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Jules Favre

Jules Favre

Jules Claude Gabriel Favre (March 21, 1809 - January 20, 1880) was a French statesman. French He was born at Lyon, and began his career as an advocate. From the time of the revolution of 1830, he openly declared himself a republican, and in political trials he took the opportunity to express this opinion. After the revolution of 1848 he was elected deputy for Lyon to the Constituent Assembly, where he sat among the moderate republicans, voting against the socialists. When Louis Napoleon was elected President of France, Favre openly opposed him, and on December 2 1851 he tried with Victor Hugo and others to organize armed resistance in the streets of Paris. After the coup d'état, he withdrew from politics, returned to the legal profession, and distinguished himself by his defence of Felice Orsini, the perpetrator of the attack against the life of Napoleon III. In 1858 he was elected deputy for Paris, and was one of the "Five" who gave the signal for the republican opposition to the Empire. In 1863 he became the head of his party, and delivered a number of addresses denouncing the Mexican expedition and the occupation of Rome. These addresses, eloquent, clear and incisive, won him a seat in the Académie française in 1867. With Adolphe Thiers he opposed the war against Prussia in 1870, and at the news of the defeat of Napoleon III at Sedan he demanded the deposition of the emperor. In the government of National Defence he became vice-president under General Trochu, and minister of foreign affairs, with the onerous task of negotiating peace with victorious Germany. He proved to be less adroit as a diplomat than he had been as an orator, and committed several irreparable blunders. His famous statement on September 6, 1870, that he "would not yield to Germany an inch of territory nor a single stone of the fortresses" was a piece of oratory which Bismarck met on the 19th by his declaration to Favre that Alsace and Lorraine had to be ceded as a condition of peace. Favre also made the mistake of not having an assembly elected which would have more regular powers than the government of National Defence, and of opposing the removal of the government from Paris during the siege. In the peace negotiations, Bismarck got the better of him. He arranged for the armistice of June 28 1871 without knowing the situation of the armies, and without consulting the government at Bordeaux. By a grave oversight he neglected to inform Léon Gambetta that the army of the East (80,000 men) was not included in the armistice, and it was thus obliged to retreat to neutral territory. He showed no diplomatic skill in the negotiations for the treaty of Frankfurt, and it was Bismarck who imposed all the conditions. He withdrew from the ministry, discredited, on August 2 1871, but remained in the chamber of deputies. Elected senator on January 30 1876, he continued to support the government of the republic against the reactionary opposition, until his death on the 20th of January 1880. His works include many speeches and addresses, notably La Liberté de la Presse (1849), Défense de F. Orsini (1866), Discours de réception a l'Académie française (1868), Discours sur la liberté intérieure (1869). In Le Gouvernement de la Défense Nationale, 3 vols., 1871-1875, he explained his role in 1870-1871. After his death his family published his speeches in 8 volumes. See G Hanotaux, Histoire de la France contemporaine (1903, etc.); also E Benoît-Lévy, Jules Favre (1884). ---- Initial text from the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica. Please update as needed. Favre, Jules Favre, Jules Favre, Jules

March 21

March 21 is the 80^th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (81^st in leap years). It is also the first day of the astrological year. There are 285 days remaining.

Events

- 1556 - In Oxford, Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer is burned at the stake.
- 1788 - A fire destroys 856 buildings in New Orleans and leaves most of the town in ruins.
- 1800 - With the church leadership driven out of the Rome during an armed conflict, Pius VII was crowned Pope in Venice with a temporary papal tiara made of papier-mâché.
- 1801 - The Battle of Alexandria was fought between British and French forces near the ruins of Nicopolis in Egypt.
- 1804 - Code Napoléon was adopted as French civil law.
- 1857 - Earthquake in Tokyo, Japan kills over 100,000.
- 1871 - Journalist Henry Morton Stanley began his trek to find the missionary and explorer David Livingstone.
- 1919 - The Chinese High School is established in Singapore by Tan Kah Kee.
- 1918 - World War I: Second Battle of the Somme begins
- 1928 - Charles Lindbergh is presented the Congressional Medal of Honor for his first trans-Atlantic flight.
- 1935 - Shah Reza Pahlavi formally asked the international community to call Persia by its native name, Iran, which means 'Land of the Aryans'.
- 1940 - Paul Reynaud becomes Prime Minister of France
- 1945 - World War II: British troops liberate Mandalay, Burma
- 1952 - Alan Freed presents the Moondog Coronation Ball, the first rock and roll concert, in Cleveland, Ohio
- 1960 - Apartheid: Massacre in Sharpeville, South Africa: Police open fire on a group of unarmed black South African demonstrators, killing 69 and wounding 180
- 1963 - Alcatraz, a federal penitentiary on an island in San Francisco Bay, closes.
- 1964 - In Copenhagen, Denmark, Gigliola Cinquetti wins the ninth Eurovision Song Contest for Italy singing "Non ho l'età" (I'm not old enough).
- 1965 - Ranger program: NASA launches Ranger 9 which is the last in a series of unmanned lunar space probes.
- 1965 - Martin Luther King Jr leads 3,200 people on the start of the third and finally successful civil rights march from Selma to Montgomery Alabama.
- 1970 The first Earth Day proclamation was issued by San Francisco Mayor Joseph Alioto.
- 1970 - Vinko Bogataj crashes during a ski-jumping championship in Germany; his image becomes that of the "agony of defeat guy" in the opening credits of ABC's Wide World of Sports.
- 1970 - In Amsterdam, Netherlands, Dana wins the fifteenth Eurovision Song Contest for Ireland singing "All Kinds of Everything".
- 1980 - President Jimmy Carter announces a United States boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow to protest the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan.
- 1980 - On the season finale of the soap opera Dallas, the infamous character J.R. Ewing is shot by an unseen assailant, leading to the catchphrase "Who Shot JR?"
- 1985 - Canadian paraplegic athlete and humanitarian Rick Hansen begins his circumnavigation in a wheelchair in the name of spinal cord injury medical research.
- 1989 - Sports Illustrated reports allegations that tie baseball player Pete Rose to baseball gambling.
- 1990 - Namibia becomes independent after 75 years of South African rule.
- 1999 - Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones become the first to circumnavigate the Earth in a hot air balloon.
- 2002 - In Pakistan, Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh along with three other suspects are charged with murder for their part in the kidnapping and killing of Wall Street Journal reporter Daniel Pearl.
- 2004 - In Malaysia, the 11th Federal and State elections are held, returning the ruling coalition Barisan Nasional to power with an increased majority.
- 2005 - In Red Lake, Minnesota, 10 are killed in a school shooting, the worst since the Columbine High School massacre.

Births

- 1521 - Maurice, Elector of Saxony (d. 1553)
- 1527 - Hermann Finck, German composer (d. 1558)
- 1685 - Johann Sebastian Bach, German composer (d. 1750)
- 1713 - Francis Lewis, American signer of the Declaration of Independence (d. 1803)
- 1763 - Jean Paul, German writer (d. 1825)
- 1768 - Joseph Fourier, French mathematician (d. 1830)
- 1806 - Benito Juárez, Mexican statesman and national hero (d. 1872)
- 1839 - Modest Petrovich Mussorgsky, Russian composer (d. 1881)
- 1869 - Florenz Ziegfeld, theatrical producer (d. 1932)
- 1876 - John Tewksbury, American athlete (d. 1968)
- 1882 - Gilbert M. 'Broncho Billy' Anderson, American actor (d. 1971)
- 1895 - Zlatko Baloković, Croatian violinist (d. 1955)
- 1901 - Karl Arnold, German politician (d. 1958)
- 1902 - Son House, American musician (d. 1988)
- 1904 - Forrest Mars Sr., American candymaker (d. 1999)
- 1906 - Jim Thompson, American designer and businessman
- 1913 - George Abecassis, English race car driver (d. 1991)
- 1920 - Georg Ots, Estonian singer (d. 1975)
- 1921 - Arthur Grumiaux, Belgian violinist (d. 1986)
- 1922 - Russ Meyer, American film director and producer (d. 2004)
- 1923 - Shri Mataji Nirmala Shrivastava, Indian founder of Sahaja Yoga
- 1927 - Hans-Dietrich Genscher, German politician
- 1932 - Walter Gilbert, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1932 - Joseph Silverstein, American violinist and conductor
- 1930 - James Coco, American actor (d. 1987)
- 1934 - Al Freeman, Jr., American actor
- 1935 - Brian Clough, English footballer and football manager (d. 2004)
- 1940 - Solomon Burke, American singer
- 1943 - Vivian Stanshall, British musician (Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band)
- 1945 - Rose Stone, American musician (Sly & the Family Stone)
- 1946 - Timothy Dalton, British actor
- 1956 - Ingrid Kristiansen, Norwegian runner
- 1958 - Sabrina Le Beauf, American actress
- 1958 - Gary Oldman, English actor
- 1959 - Nobuo Uematsu, Japanese composer
- 1960 - Ayrton Senna, Brazilian race car driver (d. 1994)
- 1961 - Lothar Matthäus, German footballer
- 1962 - Matthew Broderick, American actor
- 1962 - Rosie O'Donnell, American comedienne, actress, talk show host, and publisher
- 1963 - Ronald Koeman, Dutch footballer and football manager
- 1967 - Jonas "Joker" Berggren, Swedish musician (Ace of Base)
- 1975 - Justin Pierce, British actor (d. 2000)
- 1975 - Mark Williams, Welsh snooker player
- 1976 - Liza Harper, French actress
- 1977 - DJ Premier, American rapper (Gang Starr)
- 1980 - Ronaldinho, Brazilian footballer
- [[1980{months

January 20

January 20 is the 20th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 345 days remaining (346 in leap years). In astrology, it is the cusp day between Aquarius and Capricorn.

Events

- 1156 - According to legend, freeholder Lalli slays English crusader Bishop Henry with an axe on the ice of the lake Köyliönjärvi in Finland.
- 1265 - In Westminster, the first English parliament conducts its first meeting in the Palace of Westminster, now also known as the "Houses of Parliament".
- 1320 - Duke Wladyslaw Lokietek becomes king of Poland.
- 1356 - Edward Balliol resigns as King of Scotland.
- 1523 - Christian II was forced to abdicate as King of Denmark and Norway.
- 1667 - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth cedes Kyiv, Smolensk, and left-bank Ukraine to Imperial Russia in the treaty of Andrusiv.
- 1783 - Britain signs a peace treaty with France and Spain, officially ending hostilities in the Revolutionary War.
- 1801 - John Marshall is appointed Chief Justice of the United States.
- 1839 - In the Battle of Yungay, Chile defeats a Peruvian and Bolivian alliance.
- 1840 - Dumont D'Urville discovers Adélie Land, Antarctica.
- 1840 - Willem II becomes King of the Netherlands.
- 1885 - L.A. Thompson patents the roller coaster.
- 1887 - The United States Senate allows the Navy to lease Pearl Harbor as a naval base.
- 1891 - James Hogg becomes the first native Texan to be governor of that state.
- 1892 - At the YMCA in Springfield, Massachusetts, the first official basketball game is played.
- 1921 - The first constitution of Turkey was adopted, which made fundamental change in the source and exercise of sovereignty.
- 1929 - The movie In Old Arizona was released. The film was the first full-length talking film to be filmed outdoors.
- 1936 - Edward VIII becomes King of the United Kingdom.
- 1937 - The coldest temperature in California is recorded by Boca station at -45° Fahrenheit.
- 1937 - Franklin D. Roosevelt is inaugurated for a second term as President of the United States. This is the first inauguration scheduled on January 20, following adoption of the 20th Amendment. Previous inaugurations were scheduled on March 4.
- 1942 - World War II: Nazis at the Wannsee conference in Berlin decide the "final solution to the Jewish problem".
- 1944 - World War II: The Royal Air Force drops 2,300 tons of bombs on Berlin.
- 1945 - Hungary drops out of the Second World War, agreeing an armistice with the Allies.
- 1952 - Edgar Faure becomes Prime Minister of France.
- 1954 - The National Negro Network is established with 40 charter member radio stations.
- 1958 - Elvis Presley receives his draft notice.
- 1960 - Hendrik Verwoerd announced a plebiscite on whether South Africa should become a Republic.
- 1961 - John F. Kennedy is inaugrated as 35th President of the United States.
- 1964 - Meet the Beatles, the first Beatles album in the United States, is released.
- 1969 - The first pulsar is discovered, in the Crab Nebula.
- 1975 - Michael Ovitz founds Creative Artists Agency.
- 1981 - Ronald W. Reagan is inaugurated as the 40th President of the United States.
- 1981 - Iran releases 52 American hostages bare minutes after Ronald Reagan is inaugurated as U.S. President.
- 1986 - Martin Luther King, Jr., day was celebrated as a federal holiday for the first time.
- 1986 - The United Kingdom and France announce plans to construct the Channel Tunnel.
- 1987 - Church of England envoy Terry Waite is kidnapped in Lebanon.
- 1989 - Los Angeles Lakers beat the Dallas Mavericks: 115-99.
- 1989 - Detroit Pistons beat the Indiana Pacers: 132-99.
- 1990 - Black January - bloody crackdown of Azeri protest demonstrations by Soviet army in Baku.
- 1991 - Sudan's government imposes Islamic law nationwide, worsening the civil war between the country's Muslim north and Christian south.
- 1992- Bill Clinton is inaugurated as the 42nd President of the United States.
- 1994 - In South Carolina, Shannon Faulkner becomes the first female cadet to attend The Citadel but soon drops out.
- 1996 - Yasser Arafat is elected president of the Palestinian Authority.
- 1999 - The China News Service announces new government restrictions on Internet use aimed especially at Internet bars.
- 2001 - Philippine president Joseph Estrada is ousted in the EDSA II Revolution, succeeded by Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo
- 2001 - George W. Bush is inaugurated as the 43rd President of the United States.
- 2002 - Inauguration of Churches Uniting in Christ.
- 2005 - Ireland completes metrication.

Births

- 225 - Gordian III, Roman Emperor (d. 244)
- 1358 - Eleanor of Aragon, queen of John I of Castile (d. 1382)
- 1435 - Ashikaga Yoshimasa, Japanese shogun (d. 1490)
- 1554 - King Sebastian of Portugal (d. 1578)
- 1586 - Johann Schein, German composer (d. 1630)
- 1664 - Giovanni Vincenzo Gravina, Italian writer and jurist (d. 1718)
- 1716 - King Charles III of Spain (d. 1788)
- 1798 - Anson Jones, 5th and last President of Texas (d. 1858)
- 1804 - Eugène Sue, French novelist (d. 1857)
- 1812 - Thomas Meik, Scottish engineer (d. 1896)
- 1837 - David Josiah Brewer, U.S. Supreme Court Justice (d. 1910)
- 1855 - Ernest Chausson, French composer (d. 1899)
- 1867 - Yvette Guilbert, French singer and actress (d. 1944)
- 1873 - Johannes Vilhelm Jensen, Danish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1950)
- 1876 - Józef Hofmann, Polish pianist (d. 1967)
- 1878 - Ruth St. Denis, dancer (d. 1968)
- 1880 - Walter W. Bacon, Governor of Delaware (d. 1962)
- 1891 - Mischa Elman, Ukrainian born violinist (d. 1967)
- 1894 - Walter Piston, American composer
- 1896 - George Burns, American actor, comedian (d. 1996)
- 1900 - Colin Clive, British actor (d. 1937)
- 1906 - Aristotle Onassis, Greek industrialist (d. 1975)
- 1910 - Joy Adamson, Austrian naturalist and writer (d. 1980)
- 1915 - Ghulam Ishaq Khan, President of Pakistan
- 1918 - Juan Garcia Esquivel, Mexican musician (d. 2002)
- 1920 - Federico Fellini, Italian film director (d. 1993)
- 1920 - DeForest Kelley, American actor (d. 1999)
- 1920 - John O'Connor, American Catholic cardinal (d. 2000)
- 1924 - Slim Whitman, American singer
- 1925 - Ernesto Cardenal, Nicaraguan theologian and author and politician
- 1926 - Patricia Neal, American actress
- 1926 - David Tudor, American pianist and composer (d. 1996)
- 1929 - Jimmy Cobb, American jazz drummer
- 1929 - Bob Denard, French mercenary
- 1929 - Arte Johnson, American actor
- 1929 - Glenn "Fireball" Roberts, American race car driver (d. 1964)
- 1930 - Buzz Aldrin, astronaut
- 1931 - David Lee, American phyicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1934 - Tom Baker, British actor
- 1938 - William Berger, Austrian actor (d. 1993)
- 1939 - Paul Coverdell, American politician (d. 2000)
- 1940 - Carol Heiss, American figure skater
- 1946 - David Lynch, American film director
- 1948 - Natan Sharansky, Russian-born physicist and politician
- 1949 - Göran Persson, Prime Minister of Sweden
- 1950 - Mahamane Ousmane, President of Niger
- 1951 - Ian Hill, British musician (Judas Priest)
- 1952 - Paul Stanley, American musician (KISS)
- 1955 - Wyatt Knight, American actor
- 1956 - Bill Maher, American actor, comedian, and political analyst
- 1958 - Lorenzo Lamas, American actor
- 1960 - Will Wright, American computer game designer
- 1963 - James Denton, American actor
- 1965 - Greg Kriesel, American bassist (The Offspring)
- 1965 - John Michael Montgomery, American singer
- 1968 - Melissa Rivers, American reporter and actress
- 1969 - Patrick K. Kroupa, American writer, hacker
- 1969 - Skeet Ulrich, American actor
- 1971 - Derrick Green, American singer (Sepultura)
- 1976 - Gretha Smit, Dutch speed skater
- 1979 - Rob Bourdon, American musician (Linkin Park)
- 1989 - Eric Felder, American Child Prodigy

Deaths

- 1156 - Bishop Henry, patron saint of Finland
- 1479 - King John II of Aragon (b. 1397)
- 1568 - Myles Coverdale, English Bible translator
- 1612 - Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1552)
- 1666 - Anna of Austria, queen of Louis XIII of France and regent (b. 1601)
- 1707 - Humphrey Hody, English theologian (b. 1659)
- 1709 - François de la Chaise, French confessor of Louis XIV of France (b. 1624)
- 1745 - Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1697)
- 1751 - John Hervey, 1st Earl of Bristol, English politician (b. 1665)
- 1770 - Charles Yorke, Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (b. 1722)
- 1779 - David Garrick, English actor (b. 1717)
- 1810 - Benjamin Chew, Chief Justice of colonial Pennsylvania (b. 1722)
- 1819 - King Charles IV of Spain (b. 1748)
- 1848 - Christian VIII of Denmark (b. 1786)
- 1850 - Adam Oehlenschläger, Danish poet (b. 1779)
- 1891 - David Kalakaua, King of Hawaii (b. 1836)
- 1907 - Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev, Russian chemist (b. 1834)
- 1920 - Georg Lurich, Estonian wrestler (b. 1876)
- 1936 - King George V of the United Kingdom (b. 1865)
- 1944 - James McKeen Cattell, American psychologist (b. 1860)
- 1962 - Robinson Jeffers, American poet (b. 1887)
- 1965 - Alan Freed, American disk jockey (b. 1922)
- 1971 - Gilbert M. 'Broncho Billy' Anderson, American actor, director, writer, and producer (b. 1880)
- 1983 - Garrincha, Brazilian footballer (b. 1933)
- 1984 - Johnny Weissmuller, American swimmer and actor (b. 1904)
- 1990 - Hayedeh, Persian singer (b. 1942)
- 1990 - Barbara Stanwyck, American actress (b. 1907)
- 1993 - Audrey Hepburn, Belgian actress (b. 1929)
- 1996 - Gerry Mulligan, American musician (b. 1927)
- 1997 - Curt Flood, baseball player (b. 1938)
- 1998 - Bobo Brazil, American professional wrestler (b. 1924)
- 2003 - Al Hirschfeld, American caricaturist (b. 1903)
- 2003 - Nedra Volz, American actress (b. 1908)
- 2003 - Bill Werbeniuk, Canadian snooker player (b. 1947)
- 2004 - Guinn Smith, American athlete (b. 1920)
- 2005 - Per Borten, Prime Minister of Norway (b. 1913)
- 2005 - Roland Frye, American literary critic and theologian
- 2005 - Jan Nowak-Jeziorański, Polish journalist, writer, and politician (b. 1913)
- 2005 - Miriam Rothschild, British zoologist, entomologist, and author (b. 1908)

Holidays and observances

- The Eve of St. Agnes
- Presidential Inauguration Day in the United States
- day of Saint Sebastian and St Fabian in Catholic church. Also holiday in Rio de Janeiro as he is the city's saint
- Astrology: First day of sun sign Aquarius

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/20 BBC: On This Day] ---- January 19 - January 21 - December 20 - February 20 — listing of all days ko:1월 20일 ms:20 Januari ja:1月20日 simple:January 20 th:20 มกราคม

1880

1880 was a leap year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar).

Events

May - August

- May 13 - In Menlo Park, New Jersey, Thomas Edison performs the first test of his electric railway.
- June 29 - France annexes Tahiti
- July 1 - First performance of O Canada, the song that would become the national anthem of Canada.
- July 16 - First woman licensed to practice medicine in Canada - Dr. Emily Howard Stowe.

September - December

- September 5 - First successful test of an electric Tram in the world takes place in St. Petersburg, Russia
- October - terrible winter storm in North America, the "Blizzard of 1880".
- October 15 - Mexican soldiers kill Victorio, one of the greatest Apache military strategists.
- November - James Garfield defeats Winfield S. Hancock in the U.S. presidential election
- November 4 - the first cash register was patented by James and John Ritty of Dayton, Ohio.
- November 11 - Australian bushranger and bank robber Ned Kelly is hanged in Melbourne.
- November 22 - Vaudeville actress Lillian Russell makes her debut at Tony Pastor's Theatre in New York City.
- December 20 - Action at Bronkhorstspruit, the first major action of the First Boer War.
- December 30 - The Transvaal becomes a republic and Paul Kruger becomes its first president.

Unknown date

- Discovery of piezoelectricity by Pierre Curie and Jacques Curie.
- Completion of Cologne cathedral.
- Founding of Science by Thomas Edison.
- Cocaine isolated
- The British recognise Abdur Rahman Khan as amir of Afghanistan
- Capuchin catacombs of Palermo are officially closed (there will be some burials afterwards)
- Department of Scientific Temperance Instruction of the Women's Christian Temperance Union established.

Births

- January 1 - Vajiravudh, King of Thailand (d. 1925)
- January 6 - Tom Mix, American actor (d. 1940)
- January 17 - Mack Sennett, Canadian director and producer (d. 1960)
- January 26 - Douglas MacArthur, American general (d. 1964)
- January 28 - Herbert Strudwick, English cricketer (d. 1970)
- January 29 - W.C. Fields, American actor (d. 1946)
- February 5 - Gabriel Voisin, French aviation pioneer (d. 1973)
- February 8 - Franz Marc, German artist (d. 1916)
- February 12 - John L. Lewis, American labor union leader (d. 1969)
- February 21 - Waldemar Bonsels, German writer (d. 1952)
- February 22 - Frigyes Riesz, Hungarian mathematician (d. 1956)
- March 1 - Giles Lytton Strachey British writer and biographer (d. 1932)
- March 10 - Bronco Billy Anderson, American actor (d. 1971)
- March 11 - Harry H. Laughlin, American eugenicist (d. 1943)
- March 22 - Kuniaki Koiso, Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1950)
- March 30 - Sean O'Casey, Irish writer (d. 1964)
- April 13 - Charles Christie, Canadian-born film studio owner (d. 1955)
- April 18 - Sam Crawford, Baseball Hall of Famer (d. 1968)
- May 6 - Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, German painter (d. 1938)
- May 14 - B.C. Forbes, Scottish-born financial publisher (d. 1954)
- May 25 - Jean Alexandre Barré, French neurologist (d. 1967)
- May 25 - Alf Common, English footballer (d. 1946)
- May 29 - Oswald Spengler, German philosopher (d. 1936)
- June 6 - W.T. Cosgrave, Irish politician (d. 1965)
- June 27 - Helen Keller, American spokeswoman for the deaf and blind (d. 1968)
- July 5 - Jan Kubelík, Czech violinist (d. 1940)
- July 24 - Ernest Bloch, Swiss-born composer (d. 1959)
- August 6 - Hans Moser, Austrian actor (d. 1964)
- August 8 - Earle Page, eleventh Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1961)
- August 10 - Robert L. Thornton, American businessman, philanthropist, and mayor of Dallas, Texas (d. 1964)
- August 22 - George Herriman, American cartoonist (d. 1944)
- August 26 - Guillaume Apollinaire, French poet (d. 1918)
- August 31 - Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands (d. 1962)
- September 14 - Archie Hahn, American athlete (d. 1955)
- September 22 - Christabel Pankhurst, English suffragette (d. 1958)
- September 23 - John Boyd Orr, Scottish physician and biologist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1971)
- November 6 - Robert Musil, Austrian novelist (d. 1942)
- November 10 - Jacob Epstein, American-born sculptor (d. 1959)
- December 11 - Frank Tarrant, Australian cricketer (d. 1951)
- December 31 - George Marshall, United States Secretary of State, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1959)
- Reginald Claypoole Vanderbilt, American equestrian (d. 1925)
- Joseph Trumpeldor, Russian Zionist (d. 1920)
- Gar Wood, American motorboat racer (d. 1971)

Unknown Birth Dates

- William J. Simmons - Founder of the second Ku Klux Klan]
- [[D. Leigh Colvin]] - American [[temperance movement leader and Prohibition Party candidate for presidency in 1936 (d ?)

Deaths

- January 8 - Joshua A. Norton, self-anointed Emperor Norton I of the United States of America (b. 1811)
- March 31 - Henryk Wieniawski, Polish composer (b. 1835)
- May 4 - Edward Clark, Confederate Governor of Texas (b. 1815)
- May 8 - Gustave Flaubert, French novelist (b. 1821)
- July 7 - Lydia Child, American novelist and abolitionist (b. 1802)
- August 17 - Ole Bull, Norwegian violinist (b. 1810)
- October 4 - Jacques Offenbach, German-born composer (b. 1819)
- November 11 - Ned Kelly, Australian bush ranger (hanged)
- December 22 - George Eliot, English writer (b. 1819) Category:1880 ko:1880년 ms:1880 simple:1880 th:พ.ศ. 2423

Revolution

:This article is about revolution in the sense of a drastic change. For other meanings of the word, see revolution (disambiguation). A revolution is a relatively sudden, and absolutely drastic change (a "complete turn-around"). This may be a change in the social or political institutions over a relatively short period of time, or a major change in its culture or economy. Some revolutions are led by the majority of the populace of a nation, others by a small band of revolutionaries. Compare rebellion.

Social and political revolutions

Political revolutions are often characterised by violence, and vast changes in power structures that can often result in further, institutionalised, violence, as in the Russian and French revolutions (with the "Purges" and "the Terror", respectively). A political revolution is the forcible replacement of one set of rulers with another (as happened in France and Russia), while a social revolution is the fundamental change in the social structure of a society, such as the Protestant Reformation or the Renaissance.However, blurring the line between these two categories, most political revolutions wish to carry out social revolutions, and they have basic philosophical or social underpinnings which drive them. The most common revolutions with such underpinnings in the modern world have been liberal revolutions and communist revolutions. In contrast, a coup d'état often seeks to change nothing more than the current ruler. Some political philosophers regard revolutions as the means of achieving their goals. Most anarchists advocate social revolution as the means of breaking down the structures of government and replacing them with non-hierarchal institutions. With Marxist communists, there is a split between those who supported the Soviet Union and other so-called 'communist states' and those who were/are critical of those states (some even rejecting them as non-communist, see state capitalism), for example trotskyists. Social and political revolutions are often "institutionalized" when the ideas, slogans, and personalities of the revolution continue to play a prominent role in a country's political culture, long after the revolution's end. As mentioned, communist nations regularly institutionalize their revolutions to legitimize the actions of their governments. Some non-communist nations, like the United States, France, or Mexico also have institutionalized revolutions, and continue to celebrate the memory of their revolutionary past through holidays, artwork, songs, and other venues.

Ancient revolutions

- Fall of the Qin Dynasty in China, 206 BCE
- Great Jewish Revolt (66-70) and Bar Kokhba's revolt (132-135) against the Roman Empire.
- Popular revolt in late medieval Europe 14th - early 16th century, a series of attempted revolutions against the nobility

Liberal revolutions

(known to Marxists as bourgeois revolutions) :Some of these are Atlantic Revolutions.
- English Revolution – (1642-1653) – Commenced as a civil war between Parliament and King, culminating in the execution of Charles I and the establishment of a republican Protectorate.
- Glorious Revolution – (England in (1688) – Overthrow of King James II and establishment of a Whig-dominated Protestant constitutional monarchy.
- American Revolution – (1774-1783) – Established independence of the 13 colonies from Great Britain, creating the republic of the United States of America
- French Revolution – (1789) – Regarded as one of the most influential of all Revolutions, frequently associated with the rise of the bourgeoisie and the downfall of the aristocracy.
- Irish Rebellion – (1798) – Failed attempt to overthrow British rule in the country.
- Haitian Revolution – (1804) – Successful slave rebellion led by Jean-Jacques Dessalines. Established Haiti as the first free, black republic.
- July Revolution (1830)
- Belgian Revolution (1830)
- Rebellions of 1837 – (1837-1838) – Failed republican revolutions against British rule in Canada.
- Revolutions of 1848 – (1848) – Wave of failed liberal and republican revolutions that swept Europe.
- Taiping Rebellion – 1851 Rebellion against the Qing Dynasty and Manchu domination.
- Indian rebellion of 1857 Also called the War of Independence of 1857 and popularly known in the West as the Sepoy Mutiny, this rebellion was against British imperialism and marks the end of Mughal rule in India.
- Russian Revolution of 1905 – (1905) – Failed bourgeois-liberal revolution against Tsar Nicholas II
- Mexican Revolution – (1910) – Overthrow of dictator Porfirio Díaz, seizure of power by Institutional Revolutionary Party.
- Xinhai Revolution – (1911) – Overthrow of ruling Qing Dynasty and establishment of the Republic of China.
- February Revolution – (1917) – Liberal revolution against Tsar Nicholas II
- German Revolution – (1918) – Overthrow of the Kaiser by a workers' revolution, establishment of the Weimar Republic.

Socialist and/or Communist revolutions

- The Revolutionnary Commune of Paris – 1871
- Russian Revolution – (1917) – The most famous and influential modern revolution, culminating in the Bolshevik seizure of power and the establishment of the Soviet Union.
- German Revolution – (1919)) – Failed revolution in Germany led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht
- Hungarian revolutions – 1919 and 1949
- Mongolia – 1921
- Spanish Revolution – 1936
- North Korea – 1948
- Chinese Revolution – (1949) – Victory of Communist-led peasant rebellion under Chairman Mao over the ruling Nationalist Party, establishment of People's Republic of China.
- Algerian Revolution – (1954 – 1962) – Revolutionary war of independence against French imperialism.
- North Vietnam – period of 1945-1954
- Cuban Revolution – (1959) – Fidel Castro-led rebellion against U.S.-backed dictator Fulgencio Batista; victory of revolutionary government of Fidel Castro.
- The Congo – 1964 and 1968
- The Zanzibar Revolution of 1964, see [http://home.globalfrontiers.com/Zanzibar/zanzibar_revolution.htm]
- Cultural Revolution – (1966-1976) Maoist led turmoil in People's Republic of China.
- South Yemen – 1967
- France, May 1968 – (1968) – Students' and workers' revolt against the Government of Charles de Gaulle.
- Libya – 1969
- Somalia – 1969
- Benin – 1972
- Ethiopia – 1974
- Carnation Revolution – (1974) in Portugal – Left-wing popular overthrow of right-wing dictatorship.
- Guinea-Bissauan Revolution – 1974
- Cambodia – 1975
- South Vietnam – 1975
- Laos – 1975
- Madagascar – 1975
- Cape Verde – 1975
- Mozambique – 1975
- Angola – 1975
- Afghanistan – 1978
- Grenada – 1979
- Nicaraguan Revolution – (1979) – Popular overthrow of the Somoza dictatorship by progressive/Marxist peasant movement.
- Burkina Faso – 1983
- Bolivarian Revolution – (1998) – Venezuela elects populist Hugo Chávez.

Eastern European anti-Communist revolutions

- Hungarian Revolution – (1956) Workers' and peasants' left-wing revolution against the imposed Communist Party-run state dictatorship, suppressed by Soviet forces.
- Singing Revolution – (1988) Bloodless overthrow of Communist Party-run state in Estonia.
- Romanian Revolution – (1989) Violent overthrow of Communist Party-run state in Romania.
- Velvet Revolution – (1989) Bloodless overthrow of Communist Party-run state in Czechoslovakia.

Islamist revolutions

- Iranian Revolution – (1979) – Popular overthrow of US-backed Shah, culminating in an Islamist cleric-led theocracy.
- Taliban – (1996) – Islamist movement in Afghanistan

Color revolutions

Note that some of these (particularly the rose and orange revolutions) only changed one government with another, and did not modify the political or economic systems of their countries. As such, they are purely political revolutions.
- Rose Revolution in Georgia (2003)
- Orange Revolution in Ukraine (2004)
- Cedar Revolution in Lebanon (2005)
- Tulip Revolution or Yellow Revolution in Kyrgyzstan (2005)

Cultural, intellectual, and philosophical revolutions

- Renaissance
- Protestant Reformation
- Scientific revolution
- Sexual revolution
- Quiet Revolution
- Consciousness Revolution

Technological revolutions

(although these revolutions always have an influence on culture)
- Agrarian Revolution
- Digital Revolution
- Neolithic Revolution
- Price revolution
- Industrial Revolution
- Second Industrial Revolution

Republicanism

Republicanism is the idea of a nation being governed by an elected representative instead of a king. In a broad definition a republic is a state or country in which sovereignty is invested in the people. Most commonly such principle beyond the control of the state's citizens is a hereditary principle, and in this sense a republic is the opposite of a monarchy. Thus the term republicanism is often used to describe any movement that is opposed to monarchies. Republic can also refer to a political system that has a system of law (as in a constitution or bill of rights) that protects individual liberty from the forces of democracy with elected representatives governing according to such law. Republicanism refers to both the advocacy for this form of government and the ideology of this movement. Republicanism can also refer to the ideologies of any of the many political parties that are named the Republican Party. Some of these are, or have their roots in, anti-monarchism. For most parties republican is just a name and these parties, and their corresponding platforms, have little besides their names in common.

Anti-monarchial republicanism

One meaning of republicanism is the opposition to monarchies. Republic comes from the Latin word res publica and one meaning of this term is the form of government that began with the overthrow of the last tyrant known as the Roman Republic. While this government was much lauded by its contemporaries, once it was replaced with the empire, republicanism became all but nonexistent throughout Europe for several centuries. Outside of Europe, opposition to monarchy before the modern period is not generally termed republicanism. Islam, for instance, is opposed to monarchies seeing the ideal state as one where the ummah, caliph, and sharia all play a role in governance. This concept shares some of the same classical roots as European republicanism and in modern times this form of government is called "republican" in English, but in pre-modern times it is not generally called republicanism.

Early History

In Europe republicanism was revived in the late Middle Ages when a number of small states embraced republican system of government. These were generally small, but wealthy, trading states in which the merchant class had risen to prominence. Haakonssen notes that by the Renaissance Europe was divided with those states controlled by a landed elite being monarchies and those controlled by a commercial elite being republics. These included Italian city states like Florence and Venice and the members of the Hanseatic League. At this period the school of thought known as classical republicanism or civic humanism came into being outlining how best to run a republic. These authors, most prominent among them being Niccolò Machiavelli, based republicanism on the states of the classical world, such as Athens, Sparta, and the Roman Republic as well as the ancient works of political philosophy such as Aristotle, Polybius and especially Cicero. In the Renaissance the classical states were dubbed republics, and are today still sometimes referred to as classical republics. While many Renaissance authors spoke highly of republics they were rarely critical of monarchies. While Machiavelli's Discourses on Livy is the period's key work on republics he also wrote The Prince on how to best run a monarchy. One cause of this was that the early modern writers did not see the republican model as one that could be applied universally, most felt that it could only be successful in very small and highly urbanized city-states. Anti-monarchism became far more strident in the Dutch Republic during and after the Eighty Years' War. This anti-monarchism was less political philosophy and more propagandizing with most of the anti-monarchist works appearing in the form of widely distributed pamphlets. Over time this evolved into a systematic critique of monarchies written by men such as Johan Uytenhage de Mist, Radboud Herman Scheel, Lieven de Beaufort and the brothers Johan and Peter de la Court. These writers saw all monarchies as illegitimate tyrannies that were inherently corrupt. Less an attack on their former overlords these works were more concerned with preventing the position of Stadholder from evolving into a monarchy. This Dutch republicanism also had an important influence on French Huguenots during the Wars of Religion. In the other states of early modern Europe republicanism was more moderate. In England a republicanism evolved that was not wholly opposed to monarchy, but rather thinkers such as Thomas More and John Milton saw an monarchy firmly constrained by law as compatible with republicanism. The small minority that was actively opposed to all monarchy was largely discredited by the regicide of Charles I and later republicans strove to distance themselves from that act. In Poland moderate republicanism was also an important ideology. In Poland republicans were those who supported the status quo of having a very weak monarch and opposed those who felt a stronger monarchy was needed. These Polish republicans such as Lukasz Gornicki, Andrzej Wolan, and Stanislaw Konarski were well read in classical and Renaissance texts and firmly believed that their state was a Republic on the Roman model and called their state the Rzeczpospolita. Unlike in the other areas Polish republicanism was not the ideology of the commercial, but rather of the landed aristocracy who would be the ones to lose power if the monarchy was expanded. In the Enlightenment anti-monarchism stopped being coextensive with the civic humanism of the Renaissance. Classical republicanism, still supported by philosophers such as Rousseau and Montesquieu, became just one of a number of ideologies opposed to monarchy. The newer forms of anti-monarchism such as liberalism and later socialism quickly overtook classical republicanism as the leading republican ideologies. Republicanism also became far more widespread and monarchies began to be challenged throughout Europe.

Modern History

Anti-monarchial republicanism remains an important political force in many states especially in the Commonwealth nations such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Jamaica and Barbados. In these countries, republicanism is largely about the post-colonial evolution of their relationships with the United Kingdom. In the surviving European monarchies, such as the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Sweden there has not been much contemporary popular support for republicanism, though in most cases it nonetheless commands a significant minority position. In such states republicanism is usually motivated by decreasing popularity of the Royal Family, who may be increasingly embroiled in scandal or conflict. However the classical argument against monarchy versus the egalitarian aspects of republicanism will often remain prominent as well. See also: Abolished monarchy, Australian republicanism, Australian Republican Movement, British republicanism, British republican movement, Irish republicanism, Canadian republicanism, Citizens for a Canadian Republic, Republicanism in New Zealand, Republican Movement of Aotearoa New Zealand

Republicanism in political science

A different interpretation of republicanism is used among political scientists. To them a republic is the rule by many and by laws while a princedom is the arbitrary rule by one. By this definition despotic states are not republics while, according to some such as Kant, constitutional monarchies can be. Kant also argues that a pure democracy is not a republic as the unrestricted rule of the majority is also a form of despotism.

Classical antecedents

Ancient Greece

In Ancient Greece several philosophers and historians set themselves to analysing and describing forms of government. There is no single expression or definition from this era, written down in Greek, that exactly corresponds with a modern understanding of the term "republic". However, most of the essential features of the modern definition are present in the works of Plato, Aristotle, Polybius, and other ancient Greeks. These elements include the idea of mixed government and of civic virtue. It should be noted that the modern title of Plato's dialogue on the ideal state (The Republic) is a misnomer when seen through the eyes of modern political science (see Republic (Plato)). Some scholars have translated the Greek concept of "politeia" as "republic", but most modern scholars reject this idea. A number of Ancient Greek states such as Athens and Sparta have been classified as classical republics, though this uses a definition of republic that was developed much later.

Ancient Rome

Both Livy (in Latin, living in Augustus' time) and Plutarch (in Greek, a century later) described how Rome had developed its legislation, notably the transition from kingdom to republic, based on Greek examples. Probably some of this history, composed more than half a millennium after the events, with scant written sources to rely on, is fictitious reconstruction - nonetheless the influence of the Greek way of dealing with government is clear in the state organisation of the Roman Republic. The Greek historian Polybius, writing more than a century before Livy, was one of the first historians describing the emergence of the Roman Empire, and he had a great influence on Cicero, when this orator was writing his politico-philosophical works in the 1st century BC. One of these works was De re publica, where Cicero links the Latin res publica concept to the Greek politeia concept. As explained in the res publica article, also this concept only exceptionally links to the modern term "republic", although the word "republic" is derived from res publica. Among these many meanings of the expression res publica, it is only most often translated to "republic" in the case where the Latin expression refers to the Roman state with the form of government it had between the era of the Kings and the era of the Emperors, which was the Roman Republic. This Roman Republic would in a modern understanding of the word still be qualified as a true republic, even if not excelling in all the features Enlightenment philosophers saw for an ideal government system, for example there was no systematic separation of powers in the Roman Republic. Occasionally Romans could still refer to their state as "res publica" in the era of the early emperors. The reason for this is that on the surface the state organisation of the Roman Republic had been preserved without the slightest alteration by the first emperors. They only had several offices, that in the era of the Republic were reserved to separate persons, accumulated in a single person, and had been successful in making some of these offices permanent, and thus had gradually built sovereignty in their person. Traditionally such references to the early empire as "res publica" are not translated as "republic". As for Cicero, his description of the ideal state in De re publica is more difficult to qualify as a "republic" in modern terminology, it is rather something like enlightened absolutism - not to say benevolent dictatorship - and indeed Cicero's philosophical works, as far as available at that time, were very influential when Enlightenment philosophers like Voltaire developed these concepts. Cicero related however with some ambiguity towards the republican form of government: in his theoretical works he defended monarchy (or a monarchy/oligarchy mixed government at best); in his political life he generally opposed to those trying to realise such ideals, like Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and Octavian. Eventually, that opposition led to his death. So, depending on how one reads history, Cicero could be seen as a victim of his own deep-rooted republican ideals too. Tacitus, a contemporary of Plutarch, was not concerned with whether on an abstract level a form of government could be analysed as a "republic" or a "monarchy" (see for example Ann. IV, 32-33). He analyses how the powers accumulated by the early Julio-Claudian dynasty were all given to the representants of this dynasty by a State that was and remained in an ever more "abstract" way a republic; nor was the Roman Republic "forced" to give away these powers to single persons in a consecutive dynasty: it did so out of free will, and reasonably in Augustus' case, because of his many merits towards the state, freeing it of civil wars and the like. But at least Tacitus is one of the first to follow this line of thought: analysing in which measure such powers were given to the head of state because the citizens wanted to give them, and in which measure they were given because of other principles (for example, because one had a deified ancestor) — such other principles leading more easily to abuse by the one in power. In this sense, that is in Tacitus' analysis, the impossibility to return to the Republic is only irreversible when Tiberius establishes power shortly after Augustus' death (AD 14, much later than most historians place the start of the Imperial form of government in Rome): by this time too many "untouchable" principles had been mingled in to keep Tiberius away from power, and the age of "sockpuppetry in the external form of a republic", as Tacitus more or less describes this Emperor's reign, began (Ann. I-VI).

Civic humanism

:Main article: Classical republicanism The idea of the Republic is drawn from Ancient Greece and Rome but it was truly created during the Renaissance when scholars built upon their conception of the ancient world to advance their view of the ideal government. The usage of the term res publica in classical texts should not be confused with current notions of republicanism. Despite its name Plato's The Republic also has little connection. The republicanism developed in the Renaissance is known as classical republicanism because of its reliance on classical models. This terminology was developed by Zera Fink in the 1960s but some modern scholars such as Brugger consider the term confusing as it might lead some to believe that "classical republic" refers to the system of government used in the ancient world. "Early modern republicanism" has been advanced as an alternative term. Also sometimes called civic humanism, this ideology grew out of the Renaissance writers who developed the idea of the republic. More than being simply a non-monarchy the early modern thinkers developed a vision of the ideal republic. It is these notions that form the basis of the ideology of republicanism. One important notion was that of a mixed government. Both Plato and Aristotle saw three basic types of government, democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy. First Aristotle, and especially Polybius and Cicero developed the notion that the ideal republic is a mixture of these three forms of government and the writers of the Renaissance embraced this notion. Also central the notion of virtue and the pursuit of the common good being central to good government. Republicanism also developed its own distinct view of liberty, though what exactly that view is much disputed.

Enlightenment republicanism

From the Enlightenment on it becomes increasingly difficult to distinguish between the descriptions and definitions of the "republic" concept on the one side, and the ideologies based on such descriptions on the other. Up till then the situation had been different: even those Renaissance authors that spoke highly of republics were rarely critical of monarchies. While Machiavelli's Discourses on Livy is the period's key work on republics he also wrote The Prince on how to best run a monarchy. One cause of this was that the early modern writers did not see the republican model as one that could be applied universally, most felt that it could only be successful in very small and highly urbanized city-states. In antiquity writers like Tacitus, and in the renaissance writers like Machiavelli tried to avoid to formulate an outspoken preference for one government system or another. Enlightenment philosophers, on the other hand, always had an outspoken opinion. However, Thomas More, still before the Age of Enlightenment, must have been a bit too outspoken to the reigning king's taste, even when coding his political preferences in a Utopian tale. French Enlightenment thinkers such as Rousseau and Montesquieu expanded upon and altered the ideas of what an ideal republic would be: some of their new ideas were scarcely retraceable to antiquity or the Renaissance thinkers. Among other things they contributed and/or heavily elaborated notions like social contract and separation of powers. They also borrowed from and distinguished it from the ideas of liberalism that were developing at the same time. Since both liberalism and republicanism were united in their opposition to the absolute monarchies they were frequently conflated during this period. Modern scholars see them as two distinct streams that both contributed to the democratic ideals of the modern world. An important distinction is that while republicanism continued to stress the importance of