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Judson Kilpatrick

Judson Kilpatrick

Hugh Judson Kilpatrick (14 January 1836 near Deckertown, New Jersey – 4 December 1881 in Santiago, Chile) was a officer in the Union army during the American Civil War achieving the rank of Brevet Major General, the United States Minister to Chile, and a failed political candidate for the U.S. House of Representatives and Governor of New Jersey. Known as "Kilcavalry" (or "Kill-Cavalry") for using tactics in battle that were considered as a reckless disregard for lives of soldiers under his command, Kilpatrick was both praised for the victories he achieved, and despised by southerners whose homes and towns he devastated.

Biography

Early life

The fourth child of Colonel Simon Kilpatrick and Julia Wickham, Hugh Judson Kilpatrick was born on 14 January 1836 on the family farm in Wantage Township, near Deckertown, New Jersey (now Sussex Borough). Kilpatrick entered the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York in 1856.

Service during the American Civil War

He graduated from the U.S. Military Academy in 1861, just after the start of the war, and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the 1st U.S. Artillery. Within three days he was a captain in the 5th New York Infantry ("Duryea's Zouaves"). Kilpatrick was the first U.S. Army officer to be wounded in the Civil War, struck in the thigh by canister fire while leading a company at the Battle of Big Bethel, June 10, 1861. By September 25 he was a lieutenant colonel, now in the 2nd New York Cavalry, which he helped to raise, and it was the mounted arm that brought him fame and infamy. Assignments were initially quiet for Lt. Col. Kilpatrick, serving in staff jobs and in minor cavalry skirmishes. That changed in the Second Battle of Bull Run in August, 1862. He raided the Virginia Central Railroad early in the campaign and then ordered a foolish twilight cavalry charge the first evening of the battle, losing a full squadron of troopers. Nevertheless, he was promoted to full colonel on December 6. Kilpatrick was aggressive, fearless, ambitious, and blustery. He was a master, in his mid-twenties, of using political influence to get ahead. His men had little love for his manner and his willingness to exhaust men and horses and to order suicidal mounted cavalry charges. (The rifled muskets introduced to warfare in the 1850s made the historic cavalry charge essentially an anachronism. Cavalry's role shrank primarily to screening, raiding, and reconnaissance.) The widespread nickname they used for Kilpatrick was "Kill Cavalry". He also had a bad reputation with others in the Army. His camps were poorly maintained and frequented by prostitutes, often visiting Kilpatrick himself. He was jailed in 1862 on charges of corruption, accused of selling captured Confederate goods for personal gain. He was jailed again for a drunken spree in Washington, D.C., and for allegedly accepting bribes in the procurement of horses for his command. In February, 1863, Joseph Hooker created a Cavalry Corps in the Army of the Potomac, commanded by George Stoneman. Kilpatrick assumed command of the 1st Brigade, 2nd Division. In the Chancellorsville Campaign in May, Stoneman's cavalry was ordered to swing deeply behind Robert E. Lee's army and destroy railroads and supplies. Kilpatrick did just that, with gusto. Although the corps failed to distract Lee as intended, Kilpatrick achieved fame by aggressively capturing wagons, burning bridges, and riding around Lee, almost to the outskirts of Richmond, Virginia. At the beginning of the Gettysburg Campaign, on June 9, 1863, Kilpatrick fought at Brandy Station, the largest cavalry battle of the war. He received his brigadier general's star on June 13, fought at Aldie and Upperville, and assumed division command three days before the Battle of Gettysburg commenced. On June 30, he clashed briefly with J.E.B. Stuart's cavalry at Hanover, Pennsylvania, but then proceeded on a wild goose chase in pursuit of Stuart, rather than fulfilling his mission of intelligence gathering. On the second day of the Gettysburg battle, July 2, 1863, Kilpatrick's division skirmished against Wade Hampton five miles northeast of town. He then settled in for the night southeast, at Two Taverns. One of his famous brigade commanders, George A. Custer, was ordered to join David McM. Gregg's division for the next day's action against Stuart's cavalry east of town, so Kilpatrick was down to one brigade. On July 3, after Pickett's Charge, he was ordered by army commander George G. Meade and Cavalry Corps commander Alfred Pleasonton to launch a cavalry charge against the infantry positions of James Longstreet's Corps on the Confederate right flank, just west of Little Round Top. Kilpatrick's lone brigade commander, Brig. Gen. Elon Farnsworth, protested against the futility of such a move, but obeyed orders; Kilpatrick essentially questioned his bravery and dared him to charge. Farnsworth was killed in the attack and his brigade suffered significant losses. Kilpatrick and the rest of the cavalry pursued and harassed Lee during his retreat back to Virginia. That fall, he took part in an expedition to destroy the Confederate gunboats Satellite and Reliance in the Rappahannock River, boarding them and capturing their crews successfully.

The Dahlgren Affair

Just before the start of Ulysses S. Grant's Overland Campaign in the spring of 1864, Kilpatrick conducted a raid toward Richmond and through the Virginia Peninsula, hoping to rescue Union prisoners of war held at Belle Isle and in Libby Prison. He destroyed much property and had many encounters with the enemy, but was unsuccessful in his aims. And one of his brigade commanders, Ulric Dahlgren, son of Rear Admiral John Adolph Dalhgren, was killed in the process. The "Kilpatrick-Dahlgren" expedition was such a fiasco that Kilpatrick found he was no longer welcome in the Eastern Theater. He transferred west to command the 3rd Division of the Cavalry Corps of the Army of the Cumberland, under General William Tecumsah Sherman.

Sherman's March to the Sea

Summing up Judson Kilpatrick in 1864, Sherman said "I know that Kilpatrick is a hell of a damned fool, but I want just that sort of man to command my cavalry on this expedition." Starting in May, 1864, Kilpatrick rode in the Atlanta Campaign. On May 13, he was severely wounded in the thigh at the Battle of Resaca and his injuries kept him out of the field until late July. He had considerable success raiding behind Confederate lines, tearing up railroads, and at one point rode his division completely around the enemy positions in Atlanta. Kilpatrick continued with Sherman through his March to the Sea to Savannah and north in the Carolinas Campaign. He delighted in destroying southern property. On two occasions his coarse personal instincts betrayed him: Confederate cavalry raided his camp while he was in bed with prostitutes, and he was forced to flee for his life in his underclothes. He commanded a division of the Cavalry Corps in the Military Division of Mississippi from April to June, 1865, and was promoted to major general of volunteers on June 18, 1865.

Political ambitions

He became active in politics as a Republican and in 1880 was an unsuccessful candidate for the U.S. Congress from New Jersey.

Diplomacy in South America

In 1865 Kilpatrick was appointed Minister to Chile by President Andrew Johnson, and he was continued in that office by President Grant, but was recalled in 1868. In March, 1881, President James Garfield appointed him again to the post of Minister to Chile, where he died shortly after his arrival in the Chilean capital Santiago. His remains returned to the United States in 1887 and were interred at the United States Military Academy Post Cemetery in West Point, New York.

Triviata

Quotes regarding Kilpatrick

All during the night of the second, the 4th had several scouts out...one advanced sufficiently close to overhear loud talking between the two Union cavalry Generals, Kilpatrick and Farnsworth. The former was in command of a division occupying the front of our right flank, which was defended by a thin line of our infantry skirmishers.... It appears from what our scout caught of the heated conversation that Kilpatrick had ordered Farnsworth, a brave and ambitions young brigade officer, but recently promoted, to charge over our picket line and turn our right flank. Farnsworth earnestly protested against such a fools errand, whereupon Kilpatrick angrily remarked, "Then, by God, if you are afraid to go I will lead the charge myself." Farnsworth then without further protest determined to make the effort. This was immediately reported to General Law, and preparations made during the 3rd to meet it. :::::::: —from Robert T. Cole, History of the 4th Regiment, Alabama Volunteer Infantry

Trivia

- Artist and socialite Gloria Vanderbilt (1920–present) is Hugh Judson Kilpatrick's great-granddaughter.
- A member of General George G. Meade's staff, wrote in his diary that it was hard to look at Kilpatrick without bursting into laughter. Described as short in stature, with red hair and stringy sand-colored side burns, he spoke in a shrill voice and walked in a rolling gait. Others described his lack of physical attractiveness in that he was "A wiry, restless, undersized man with black eyes [and] a lantern jaw." Despite these aesthetic limitations, Kilpatrick earned a steady reputation as a philander.
- Kilpatrick is the author of two plays, Allatoona: An Historical and Military Drama in Five Acts (1875) and The Blue and the Gray: Or, War is Hell (posthumous, 1930).

References

- Eicher, John H., & Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3.
- Johnson, Robert Underwood, and Buel, Clarence Clough. Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, 4 volumes, Century, 1887.
- Lewis, Lloyd, Sherman: Fighting Prophet, Harcourt, Brace, 1958.
- Martin, Samuel J., Kill-Cavalry: The Life of Union General Hugh Judson Kilpatrick, Stackpole Books, 2000, ISBN 081170887X.
- Pierce, John Edward, General Hugh Judson Kilpatrick in the American Civil War. Ph.D. Dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1983.
- Schultz, Duane, The Dahlgren Affair: Terror and Conspiracy in the Civil War, W. W. Norton & Company, 1999, ISBN 0393319865.
- Snell, James P., History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey, Everts & Peck, 1881.
- Spera, W. H., "Kilpatrick's Richmond Raid" in Moyer, H. P., History of the Seventeenth Regiment Pennsylvania Volunteer Cavalry Sowers Printing Company, 1911.
- Tagg, Larry, [http://www.rocemabra.com/~roger/tagg/generals/ The Generals of Gettysburg], Savas Publishing, 1998, ISBN 1-882810-30-9.

External links

- [http://www.gdg.org/Research/OOB/Union/July1-3/jkilpatr.html Gettysburg Discussion Group research article] Kilpatrick, Hugh Judson Kilpatrick, Hugh Judson Kilpatrick, Hugh Judson Kilpatrick, Hugh Judson Kilpatrick, Hugh Judson Kilpatrick, Hugh Judson Kilpatrick, Hugh Judson Kilpatrick, Hugh Judson

1836

1836 was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January - Book by Maria Monk claims that she was sexually exploited in a Canadian convent
- February 3 - United States Whig Party holds its first convention in Albany, New York.
- February 23 - The siege of the Alamo begins in San Antonio, Texas.
- February 24 - Samuel Colt receives a patent for the Colt revolver
- March 1 - Convention of delegates from 57 Texas communities convenes in Washington-on-the-Brazos to deliberate independence from Mexico
- March 1 - Antonio García Gutiérrez's play El Trovador played for the first time
- March 2 - Declaration of independence of the Republic of Texas from Mexico.
- March 5 - Samuel Colt makes the first pistol (.34-caliber).
- March 6 - After a 13-day siege by an army of 3,000 Mexican troops, the 189 Texas volunteers defending the Alamo are defeated and the fort taken.
- March 27 - Texas Revolution: Goliad massacre - Antonio López de Santa Anna orders the Mexican army to kill about 400 Texans at Goliad, Texas
- March 31 - Marshall College, named for John Marshall, opens in Mercersburg, Pennsylvania. It later merges with Franklin College to become Franklin and Marshall College in Lancaster, Pennsylvania.
- April 20 - U.S. Congress passes act creating the Wisconsin Territory
- April 21 - Texas Revolution: Battle of San Jacinto - Republic of Texas forces under Sam Houston defeat troops under Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna. (Santa Anna and hundreds of his troops are taken prisoner along the San Jacinto River the next day.)
- May 15 - Francis Baily, during an eclipse of the sun, observes the phenomenon named after him as Baily's beads
- June 15 - Arkansas is admitted as the 25th U.S. state.
- July 11 - President Andrew Jackson issues the Specie Circular, beginning the failure of the land speculation economy that would lead to the Panic of 1837.
- September 1 - Narcissa Whitman, one of the first white woman to settle west of the Rocky Mountains, arrives at Walla Walla, Washington.
- September 5 - Sam Houston is elected as the first president of the Republic of Texas.
- September 8 - Transcendental Club founded in Cambridge, Massachusetts
- October 2 - Naturalist Charles Darwin returns to Falmouth, England aboard the HMS Beagle after a 5-year journey collecting biological data he will later use to develop his theory of evolution.
- October 31 - Bristol riot - In Bristol, England, large crowd protests against the decision of the House of Lords to defeat the Reform Act. They burn down 100 houses, including the Bishop's Palace, the Custom House and the Mansion House and release prisoners. The dragoons attack the crowd and kill and wound hundreds
- November - Martin Van Buren defeats William Henry Harrison in the U.S. presidential election
- December 10 - Emory College, the forerunner of Emory University, is chartered in Oxford, Georgia.
- December 20 - Sudden freeze kills many travelers in Illinois.
- December 28 - Proclamation of the colony of South Australia, now celebrated in the state of South Australia as Proclamation Day.
- December 28 - Spain recognizes independence of Mexico.

Unknown dates

- Chartists in Britain demand universal male suffrage.
- Boers in South Africa begin the Great Trek across the Orange River.
- Henry R. Campbell builds the first 4-4-0, a steam locomotive type that will soon become the most common on all railroads of the United States.
- First printed literature in Assyrian Neo-Aramaic is produced by Justin Perkins, an American Presbyterian missionary.
- Andrew Crosse's electrical experiment seems to produce strange insects; they are named acarus calvanicus
- American Temperance Union established.

Births

- January 2 - Mendele Moykher Sforim, Russian Yiddish writer (d. 1917)
- January 14 - Henri Fantin-Latour, French painter (d. 1904)
- January 27 - Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, Austrian writer (d. 1895)
- February 16 - Robert Halpin, Irish mariner and cable layer (d. 1894)
- February 18 - Ramakrishna Paramhansa, Bengali religious leader (d. 1886)
- February 21 - Léo Delibes, French composer (d. 1891)
- February 24 - Winslow Homer, American artist (d. 1910)
- March 20 - Sir Edward Poynter, French-born artist (d. 1919)
- April 27 - Major Charles Bendire, U.S. Army captain and ornithologist (d. 1897)
- May 27 - Jay Gould, American financier (d. 1892)
- May 28 - Alexander Mitscherlich, German chemist (d. 1918)
- May 31 - Jules Chéret, French printmaker (d. 1932)
- June 2 - Mily Balakirev, Russian composer (d. 1910)
- July 8 - Joseph Chamberlain, British politician (d. 1914)
- July 9 - Henry Campbell-Bannerman, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1908)
- August 13 - Bishop Nikolai of Japan, Russian Orthodox priest (d. 1912)
- August 24 - Susan Agnes Bernard, First Lady of Canada (d. 1920)
- August 25 - Bret Harte, American writer (d. 1902)
- September 11 - Fitz Hugh Ludlow, American author (d. 1870)
- October 15 - James Tissot, French artist (d. 1902)
- November 11 - Thomas Bailey Aldrich, American poet and novelist (d. 1907

4 December

December 4 is the 338th day (339th on leap years) of the Gregorian calendar. There are 27 days remaining.

Events

- 771 - Austrasian King Carloman dies, leaving his brother Charlemagne King of the now complete Frankish Kingdom.
- 1110 - First Crusade: The Crusaders conquer Sidon.
- 1259 - Kings Louis IX of France and Henry III of England agree to the Treaty of Paris, in which Henry renounces his claims to French-controlled territory on continental Europe (including Normandy) in exchange for Louis withdrawing his support for English rebels.
- 1563 - The final session of the Council of Trent is held (it opened on December 13, 1545).
- 1619 - 38 colonists from Berkeley Parish in England disembark in Virginia and give thanks to God (this is considered to be the first Thanksgiving in the Americas).
- 1639 - Jeremiah Horrocks made the first observation of a transit of Venus. (November 24 under the Julian calendar.)
- 1674 - Father Jacques Marquette founds a mission on the shores of Lake Michigan to minister to the Illiniwek (the mission would later grow into the city of Chicago, Illinois).
- 1676 - Battle of Lund: A Danish army under the command of King Christian V of Denmark engages the Swedish army commanded by Field Marshal Simon Grundel-Helmfelt.
- 1783 - At Fraunces Tavern in New York City, US General George Washington formally bids his officers farewell.
- 1791 - The first issue of The Observer, the world's first Sunday newspaper, is published.
- 1829 - In the face of fierce opposition, British governor Lord William Bentinck carries a regulation declaring that all who abetted suttee in India were guilty of culpable homicide.
- 1864 - American Civil War: Sherman's March to the Sea - At Waynesboro, Georgia, forces under Union General Judson Kilpatrick prevent troops led by Confederate General Joseph Wheeler from interfering with Union General William T. Sherman's campaign destroying a wide swath of the South on his march to the Atlantic Ocean from Atlanta (Union forces did suffer more than three times the Confederate casualties, however).
- 1867 - Former Minnesota farmer Oliver Hudson Kelley founds the Order of the Patrons of Husbandry (better known today as the Grange movement).
- 1872 - The crewless American ship Mary Celeste is found by the British brig Dei Gratia (the ship was abandoned for 9 days but was only slightly damaged).
- 1875 - Notorious New York City politician Boss Tweed escapes from prison and flees to Cuba, then Spain.
- 1906 - Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity Inc., the first intercollegiate Greek-letter fraternity in the United States established for men of African descent, was founded at Cornell University.
- 1918 - US President Woodrow Wilson sails for the World War I peace talks in Versailles, becoming the first US president to travel to Europe while in office.
- 1921 - The Virginia Rappe manslaughter trial against Roscoe 'Fatty' Arbuckle ends in a hung jury.
- 1942 - Holocaust: In Warsaw, Zofia Kossak-Szczucka and Wanda Filipowicz set up Żegota.
- 1943 - World War II: In Yugoslavia, resistance leader Marshal Tito proclaims a provisional democratic Yugoslav government in-exile.
- 1943 - The Great Depression ends in the United States: With unemployment figures falling fast due to war-related employment, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt closes the Works Progress Administration.
- 1945 - By a vote of 65 to 7, the United States Senate approves United States participation in the United Nations (the UN was established on October 24, 1945).
- 1951 - Mir Waiz Maulvi Muhammad Yusouf appointed President of Azad Kashmir Government.
- 1952 - Great Smog of 1952: A cold fog descends upon London, combining with air pollution and killing up to 12,000 in the weeks and months that follow.
- 1958 - Dahomey (present-day Benin) becomes a self-governing country within the French Community.
- 1967 - Vietnam War: US and South Vietnamese forces engage Viet Cong troops in the Mekong Delta.
- 1969 - Black Panther members Fred Hampton and Mark Clark are shot and killed in their sleep during a raid by 14 Chicago police officers.
- 1969 - Surfer Greg Noll rides a 65-foot wave on the North Shore of Oahu, still the highest ever recorded.
- 1971 - UN Security Council calls emergency session to consider deteriorating situation between India and Pakistan.
- 1977 - Jean-Bédel Bokassa, president of the Central African Republic, crowns himself Emperor Bokassa I of the Central African Empire.
- 1977 - Malaysia Airlines Flight 653 is hijacked and crashes in Tanjong Kupang, Johor, killing 100.
- 1978 - Following the murder of Mayor George Moscone, Dianne Feinstein becomes San Francisco, California's first woman mayor (she served until January 8, 1988).
- 1979 - The Hastie fire in Hull, kills three schoolboys and eventually leads police to arrest Bruce George Peter Lee.
- 1980 - The rock group Led Zeppelin formally announce their breakup.
- 1981 - South Africa grants "homeland" Ciskei independence (not recognized outside South Africa).
- 1982 - The People's Republic of China adopts its current constitution.
- 1991 - Journalist Terry Anderson is released after 7 years in captivity as a hostage in Beirut (he was the last and longest-held American hostage in Lebanon).
- 1991 - US airline Pan Am ends operations.
- 1992 - Somali Civil War: President George H. W. Bush orders 28,000 US troops to Somalia.
- 1993 - A truce is concluded between the government of Angola and UNITA rebels.
- 1994 - Pakistan wins World Hockey Championship after 12 years, beating Holland by four goals to three, in Sydney.
- 1998 - Unity, the second module of the International Space Station, is launched.

Births

- 1555 - Heinrich Meibom, German historian and poet (d. 1625)
- 1580 - Samuel Argall, English adventurer and naval officer (d. 1626)
- 1585 - John Cotton, American Puritan leader (d. 1652)
- 1595 - Jean Chapelain, French writer (d. 1674)
- 1612 - Samuel Butler, English poet (d. 1680)
- 1660 - André Campra, French composer (d. 1744)
- 1670 - John Aislabie, English politician (d. 1742)
- 1713 - Gasparo Gozzi, Italian critic and dramatist (d. 1786)
- 1777 - Madame Récamier, French writer (d. 1849)
- 1795 - Thomas Carlyle, British writer and historian (d. 1881)
- 1798 - Jules Armand Dufaure, French statesman (d. 1881)
- 1835 - Samuel Butler, British writer (d. 1902)
- 1849 - Crazy Horse, Oglala Sioux chief (d. 1877)
- 1861 - Lillian Russell, American singer and actress (d. 1922)
- 1866 - Wassily Kandinsky, Russian-born French abstract painter (d. 1944)
- 1875 - Rainer Maria Rilke, Austrian poet (d. 1926)
- 1892 - Francisco Franco, Head of State of Spain (d. 1975)
- 1895 - Fung Yu-lan, Chinese philosopher (d. 1990)
- 1903 - Cornell Woolrich, American writer (d. 1968)
- 1908 - Alfred Hershey, American bacteriologist and Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1997)
- 1912 - Pappy Boyington, American pilot (d. 1988)
- 1914 - Rudolf Hausner, Austrian artist (d. 1995)
- 1916 - Ely Jacques Kahn, Jr., American writer (d. 1994)
- 1921 - Deanna Durbin, Canadian actress and singer
- 1922 - Gérard Philipe, French actor (d. 1959)
- 1931 - Alex Delvecchio, Canadian hockey player
- 1934 - Victor French, American actor (d. 1989)
- 1934 - Wink Martindale, American game show host
- 1937 - Max Baer, Jr., American actor, screenwriter, director, and producer
- 1938 - Yvonne Minton, Australian soprano
- 1939 - Freddy Cannon, American musician
- 1942 - Gemma Jones, British actress
- 1942 - Roh Tae-woo, President of South Korea
- 1944 - Dennis Wilson, American musician and singer (The Beach Boys) (d. 1983)
- 1945 - Roberta Bondar, Canadian astronaut and scientist
- 1949 - Jeff Bridges, American actor
- 1957 - Eric S. Raymond, American open source advocate
- 1960 - Glynis Nunn, Australian heptathlete and Olympic gold medalist
- 1961 - Frank Reich, American football player
- 1963 - Sergei Bubka, Soviet-born Ukrainian pole-vaulter, IAAF World Champion, Olympic gold medalist and current world-record holder
- 1964 - Marisa Tomei, American actress
- 1966 - Fred Armisen, American actor and musician
- 1969 - Jay-Z (Shawn Carter), American rapper
- 1972 - Nikki Tyler, American actress
- 1973 - Tyra Banks, American model

Deaths

- 765 - Jafar Sadiq, Shia Imam (b. 702)
- 771 - Carloman, King of the Franks (b. 751)
- 1075 - Archbishop Anno II of Cologne
- 1123 - Omar Khayyám, Persian poet, astronomer, mathematician, and philosopher (b. 1048)
- 1214 - William I of Scotland
- 1270 - Theobald V of Champagne, King of Navarre
- 1334 - Pope John XXII (b. 1249)
- 1340 - Henry Burghersh, English bishop and chancellor (b. 1292)
- 1459 - Adolf VIII, Duke of Southern Jutland (b. 1401)
- 1576 - Rheticus, Austrian mathematician (b. 1514)
- 1585 - John Willock, Scottish reformer
- 1609 - Alexander Hume, Scottish poet
- 1642 - Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu, French statesman (b. 1585)
- 1649 - William Drummond of Hawthornden, Scottish poet (b. 1585)
- 1679 - Thomas Hobbes, English philosopher (b. 1588)
- 1680 - Thomas Bartholin, Danish physician, mathematician, and theologian (b. 1616)
- 1696 - Empress Meisho of Japan (b. 1624)
- 1732 - John Gay, British playwright (b. 1685)
- 1784 - Wiseman Claget, British classical scholar (b. 1721)
- 1798 - Luigi Galvani, Italian physicist (b. 1737)
- 1845 - Gregor MacGregor, British con-artist
- 1926 - Ivana Kobilca, Slovenian-born painter (b. 1861)
- 1933 - Stefan George, German poet (b. 1868)
- 1935 - Johan Halvorsen, Norwegian composer (b. 1864)
- 1935 - Charles Robert Richet, French physiologist and Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1850)
- 1945 - Thomas Hunt Morgan, American geneticist and Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1866)
- 1956 - Alexandr Rodchenko, Russian-born Soviet painter and photographer (b. 1891)
- 1967 - Bert Lahr, American actor (b. 1895)
- 1976 - Tommy Bolin, American guitarist (b. 1951)
- 1976 - Benjamin Britten, British composer (b. 1913)
- 1980 - Francisco Sá Carneiro, Prime Minister of Portugal (b. 1934)
- 1980 - Stanislawa Walasiewicz (Stella Walsh), Polish-born American athlete and Olympic gold medalist (competing for Poland) (b. 1911)
- 1993 - Frank Zappa, American musician and composer (b. 1940)
- 1997 - Richard Vernon, British actor (b. 1925)
- 2005 - Gregg Hoffman, American movie producer (b. 1963/1964)

Holidays and observances

- Roman festivals - secret ceremonies in honor of Bona Dea
- R.C. Saints - Saint John of Damascus: optional memorial; also Saint Barbara
- Also see December 4 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
- Santería, Lukumí - Day of Shango
- International Hug Day. See Also: January 21st, National Hugging Day

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/4 BBC: On This Day] ---- December 3 - December 5 - November 4 - January 4 — listing of all days ko:12월 4일 ms:4 Disember ja:12月4日 simple:December 4 th:4 ธันวาคม

Santiago, Chile

Santiago (officially in Spanish, Santiago de Chile) is Chile's capital and largest city. It is situated in the country's central valley, and administratively is a part of the Santiago Metropolitan Region. While Santiago is the capital, legislative bodies meet in nearby Valparaiso. Geographical coordinates, .

Climate

Valparaiso Santiago has a mild Mediterranean climate: relatively hot dry summers (November to March) with temperatures reaching up to 35 degrees Celsius on the hottest days; winters (June to August) are more humid, with typical maximum daily temperatures of 15 degrees Celsius, and minimums of a few degrees above freezing. Mean rainfall is 360 mm per year. Thermal inversion (a meteorological phenomenon whereby a stable layer of warm air holds down colder air close to the ground) causes high levels of smog and air pollution to be trapped and concentrate within the Central Valley during winter months. The government has attempted to reduce pollution by giving incentives for heavy industry to move out of the valley but such measures have seen limited results. The Mapocho river, which crosses the city from the north-east to the south-west of the Central Valley, is contaminated by industrial and household sewage, dumped unfiltered into the river, and by upstream copper-mining waste (there are a number of copper mines in the Andes east of Santiago). The central government recently passed a law that forces industry and local governments to process all their wastewater by 2006. There are now a number of large wastewater processing and recycling plants under construction. Sound levels on the main streets are high, mostly because of noisy diesel buses. Diesel trucks and buses are also major contributors to winter smog. air pollution

The people

The population of Santiago's urban agglomeration grew from 1.33 million in 1950 to 2.84 million in 1970 and 4.56 million in 1990. It had 35.2% of the total population of Chile. The urban agglomeration of Santiago now contains a population of 5.96 million according to mongabay.com and will reach up to 6.33 in 2010 and 6.61 in 2015. It is now one of the largest cities in Latin America, and it concentrates over 40 percent of the country's population. The government has made great efforts to encourage people to resettle out of Santiago, to relieve the pressure on the city's infrastructure.

Economy

Latin America, is the country's tallest building (143 m)]] Santiago is the most important industrial and financial center of Chile. It generates 45 percent of the country's GDP. Also, the city is, along with Buenos Aires and São Paulo, one of the biggest financial centers of South America. Some international institutions, such as ECLAC (Economic comission for Latin America and the Caribbean), have their offices in Santiago. In recent years, due to the strong growth and stability of the Chilean economy, many multinational companies have chosen Santiago as the place for their headquarters in the region, like HP, Reuters, JP Morgan, Intel, Coca Cola, Unilever, Nestlé, Kodak, BHP Billiton, IBM, Motorola, and many more.

Transportation

Motorola Motorola Santiago's national and international airport is Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport and ranks high regionally in terms of quality. Trains connect Santiago to Puerto Montt, in the central-southern part of the country. All such trains arrive and depart from the Estación Central ("Central Station"). Private inter-urban bus companies provide excellent and cheap transportation from Santiago to virtually any part of the country. There are also several new inter-urban toll highways connecting the city's extremes; some of these are still under construction. Santiago's urban passenger transportation system include an extensive, if chaotic, privately-run bus service as well as a subway. The buses are known as micros (for microbus) and are typically colored yellow. This bus system is in the process of being completely replaced by late 2006 by a new system which includes new routes and larger, newer buses, with a better payment system, compatible with the subway. (See Transantiago.) The subway is clean and safe and has three operating lines but their coverage is still somewhat limited. The Government is building an additional subway line (Line 4), and extensions to Lines 1 and 2. (See Santiago Metro.) Taxicabs can usually be found on the streets and are painted black with yellow roofs; unmarked taxis may be called up by telephone (Radiotaxis). Colectivos are shared taxicabs that carry passengers along a specific route, for a fixed fee.

Political divisions

Taxicab The city of Santiago lies within the larger province of Santiago, which is divided into 32 municipalities (comunas in Spanish). Each municipality is headed by a mayor (alcalde) elected by voters every four years. The members of the municipal council (concejales) are elected in the same election on a separate ballot.

Cultural life

Spanish Spanish Spanish Spanish

Music

There are two symphonic orchestras:
- Orquesta Filarmónica de Santiago, which performs in the Teatro Municipal
- Orquesta Sinfónica de Chile, dependent of the Universidad de Chile, performs in its theater. There are also various jazz establishments, the most notable being the [http://www.clubdejazz.cl Club de Jazz] in Ñuñoa.

Museums

Museums include:
- [http://www.mavi.cl/arqueologico/ Museo Arqueológico de Santiago]
- [http://www.munistgo.cl/colorada/p1.htm Museo de Santiago Casa Colorada]
- Museo Catedral Metropolitana
- [http://www.museosanfrancisco.cl/ Museo Colonial San Francisco]
- [http://www.precolombino.cl/ Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino]
- [http://www.dibam.cl/historico_nacional/ Museo Histórico Nacional]
- [http://www.dibam.cl/bellas_artes/home.asp Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes]
- Museo de Arte Contemporáneo
- [http://www.mim.cl/index0.htm Museo Interactivo Mirador]
- [http://www.artequin.cl Museo Artequín]
- Museo de Ciencia y Tecnología
- [http://www.corpdicyt.cl/homeferroviario.htm Museo Ferroviario]
- Museo de la Solidaridad "Salvador Allende"
- [http://www.palaciocousino.cl Palacio Cousiño]
- La Chascona, Pablo Neruda's house, now a museum

Universities

The city has the largest concentration of higher-education institutions in the country. Traditional (Public):
- Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (PUC)
- Universidad de Chile (U, UCh)
- Universidad de Santiago de Chile (USACH)
- Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educación (UMCE)
- Universidad Tecnológica Metropolitana (UTEM) Non-Traditional (Private):
- Universidad Academia de Humanismo Cristiano
- Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez (UAI)
- Universidad Alberto Hurtado
- Universidad Bernardo O'Higgins
- Universidad Bolivariana
- Universidad Católica Raúl Silva Henríquez
- Universidad Central de Chile
- Universidad de Artes y Ciencias Sociales (ARCIS)
- Universidad de Artes, Ciencias y Comunicación (UNIACC)
- Universidad de Ciencias de la Informática
- Universidad de las Américas
- Universidad de Los Andes
- Universidad del Desarrollo
- Universidad del Pacífico
- Universidad Diego Portales
- Universidad Europea de Negocios
- Universidad Finis Terrae
- Universidad Gabriela Mistral
- Universidad Iberoamericana de Ciencias y Tecnología
- Universidad Internacional SEK
- Universidad La República
- Universidad Mariano Egaña
- Universidad Mayor
- Universidad Miguel de Cervantes
- Universidad Nacional Andrés Bello
- Universidad Santo Tomás
- Universidad Tecnológica Vicente Pérez Rosales

Recreation

Universidad Tecnológica Vicente Pérez Rosales] Santiago is a densely inhabited city with only 2.5 m² of green space per inhabitant; less than a third of what the WHO recommends. The city's main parks are:
- San Cristóbal Hill, which includes the Santiago Metropolitan Park Zoo
- O'Higgins Park
- Forestal Park, park located at the city centre alongside Mapocho river
- Cerro Santa Lucía Modern ski resorts within an hour's drive east from the city include:
- [http://www.farellones.cl/ Farellones]
- [http://www.vallenevado.com/ Valle Nevado]
- [http://www.laparva.cl/ La Parva]
- [http://www.skiportillo.com Portillo] is some three hours away. One of the country's most important winegrowing areas lie in the near Maipo Valley. Several vineyards are located in this area:
- [http://www.conchaytoro.cl/ Concha y Toro]
- [http://www.santarita.cl/ Santa Rita]
- [http://www.santacarolina.cl/ Santa Carolina]
- [http://www.cousinomacul.cl/home.html Cousiño Macul] Cultural places to visit include:
- Barrio Bellavista, cultural and bohemian neighborhood
- Central Station, railway station designed by Gustave Eiffel
- Víctor Jara Stadium
- Ex National Congress
- Plaza de Armas, downtown square
- Palacio de La Moneda, presidential palace Main soccer stadiums:
- National Stadium
- Estadio David Arellano (Monumental)
- Estadio San Carlos de Apoquindo

History

National Stadium)]] Santiago was founded by Pedro de Valdivia on February 12, 1541 with the name Santiago de Nueva Extremadura. The founding ceremony was held on Huelén Hill (later renamed Cerro Santa Lucía). Valdivia chose the location of Santiago because of its moderate climate and the ease with which it could be defended—the Mapocho River split the area in two, and rejoined further downstream, forming an island. The first buildings were erected with the help of the native Picunche Indians. The south bank of the Mapocho River was later drained and converted into a public promenade, known as the Alameda (now Avenida Alameda Libertador Bernardo O'Higgins). The city was slightly damaged during the War of Independence (1810–18), in the Battle of Maipú, which was fought south-west of the city. Santiago was named capital in 1818. During the early 19th century, Santiago remained a small town with few buildings excepting Palacio de La Moneda, the building used as the Chilean mint during the Spanish period, and a few churches and other civic buildings. In the 1880s extraction of nitrate fertilizer in Northern Chile brought prosperity to the country, and promoted the capital city's development. Important landmarks were built in 1910 during the Centennial celebrations of independence from Spain, such as the National Library and the Museum of Fine Arts. Santiago began its transformation to a modern city in the 1930s, with the building of the Barrio Cívico, surrounding El Palacio de La Moneda. The city also grew in population, due to migration from the north and south of Chile. In 1985 an earthquake destroyed some historically significant buildings in the downtown area. Santiago is now often considered an important financial center in Latin America.

External links

- [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=santiago&spn=.173189,.241030&t=k Satellite images of Santiago, Chile] (Google Maps)
- [http://www.flickr.com/groups/santiagodechile/ Images of Santiago]
- [http://www.misantiago.cl/ Interactive map of downtown Santiago] Category:Capitals in South America Category:Cities in Chile ko:산티아고 (칠레) ja:サンティアゴ (チリ)

American Civil War

The American Civil War (1861–1865) was fought in North America within the United States of America, between twenty-four mostly northern states of the Union and the Confederate States of America, a coalition of eleven southern states that declared their independence and claimed the right of secession from the Union in 1860–1861. The war produced over 970,000 casualties (3.09% of population), including approximately 560,300 deaths (1.78%), a loss of more American lives than any other conflict in history. The causes of the war, and even the name of the war itself, are still debated (see the article Naming the American Civil War).

The division of the country

Naming the American Civil War

The Deep South

Seven states seceded shortly after the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 – even before he was inaugurated:
- South Carolina (December 21, 1860),
- Mississippi (January 9, 1861),
- Florida (January 10, 1861),
- Alabama (January 11, 1861),
- Georgia (January 19, 1861),
- Louisiana (January 26, 1861), and
- Texas (February 1, 1861). These States of the Deep South, where slavery and cotton plantation agriculture were most dominant, formed the Confederate States of America (February 4, 1861), with Jefferson Davis as President, and a governmental structure closely modeled on the U.S. Constitution (see also: Confederate States Constitution). After the Battle of Fort Sumter, South Carolina, Lincoln called for troops from all remaining states to recover the forts, resulting in the secession of four more states: Virginia (April 17, 1861), Arkansas (May 6, 1861), North Carolina (May 20, 1861), and Tennessee (June 8, 1861).

Border States

Main article: Border states (Civil War) Along with the northwestern counties of Virginia (whose residents did not wish to secede and eventually entered the Union in 1863 as West Virginia), four of the five northernmost "slave states," (Maryland, Delaware, Missouri, and Kentucky) did not secede, and became known as the Border States. Delaware, which in the 1860 election had voted for Southern Democrat John C. Breckinridge, had few slaves and never considered secession. Maryland also voted for Breckinridge, and after rioting in Baltimore and other events had prompted a Federal declaration of martial law, its legislature rejected secession (April 27, 1861). Both Missouri and Kentucky remained in the Union, but factions within each state organized "secessions" that were recognized by the CSA. In Missouri, the State government under Governor Claiborne F. Jackson, a southern sympathizer, evacuated the state capital of Jefferson City and met in-exile at the town of Neosho, Missouri, adopting a secession ordinance that was recognized by the Confederacy on October 30, 1861, while the Union organized a competing State government by calling a constitutional convention that had originally been convened to vote on secession. (See also: Missouri secession). Missouri secession Although Kentucky did not secede, for a time it declared itself neutral. During a brief occupation by the Confederate Army, Southern sympathizers organized a secession convention, inaugurated a Confederate Governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy. Residents of the northwestern counties of Virginia organized a secession from Virginia, with a plan for gradual emancipation, and entered the Union in 1863 as West Virginia. Similar secessions were supported in some other areas of the Confederacy (such as eastern Tennessee), but were suppressed by declarations of martial law by the Confederacy. Conversely, the southern half of the Federal Territory of New Mexico voted to secede, and was accepted into the Confederacy as the Territory of Arizona (see map below), with its capital in Mesilla (now part of New Mexico). Although the northern half of New Mexico never voted to secede, the Confederacy did lay claim to this territory and briefly occupied the territorial capital of Santa Fe between March 13 and April 8, 1862, but never organized a territorial government.

Origins of the conflict

:Main articles: Origins of the American Civil War, Timeline of events Timeline of events. In their agitation against the South, abolitionists cited the slave codes as an example of the barbarism of Southern society. Above, a woodcut from the abolitionist Anti-Slavery Almanac (1839) depicts the capture of a fugitive slave by a slave patrol.]] There had been a continuing contest between the states and the national government over the power of the latter, and over the loyalty of the citizenry, almost since the founding of the republic. The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1798, for example, had defied the Alien and Sedition Acts, and at the Hartford Convention, New England voiced its opposition to President Madison and the War of 1812. In 1828 and 1832 the Congress passed protective tariffs to benefit trade in the northern states. It was deemed a "Tariff of Abominations" and its provisions would have imposed a significant economic penalty on South Carolina and other southern states if left in force. South Carolina dealt with the tariffs by adopting the Ordinance of Nullification, which declared both the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 null and void within state borders. The legislature also passed laws to enforce the ordinance, including authorization for raising a military force and appropriations for arms. In response to South Carolina's threat, Congress passed a "Force Bill" and President Andrew Jackson sent seven small naval vessels and a man-of-war to Charleston in November 1832. On December 10, he issued a resounding proclamation against the nullifiers. On the eve of the Civil War, the United States was a nation composed of four quite distinct regions: the Northeast, with a growing industrial and commercial economy and an increasing density of population; the Northwest, now known as the Midwest, a rapidly expanding region of free farmers where slavery had been forever prohibited under the Northwest Ordinance; the Upper South, with a settled plantation system and (in some areas) declining economic fortunes; and the Southwest, a booming frontier-like region with an expanding cotton economy. With two fundamentally different labor systems at their base, the economic and social changes across the nation's geographical regions – based on wage labor in the North and on slavery in the South – underlay distinct visions of society that had emerged by the mid-nineteenth century in the North and in the South. Before the Civil War, the Constitution provided a basis for peaceful debate over the future of government, and had been able to regulate conflicts of interest and conflicting visions for the new, rapidly expanding nation. For many years, compromises had been made to balance the number of "free states" and "slave states" so that there would be a balance in the Senate. The last slave state admitted was Texas in 1845, with five free states admitted between 1846 and 1859. The admission of Kansas as a slave state had recently been blocked, and it was due to enter as a free state instead in 1861. The rise of mass democracy in the industrializing North, the breakdown of the old two-party system, and increasingly virulent and hostile sectional ideologies in the mid-nineteenth century made it highly unlikely, if not impossible, to bring about the gentlemanly compromises of the past (such as the Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850) necessary to avoid crisis. Also the existence of slave labor in the South made the Northern States the preferred destination for new immigrants from Europe resulting in an increasing dominance of the North in Congress and in Presidential elections, due to population size. Sectional tensions changed in their nature and intensity rapidly during the 1850s. The United States Republican Party was established in 1854. The new party opposed the expansion of slavery in the Western territories. Although only a small share of Northerners favored measures to abolish slavery in the South, the Republicans were able to mobilize popular support among Northerners and Westerners who did not want to compete against slave labor if the system were expanded beyond the South. The Republicans won the support of many ex-Whigs and Northern ex-Democrats concerned about the South's disproportionate influence in the Senate, the Buchanan administration, and the Supreme Court. Meanwhile, the profitability of cotton, or "King Cotton," as it was touted, solidified the South's dependence on the plantation system and its foundation: slave labor. A small class of slave barons, especially cotton planters, dominated the politics and society of the South. King Cotton Southern secession was triggered by the election of Republican Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln was a moderate in his opposition to slavery. He pledged to do all he could to oppose the expansion of slavery into the territories (thus also preventing the admission of any additional slave states to the Union); but he also said the federal government did not have the power to abolish slavery in the states in which it already existed, and that he would enforce Fugitive Slave Laws. The southern states expected increasing hostility to their "peculiar institution"; not trusting Lincoln, and mindful that many other Republicans were intent on complete abolition of slavery. Lincoln had even encouraged abolitionists with his 1858 "House divided" speech[http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/speeches/house.htm], though that speech was also consistent with an eventual end of slavery achieved gradually and voluntarily with compensation to slave-owners and resettlement of former slaves. In addition to Lincoln's presidential victory, the slave states had lost the balance of power in the Senate and were facing a future as a perpetual minority after decades of nearly continuous control of the presidency and the Congress. Southerners also felt they could no longer prevent protectionist tariffs such as the Morrill Tariff. The Southern justification for a unilateral right to secede cited the doctrine of states' rights, which had been debated before with the 1798 Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, and the 1832 Nullification Crisis with regard to tariffs. Before Lincoln took office, seven states seceded from the union, and attempted to establish an independent southern government, the Confederate States of America on February 9, 1861. They took control of federal forts and property within their boundaries, with little resistance from President Buchanan. Ironically, by seceding, the rebel states weakened any claim to the territories that were in dispute, canceled any obligation for the North to return fugitive slaves, and assured easy passage of many bills and amendments they had long opposed. The Civil War began when Confederate General P.G.T. Beauregard opened fire upon Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina on April 12, 1861. There were no casualties from enemy fire in this battle.

Narrative summary

1861 Lincoln's victory in the presidential election of 1860 triggered South Carolina's secession from the Union. Lincoln was not even on the ballot in nine states in the South. Leaders in South Carolina had long been waiting for an event that might unite the South against the anti-slavery forces. Once the election returns were certain, a special South Carolina convention declared "that the Union now subsisting between South Carolina and other states under the name of the 'United States of America' is hereby dissolved." By February 1, 1861, six more Southern states had seceded. On February 7, the seven states adopted a provisional constitution for the Confederate States of America and established their capital at Montgomery, Alabama. The pre-war peace conference of 1861 met at Washington, D.C. The remaining southern states as yet remained in the Union. Several seceding states seized federal forts within their boundaries; President Buchanan made no military response. Less than a month later, on March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President of the United States. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called the secession "legally void". He stated he had no intent to invade southern states, but would use force to maintain possession of federal property. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union. The South did send delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties, but they were turned down. On April 12, the South fired upon the federal troops stationed at Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina until the troops surrendered. Lincoln called for all of the states in the Union to send troops to recapture the forts and preserve the Union. Most Northerners hoped that a quick victory for the Union would crush the nascent rebellion, and so Lincoln only called for volunteers for 90 days. This resulted in four more states voting to secede. Once Virginia seceded, the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond, Virginia. Even though the Southern states had seceded, there was considerable anti-secessionist sentiment within several of the seceding states. Eastern Tennessee, in particular, was a hotbed for pro-Unionism. Winston County, Alabama issued a resolution of secession from the state of Alabama. The Red Strings were a prominent Southern anti-secession group. Winfield Scott created the Anaconda Plan as the Union's main plan of attack during the war.

Eastern Theater 1861–1863

Because of the fierce resistance of a few initial Confederate forces at Manassas, Virginia, in July 1861, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell on the Confederate forces there was halted in the First Battle of Bull Run, or First Manassas, whereupon they were forced back to Washington, D.C., by Confederate troops under the command of Generals Joseph E. Johnston and P.G.T. Beauregard. It was in this battle that Confederate General Thomas Jackson received the name of "Stonewall" because he stood like a stone wall against Union troops. Alarmed at the loss, and in an attempt to prevent more slave states from leaving the Union, the U.S. Congress passed the Crittenden-Johnson Resolution on July 25 of that year, which stated that the war was being fought to preserve the Union and not to end slavery. Major General George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 (he was briefly general-in-chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck), and the war began in earnest in 1862. Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan invaded Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River, southeast of Richmond. Although McClellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign, Joseph E. Johnston halted his advance at the Battle of Seven Pines, then Robert E. Lee defeated him in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat. McClellan was stripped of many of his troops to reinforce John Pope's Union Army of Virginia. Pope was beaten spectacularly by Lee in the Northern Virginia Campaign and the Second Battle of Bull Run in August. Second Battle of Bull Run Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North, when General Lee led 55,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in American history. Lee's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided justification for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation. When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. Burnside suffered near-immediate defeat at the Battle of Fredericksburg on December 13, 1862, when over ten thousand Union soldiers were killed or wounded. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph "Fighting Joe" Hooker. Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863. He was replaced by Maj. Gen. George G. Meade during Lee's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1–3, 1863), the largest battle in North American history, which is sometimes considered the war's turning point. Lee's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade's 23,000), again forcing it to retreat to Virginia, never to launch a full-scale invasion of the North again.

Western Theater 1861–1863

While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern theater, they crucially failed in the West. They were driven from Missouri early in the war as result of the Battle of Pea Ridge. Leonidas Polk's invasion of Kentucky enraged the citizens who previously had declared neutrality in the war, turning that state against the Confederacy. Nashville, Tennessee, fell to the Union early in 1862. Most of the Mississippi was opened with the taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee. New Orleans, Louisiana, was captured in May 1862, allowing the Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi as well. Only the fortress city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, prevented unchallenged Union control of the entire river. Braxton Bragg's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky was repulsed by Don Carlos Buell at the confused and bloody Battle of Perryville and he was narrowly defeated by William S. Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River in Tennessee. The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga in Georgia, near the Tennessee border, where Bragg, reinforced by the corps of James Longstreet (from Lee's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of George Henry Thomas, and forced him to retreat to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged. The Union's key strategist and tactician in the west was Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry and Donelson, which seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers; Shiloh; Vicksburg, Mississippi, cementing Union control of the Mississippi and considered one of the turning points of the war; and Chattanooga, Tennessee, driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening an invasion route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.

Trans-Mississippi Theater 1861–1865

Though geographically isolated from the battles to the east, a number of military actions took place in the Trans-Mississippi theater, a region encompassing states and territories to the west of the Mississippi River. In 1861 Confederates launched a successful campaign into the territory of present day Arizona and New Mexico. Residents in the southern portions of this territory adopted a secession ordinance of their own and requested that Confederate forces stationed in nearby Texas assist them in removing Union forces still stationed there. The Confederate territory of Arizona was proclaimed by Col. John Baylor after victories at Mesilla, New Mexico, and the capture of several Union forces. Confederate troops were unsuccessful in attempts to press northward in the territory and withdrew from Arizona completely in 1862 as Union reinforcements arrived from California. :The Battle of Glorieta Pass was a small skirmish in terms of both numbers involved and losses (140 Federal, 190 Confederate). Yet the issues were large, and the battle decisive in resolving them. The Confederates might well have taken Fort Union and Denver had they not been stopped at Glorieta. As one Texan put it, "if it had not been for those devils from Pike's Peak, this country would have been ours". :This small battle smashed any possibility of the Confederacy taking New Mexico and the far west territories. In April, Union volunteers from California pushed the remaining Confederates out of present-day Arizona at the Battle of Picacho Pass. In the eastern part of the United States, the fighting dragged on for three more years, but in the Southwest the war was over. [http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/117glorietaraton/117facts3.htm] The Union mounted several attempts to capture the trans-Mississippi regions of Texas and Louisiana from 1862 until the war's end. With ports to the east under blockade or capture, Texas in particular became a blockade-running haven. Referred to as the "back door" of the Confederacy, Texas and western Louisiana continued to provide cotton crops that were transferred overland to Matamoros, Mexico, and shipped to Europe in exchange for supplies. Determined to close this trade, the Union mounted several invasion attempts of Texas, each of them unsuccessful. Confederate victories at Galveston, Texas, and the Battle of Sabine Pass repulsed invasion forces. The Union's disastrous Red River Campaign in western Louisiana, including a defeat at the Battle of Mansfield, effectively ended the Union's final invasion attempt of the region until the final fall of the Confederacy. Isolated from events in the east, the Civil War continued in the Trans-Mississippi theater for several months after Robert E. Lee's surrender. The last battle of the war occurred at Palmito Ranch in southern Texas—ironically a Confederate victory.

The End of the War 1864–1865

Palmito Ranch At the beginning of 1864, Grant was promoted to lieutenant general and given command of all Union armies. He chose to make his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, although Meade remained the actual commander of that army. He left Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of total war and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would bring an end to the war. Therefore, scorched earth tactics would be required in some important theaters. He devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the heart of Confederacy from multiple directions: Grant, Meade, and Benjamin Butler would move against Lee near Richmond; Franz Sigel would invade the Shenandoah Valley; Sherman would invade Georgia, defeat Joseph E. Johnston, and capture Atlanta; George Crook and William W. Averell would operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia; and Nathaniel Banks would capture Mobile, Alabama. Union forces in the East attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles during that phase ("Grant's Overland Campaign") of the Eastern campaign. An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the Bermuda Hundred river bend. Grant was tenacious and, despite astonishing losses (over 66,000 casualties in six weeks), kept pressing Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. He pinned down the Confederate army in the Siege of Petersburg, where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months. After two failed attempts (un