th:4 มิถุนายน

Poland

The Republic of Poland (Polish: Rzeczpospolita Polska) is a country located in Central Europe, between Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, and the Baltic Sea, Lithuania, and Russia (in the form of the Kaliningrad Oblast exclave) to the north. The Polish state was formed over 1,000 years ago under the Piast dynasty, and reached its golden age near the end of the 16th century under the Jagiellonian dynasty, when Poland was one of the largest, wealthiest, and most powerful countries in Europe. In 1791 the Sejm of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth voted for the Constitution of May 3, Europe's first modern codified constitution, and the second in the world after the Constitution of the United States. Soon afterwards, the country ceased to exist after being partitioned by its neighbours Russia, Austria, and Prussia. It regained independence in 1918 in the aftermath of the First World War as the Second Polish Republic. Following the Second World War it became a communist satellite state of the Soviet Union known as the People's Republic of Poland. In 1989 the first partially-free elections in Poland's post-World War II history concluded the Solidarity (Solidarność) movement's struggle for freedom and resulted in the defeat of Poland's communist rulers. The current Third Polish Republic was established, followed a few years later by the drafting of a new constitution in 1997. In 1999 Poland acceded to NATO, and in 2004 it joined the European Union.

Name

:See the name 'Poland' in other languages, in Wiktionary. Poland's official name in Polish is Rzeczpospolita Polska. The names of the country, Polska, and of the nationality, the Poles, are of Slavic origin. Their name derives from the tribal name Polanie - people living around Lake Gopło - the cradle of Poland mentioned as Glopeani having 400 strongholds circa 845 (Bavarian Geographer). Common opinion holds that the name Polska comes from the Slavic Polanie tribe who established the Polish state in the 10th century (Greater Poland). The conventional etymology of the ethnic name of the Poles relates it to these Polish Polanie, "dwellers of the field"; pole, "field", analogous to Russian polyî, "open land", from Indo-European pelè-, "flat" + -anie, "inhabitants", analogous to Latin -anus, "originating from" (please compare Yuriev-Polsky). In old Latin chronicles the terms terra Poloniae (land of Poland) or Regnum Poloniae (kingdom of Poland) appear. Parallel to this terminology, another one, Lechia, came into use, thought to derive from the tribe name Lędzianie. It gave rise to an alternative name for "Pole": Lęch, Lęchowie in Old Church Slavonic, Lechia, Lechites in Latin, Lach in Ruthenian, Lyakh in Russian, as well as to old German Lechien, Hungarian Lengyelorszag, Lengyel, Lithuanian Lenkija, lenkas and Turkish Lechistan (from Persian Lehestan).

History

Poland began to form into a recognizable unitary and territorial entity around the middle of the 10th century under the Piast dynasty. Poland's first historically documented ruler, Mieszko I, was baptized in 966, adopting Catholic Christianity as the country's new official religion, to which the bulk of the population converted in the course of the next century. In the 12th century Poland fragmented into several smaller states, which were later ravaged by the Mongol armies of the Golden Horde in 1241. In 1320 Władysław I became the King of reunified Poland. His son Kazimierz Wielki repaired the Polish economy, built new castles and won the war against the Russian dukedom (Lwow become a Polish City). Under the Jagiellon dynasty, Poland forged an alliance with its neighbour Lithuania. A golden age occurred in the 16th century during its union (Lublin Union) with Lithuania in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The citizens of Poland took pride in their ancient freedoms and parliamentary system, although the Szlachta monopolised most of the benefits. Since that time Poles have regarded freedom as their most important value. Poles often call themselves the nation of the free people. freedom In the mid-17th century a Swedish invasion rolled through the country in the turbulent time known as "The Deluge" (potop). Numerous wars against the Ottoman Empire, Russia, Cossacks, Transylvania and Brandenburg-Prussia ultimately came to an end in 1699. During the following 80 years, the waning of the central government and deadlock of the institutions weakened the nation, leading to anarchistic tendencies and a growing dependency on Russia. In Polish Democracy every member of parliament was able to break any work or project by shouting 'Liberum Veto' during the session. Russian tsars took advantage of this unique political vulnerability by offering money to Parliamentary traitors, who in turn would consistently and subversively block necessary reforms and new solutions. The Enlightenment in Poland fostered a growing national movement to repair the state, resulting in the first written constitution in Europe, the Constitution of May 3 in 1791. The process of reforms ceased with the partitions of Poland between Russia, Prussia, and Austria in 1772, 1793 and 1795 which ultimately dissolved the country. Poles resented their shrinking freedoms and several times rebelled against their oppressors (see List of Polish Uprisings). Napoleon recreated a Polish state, the Duchy of Warsaw, but after the Napoleonic wars, Poland was split again by the Allies at the Congress of Vienna. The eastern part was ruled by the Russian tsar as a Congress Kingdom, and possessed a liberal constitution. However, the tsars soon reduced Polish freedoms and Russia eventually de facto annexed the country. Later in the 19th century, Austrian-ruled Galicia became the oasis of Polish freedom. During World War I all the Allies agreed on the restitution of Poland that United States President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed in point 13 of his Fourteen Points. Shortly after the surrender of Germany in November 1918, Poland regained its independence as the Second Polish Republic (II Rzeczpospolita Polska). A new threat, Soviet aggression, arose in the 1919 (Polish-Soviet War), but Poland succeeded in defending its independence. Polish-Soviet War The Second Polish Republic lasted until the start of World War II when Germany and the Soviet Union invaded Poland. Poland surrendered on September 28 1939 and suffered greatly in the period that followed as a General Government. Of all the countries involved in the war, Poland lost the highest percentage of its citizens: over 6 million perished, half of them Polish Jews. In its conclusion, Poland's borders shifted westwards, pushing the eastern border to the Curzon line and the western border to the Oder-Neisse line. After the shift, Poland emerged 20% smaller by 77,500 km² (29,900 mi²); although the important cities of Gdańsk, Szczecin and Wrocław were all incorporated into its post-war borders. The shift also involved the migration of millions of people – Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, Jews. As a result of these events, Poland became, for the first time in history, an ethnically unified country. A Polish minority is still present in neighbouring countries of Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania, as well as in other countries (see Poles article for the population numbers). The largest number of ethnic Poles outside of the country can be found in the United States. The Soviet Union instituted a new communist government in Poland, analogous to much of the rest of the Eastern Bloc. Military alignment within the Warsaw Pact throughout the Cold War was also part of this change. In 1948 a turn towards Stalinism brought in the beginning of the next period of totalitarian rule. The People's Republic of Poland (Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa) was officially proclaimed in 1952. In 1956 the régime became more liberal, freeing many people from prison and expanding some personal freedoms. In 1970 the government was changed. It was a time when the economy was more modern, and the government had large credits. Labour turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the independent trade union, "Solidarity", which over time became a political force. It eroded the dominance of the Communist Party; by 1989 it had triumphed in parliamentary elections, and Lech Wałęsa, a Solidarity candidate, eventually won the presidency in 1990. The Solidarity movement greatly contributed to the soon-following collapse of Communism all over Eastern Europe. A shock therapy program during the early 1990s enabled the country to transform its economy into one of the most robust in Central Europe. Despite a regression in social and economic standards, there were numerous improvements in other human rights (free speech, functioning democracy and the like). Poland was the first post-communist country to regain pre-1989 GDP levels. Poland joined the NATO alliance in 1999 along with the Czech Republic and Hungary. Polish voters then said yes to the EU in a referendum in June 2003. Poland joined the European Union on 1 May 2004.

Politics

Poland is a democratic republic. Its current constitution dates from 1997. The government structure centres on the Council of Ministers, led by a prime minister. The president appoints the cabinet according to the proposals of the prime minister, typically from the majority coalition in the bicameral legislature's lower house (the Sejm). The president, elected by popular vote every five years, serves as the head of state. The current president is Aleksander Kwaśniewski. Polish voters elect a two house parliament, consisting of a 460 member lower house Sejm and a 100 member Senate (Senat). The Sejm is elected under a proportional representation electoral system similar to that used in other parliamentary political systems while the Senate is elected under a comparatively rare first past the post bloc voting. With the exception of ethnic minority parties, only political parties receiving at least 5% of the total national vote can enter Sejm. When sitting in joint session, members of Sejm and Senate form the National Assembly, (Polish Zgromadzenie Narodowe). The National Assembly is formed on three occasions: taking oath by the new president, bringing an indictment against the President of the Republic to the Tribunal of State, declaration of the President's permanent incapacity to exercise his duties due to the state of his health. The judicial branch plays an important role in decision-making. Its major institutions include the Supreme Court (Sąd Najwyższy), the Supreme Administrative Court (Naczelny Sąd Administracyjny) (judges appointed by the president of the republic on the recommendation of the National Council of the Judiciary for an indefinite period), the Constitutional Tribunal (Trybunał Konstytucyjny) (judges chosen by the Sejm for nine-year terms) and the Tribunal of State (Trybunał Stanu) (judges chosen by the Sejm for for the current term of office of the Sejm, except for the position of chairperson which is held by the First President of the Supreme Court). The Sejm (on approval of the Polish Senate) appoints the Ombudsman or the Commissioner for Civil Rights Protection (Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich) for a five-year term. The Ombudsman has the duty of guarding the observance and implementation of the rights and liberties of the human being and of the citizen, the law and principles of community life and social justice.

Geography

judicial branch The Polish landscape consists almost entirely of the lowlands of the North European Plain, at an average height of 173 metres (568 ft), though the Sudetes (including the Karkonosze) and the Carpathian Mountains (including the Tatra mountains, where one also finds Poland's highest point, Rysy, at 2,499 m [8,199 ft]) form the southern border. Several large rivers cross the plains; for instance, the Vistula (Wisła), Oder (Odra), Warta the (Western) Bug. Poland also contains over 9,300 lakes, predominantly in the north of the country. Masuria (Mazury) forms the largest and most-visited lake district in Poland. Remains of the ancient forests survive: see list of forests in Poland. Poland enjoys a temperate climate, with cold, cloudy, moderately severe winters and mild summers with frequent showers and thunder showers.

Big Cities

climate climate climate climate] climate

Administrative division

climate climate Poland is subdivided into sixteen administrative regions known as voivodships (województwa, singular - województwo): Lower levels of administrative division are:
- powiats (counties)
- gminas (commune)

Economy

gmina gmina gmina] Since its return to democracy, Poland has steadfastly pursued a policy of liberalising the economy and today stands out as one of the most successful and open examples of the transition from a partially state-capitalist market economy to a primarily privately owned market economy. The privatisation of small and medium state-owned companies and a liberal law on establishing new firms have allowed for the rapid development of an aggressive private sector, followed by a development of consumer rights organisations later on. Restructuring and privatisation of "sensitive sectors" (e.g., coal, steel, railways, and energy) has begun. The biggest privatisations so far were a sale of Telekomunikacja Polska, a national telecom to France Telecom (2000) and an issue of 30% shares of the biggest Polish bank, PKO BP, on the Polish stockmarket (2004). Poland has a large agricultural sector of private farms, that could be a leading producer of food in the European Union now that Poland is a member. Challenges remain, especially under-investment. Structural reforms in health care, education, the pension system, and state administration have resulted in larger-than-expected fiscal pressures. Warsaw leads Central Europe in foreign investment and allegedly needs a continued large inflow. GDP growth had been strong and steady from 1993 to 2000 with only a short slowdown from 2001 to 2002. The prospect of closer integration with the European Union has put the economy back on track, with growth of 3.7% annually in 2003, a rise from 1.4% annually in 2002. In 2004 GDP growth equalled 5.4%. Annual growth rates broken down by quarters:
- 2003: Q1 - 2.2% | Q2 - 3.8% | Q3 - 4.7% | Q4 - 4.7%
- 2004: Q1 - 6.9% | Q2 - 6.1% | Q3 - 5.8% | Q4 - 5.9%
- 2005: Q1 - 2.1% | Q2 - 2.8% | Q3 - 3.7% | Although the Polish economy is currently undergoing an economic boom there are many challenges ahead. The most notable task on the horizon is the preparation of the economy (through continuing deep structural reforms) to allow Poland to meet the strict economic criteria for entry into the European Single Currency. There is much speculation as to just when Poland might be ready to join the Eurozone, although the best guess estimates put the entry date somewhere between 2009 and 2013. For now, Poland is preparing to make the Euro its official currency (as other countries of the European Union), and the Złoty will eventually be abolished from the modern Polish economy. Since joining the European Union, many young Polish people have left their country to work in other EU countries becouse of high unemployment rate (about 17%). Poland produces: clothes, electronics, cars, buses (Autosan, Jelcz SA, Solaris, ) helicopters (PZL Świdnik), planes (PZL Mielec), ships, military engineering (including tanks), medicines (Polpharma, Polfa, etc), food, chemical products etc.

Science, technology and education

The education of Polish society was a goal of rulers as early as the 12th century. The library catalog of the Cathedral Chapter of Kraków dating back to 1110 shows that already in the early 12th century Polish intellectuals had access to the European literature. In 1364, in Kraków, the Jagiellonian University, founded by King Kazimierz Wielki, became one of Europe's great early universities. In 1773 King Stanisław August Poniatowski established his Commission on National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej), the world's first state ministry of education. Today, Poland has more than a hundred institutions of post-secondary education: technical, medical, economics, as well as the traditional universities to be found in its major cities; e.g., Gdańsk, Bydgoszcz, Katowice, Kraków, Lublin, Łódź, Poznań, Rzeszów, Warsaw, Wrocław yielding over 61 thousand scientists. Furthermore, there are about 300 research and development institutes, with about 10 thousand more researchers. In addition, there is a number of smaller laboratories. In sum, there are 91 thousand scientists in Poland today.

Telecommunication and IT

The share of the telecom sector in the GDP is 4.4% (end of 2000 figure), compared to 2.5% in 1996. Nevertheless, despite high expenditures for telecom infrastructure (the coverage increased from 78 users per 1000 inhabitants in 1989 to 282 in 2000)
the coverage mobile cellular is 660 users per 1000 people (2005)
- Telephones - mobile cellular: 25.3 million (Raport Telecom Team 2005)
- Telephones - main lines in use: 12.5 million (Raport Telecom Team 2005)

Transportation

- Rail: The Polish State Railways (PKP) is one of the larger railway systems of central and western Europe, with 23,420 kilometres (14,552 mi) in its network (1998). Refurbishment of the network has commenced to bring standards into line with western European railway networks. [http://www.plk-sa.pl/]
- Road: By Western European standards, Poland has a relatively poor infrastructure of expressways/highways. The Government has undertaken a programme to improve the standard of a number of significant national highways by 2013. The total length of expressways/highways is 364,657 kilometres (226,587 mi). There are a total of 9,283,000 registered passenger automobiles, as well as 1,762,000 registered trucks and buses (2000). PKP
- Air: Poland has eight major airports (in decreasing order of traffic: Warsaw, Kraków, Katowice, Gdańsk, Poznań, Wrocław, Szczecin and Rzeszów), a total of 123 airports and airfields, as well as three heliports. The number of passenger at Polish airports has consistently increased since 1991.
- Marine: The total length of navigable rivers and canals is 3,812 kilometres (2,369 mi). The merchant marine consists of 114 ships, with an additional 100 ships registered outside the country. The principal ports and harbours are: Port of Gdańsk, Port of Gdynia, Port of Szczecin, Port of Swinoujscie, Port of Ustka, Port of Kolobrzeg, Gliwice, Warsaw, Wroclaw.

Tourism and holidays

Wroclaw
- Tourism in Poland
- Holidays in Poland
- [http://wikitravel.org/en/Poland Poland on Wikitravel]

Demographics

Poland formerly played host to many languages, cultures and religions. However, the outcome of World War II and the following shift westwards to the area between the Curzon line and the Oder-Neisse line gave Poland an appearance of homogeneity. Today 36,983,700 people, or 96.74% of the population considers itself Polish (Census 2002), 471,500 (1.23%) declared another nationality. 774,900 people (2.03%) didn't declare any nationality. The officially recognised ethnic minorities include: Germans, Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Jews and Belarusians. The Polish language, a member of the West Slavic branch of the Slavic languages, functions as the official language of Poland. Most Poles adhere to the Roman Catholic faith, and 75% count as practising Catholics. The rest of the population consists mainly of Eastern Orthodox (about 509 500), Jehovah's Witnesses (about 123 034) and various Protestant (about 86 880 in the largest Evangelical-Augsburg Church and about as many in smaller churches) religious minorities. [http://www.stat.gov.pl/opracowania_zbiorcze/maly_rocznik_stat/2003/rocznik4/relig.htm]

Culture

Evangelical-Augsburg Church]] Polish culture has more then 1000 years of history. Poland situated between Western and Eastern cultural spaces and got influences from both. For example the traditional costumes include also Islamic influences. Polish culture developed actively and always been as part of western (Western Europe) culture. We can see that today - architecture, folklore, art etc. Also Poland influenced to near situated countries.

UNESCO World Heritage in Poland

- Warszawa (Old Town)
- Kraków (Old Town)
- Wieliczka (Salt mine)
- Malbork (Biggest Brick Stone Castle)
- Zamość (Renaissance Town)
- Toruń (Gothic Town)
- Oświęcim (Auschwitz concentration camp)
- Jawor (Baroque Peace Church)
- Świdnica (Baroque Peace Chruch)
- Kalwaria Zebrzydowska (Pilgrim´s Place)
- Białowieża Forest (National Park - largest remaining primeval forest in Europe)
- Dębno (Gothic Wooden Chruch)
- Słowiński Park Narodowy (highest sand hills)

International rankings

- Human Development Index 2005: Rank 36th out of 177 countries.
- Reporters Without Borders world-wide press freedom index 2004: Rank 32nd out of 167 countries.
- Index of Economic Freedom 2005: Rank 41st out of 155 countries.

External links

Governmental websites

- [http://www.sejm.gov.pl/english.html Sejm] - Sejm - lower chamber of the Parliament
- [http://www.senat.gov.pl/indexe.htm Senat] - Senate - upper chamber of the Parliament
- [http://www.president.pl/x.node?id=479 Prezydent] - President of the Republic of Poland
- [http://www.kprm.gov.pl/english/index.html KPRM] - Prime Minister's Office
- [http://www.sn.pl/english/index.html Sąd Najwyższy] - Supreme Court
- [http://www.trybunal.gov.pl/eng/index.htm Trybunał Konstytucyjny] - Constitutional Tribunal
- [http://www.nbp.pl/Home.aspx?f=srodeken.htm National Bank of Poland]
- [http://www.poland.pl/ The Poland.pl portal]
- [http://www.wse.com.pl/ Warsaw Stock Exchange]
- [http://www.stat.gov.pl/english/index.htm GUS] - Central Statistical Office
- [http://www.sejm.gov.pl/prawo/konst/angielski/kon1.htm Constitution of Poland]

Poland Tourism

- [http://www.poland-tourism.pl/start.asp?tf=US Polish National Tourist Office (from pot.gov.pl)]

English-language websites on Poland

- [http://www.poland.gov.pl Polska /page about Poland]
- [http://polblog.pl/ PolBlog - Polish News Site]
- [http://www.polishforums.com Poland and Polish Community Online]
- [http://www.centreurope.org/pl/poland.htm Centreurope.org: Poland section]
- [http://www.warsawvoice.pl Warsawvoice]
- [http://www.wbj.pl Warsaw Business Journal]
- [http://www.parks.it/world/PL/Eindex.html Parks in Poland] National parks, wetlands, biosphere reserves and other protected areas Category:European Union member states Category:Republics People of Poland zh-min-nan:Polska als:Polen ko:폴란드 ms:Poland ja:ポーランド simple:Poland th:ประเทศโปแลนด์ fiu-vro:Poola

Politician

A politician is an individual involved in politics to the extent of holding or running for public office. In Western democracies, the term is generally restricted to those officials who attain their position through election campaigns, rather than all members of the state bureaucracy. Such a distinction is less clear in non-democratic forms of government. In a state, individual politicians compose the executive branch of government and the office of Head of State (unless the head of state is a non-political figure, such as a king) as well as the legislative branch, and regional and local levels of government. Other organs of government such as the judicial branch, law enforcement, and the military are not usually regarded as being composed of politicians, despite the fact that the men and women involved do government work. Sometimes political scientists are also refered to as politicians. The Australian slang term for politicians is pollies. Some common offices for politicians can include:
- Alderman
- Congressman
- Councillor
- Governor
- Mayor
- Member of Parliament
- Minister
- Premier
- President
- Prime Minister
- School board member
- Senator

External link

- [http://politicalgraveyard.com/chrono/index.html List of American Politicians by Year Born or Died] Politicians Politician
- ja:政治家

Austrian Army

The name of the Military of Austria is Bundesheer ("Federal Army"). For a short while between 1918 and 1921 the Austrian semi-regular army was called Volkswehr (peoples defence), fighting against Slovenian occupation forces in Carinthia. Since then (with the exception of the period 1938-1945, when Austria was a part of Nazi Germany; see also Anschluss) it has been known as "Bundesheer". The Austrian Army did develop a defence plan in 1938 against Germany, but due to political decisions it was never carried out. In 1955, Austria declared her Everlasting Neutrality and made neutrality a constitutional law. The main purpose of the Austrian military since then has been the protection of Austria's neutrality. The branches are Land Forces (KdoLdSK) and Air Forces (KdoLuSK). With the end of the Cold War, the Austrian military has been increasingly used to safeguard Austrian borders against illegal immigrants. The war in the neighbouring Balkans had resulted in the restrictions on the Austrian military's range of weaponry, imposed by a 1955 international treaty, being lifted. Austria's support of the US-led coalition in the 1991 Gulf War, as well as Austria's entry into the European Union in 1995 are seen as a weakening of Austria's neutrality, and possibly the first steps to joining a (future) European military alliance or NATO. Recently, Austria has spent considerable amounts of money modernizing its military arsenal. Leopard 2 main battle tanks, ULAN and Pandur infantry fighting vehicles, C-130 Hercules transport planes, UH-60 Black Hawk utility helicopters, and Eurofighter Typhoon multi-purpose combat aircraft have been (or are being) purchased.

Traditions

Some of the traditions of the old Austro-Hungarian Army continues to be carried on in Bundesheer. For example, the most famous Regiment of all, the "Hoch und Deutschmeister Regiment", is now known as Landwehrstammregiment "Maria Theresien Kaserne" after Empress Maria Theresa of Austria.

Reference

- CIA World Factbook, 2005
See also

- The term Austrian army may also refer to the army of the Austrian Empire or the Austro-Hungarian Army. Austria
Weblinks

- [http://www.bmlv.gv.at Ministry of Defence (BMLV)]
- [http://www.bhi.at BHI.AT - Austrians greatest Army Webmagazine]

1916

1916 (MCMXVI) is a leap year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar)

Events

January-February

- January 1 -The first successful blood transfusion using blood that had been stored and cooled. Impressionist Monet paints 'Water Lilies'.
- January 5 - Heavy rain - allegedly caused by rainmaker Charles Hatfield - begins; it will cause flooding around San Diego, California
- January 8 - Allied forces withdraw from Gallipoli
- January 13/14 - A heavy storm sweeps through the Zuiderzee in the Netherlands, causing extensive damage. This storm helped the Dutch parliament to decide to build the Afsluitdijk and build polders in the current IJsselmeer.
- January 17 - The Professional Golfers Association (PGA) is formed
- January 18 - A 611 gram chondrite type meteorite struck a house near Baxter, Stone County, Missouri.
- January 23 to 24 In Browning, Montana, the temperature drops from +6.7°C to -48.8°C (44°F to -56°F) in one day, the greatest change ever on record for a 24-hour period.
- January 24 - In Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad the Supreme Court of the United States declares the federal income tax void
- January 28 - Louis D. Brandeis becomes the first Jew appointed to the Supreme Court of the United States.
- January 29 - World War I: Paris is bombed by German zeppelins for the first time.
- February 2 - Blizzard in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- February 3 - Parliament buildings in Ottawa, Canada are burned down.
- February 9 - 6.00 PM - Tristan Tzara "founds" Dadaism (according to Hans Arp
- February 11 - Emma Goldman is arrested for lecturing on birth control.
- February 11 - Baltimore Symphony Orchestra presents its first concert
- February 21 - World War I: In France the Battle of Verdun begins.

March-June

- March 1 - Liberal British Columbia Premier Harlan Carey Brewster term in office ends
- March 6 - Sydney conservatorium of music in Australia accepts first students
- March 8-9 night - Mexican Revolution - Pancho Villa leads 1,500 Mexican raiders in an attack against Columbus, New Mexico, killing 17. Garrison of US 13th Cavalry Regiment fights back and drives them away.
- March 15 - President Woodrow Wilson sends 12,000 United States troops over the U.S.-Mexico border border to pursue Pancho Villa; 13th Cavalry regiment enters Mexican territory.
- March 16 - US 7th and 10th cavalry regiments under John J. Pershing crosses the border to join the hunt of Villa
- March 19 - First United States air combat mission in history as eight US planes take off in pursuit of Pancho Villa
- March 22 - Marriage of Edith Bratt and John Ronald Reuel Tolkien. They would serve as the inspiration for the fictional characters Lúthien and Beren.
- April 24 - April 30 - Easter Rising in Ireland
- April 27 - Battle of Hulluch in World War One, 47th Brigade, 16th Irish Division decimated in one of the most heavily-concentrated gas attacks of the war
- May 5 - United States Marines invade the Dominican Republic.
- May 20 - The Saturday Evening Post publishes its first cover with a Norman Rockwell painting ("Boy with Baby Carriage").
- May 21 - Sir Ernest Shackleton and two of his companions reach a whaling station to get help for the rest of the crew of Endurance.
- May 21 - Britain initiates daylight saving time.
- May 31 - June 1 - Battle of Jutland
- June 5 - Louis Brandeis is sworn in as a Justice of the United States Supreme Court.
- June 5 - HMS Hampshire sinks off the Orkneys, Scotland, with Lord Kitchener aboard
- June 15 - U.S. President Woodrow Wilson signs a bill incorporating the Boy Scouts of America. [http://www.scouting.org/factsheets/02-507.html]

July-August

- July 1 - November 18: More than 1 million soldiers die during The Battle of the Somme including 60,000 soldiers from the British Commonwealth on the first day. The United States is still unwilling to join in the war with Britain, Canada, Australia and the other commonwealth countries.
- July 1 through July 12, at least one shark mauled five swimmers along 80 miles of New Jersey coastline during the Jersey Shore Shark Attacks of 1916, resulting in four deaths and survival of one youth who required limb amputation. This event was the inspiration for author Peter Benchley, over half a century later, to write Jaws.
- July 15 - In Seattle, Washington, William Boeing incorporates Pacific Aero Products (later renamed Boeing).
- July 16 - Hellenic Holocaust: The entire Greek population of Sinope and the coastal region of the county of Kastanome is either exiled or killed.
- July 22 - In San Francisco, California, a bomb explodes on Market Street during a Preparedness Day parade killing 10 injuring 40. (Warren Billings and Tom Mo