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July 21

July 21

July 21 is the 202nd day (203rd in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 163 days remaining.

Events


- 1298 - Battle of Falkirk (1298): King Edward I of England defeats Scottish rebels led by William Wallace.
- 1403 - Battle of Shrewsbury: King Henry IV of England defeats rebels to the north of the county town of Shropshire, England
- 1568 - Battle of Jemmingen: Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alva defeats Louis of Nassau
- 1579 - Our Lady of Kazan, a holy icon of the Russian Orthodox Church, was discovered underground in the city of Kazan, Tatarstan.
- 1718 - Treaty of Passarowitz between the Ottoman Empire, Austria and the Republic of Venice is signed.
- 1774 - Russia and the Ottoman Empire sign the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji ending the Russo-Turkish War, 1768-1774.
- 1831 - Inauguration of Léopold I of Belgium, first king of the Belgians.
- 1861 - American Civil War: First Battle of Bull Run - At Manassas Junction, Virginia, the first major battle of the war begins (Confederate victory).
- 1865 - In the market square of Springfield, Missouri, Wild Bill Hickok shoots Dave Tutt dead in what is regarded as the first true western showdown.
- 1873 - At Adair, Iowa, Jesse James and the James-Younger gang pull off the first successful train robbery in the American West.
- 1877 - After rioting by Baltimore and Ohio Railroad workers and the deaths of 9 rail workers at the hands of the Maryland militia, workers in Pittsburgh stage a sympathy strike that is met with an assault by the state militia.
- 1925 - Scopes Trial: In Dayton, Tennessee, high school biology teacher John T. Scopes is found guilty of teaching evolution in class and fined $100.
- 1931 - CBS's New York City station begins broadcasting the first regular seven days a week television schedule in the U. S.
- 1944 - World War II: Battle of Guam - American troops land on Guam starting the battle (ends on August 10).
- 1954 - First Indochina War: The Geneva Conference partitions Vietnam into North Vietnam and South Vietnam.
- 1961 - Mercury program: Gus Grissom piloting the Mercury 4 capsule "Liberty Bell 7" becomes the second American to go into space (in a suborbital mission).
- 1963 - Giovanni Battista Enrico Antonio Maria Montini is elected Pope Paul VI by the College of Cardinals.
- 1970 - After 11 years of construction, the Aswan High Dam in Egypt is completed.
- 1972 - Bloody Friday bombing by the Provisional Irish Republican Army, (PIRA) around Belfast, Northern Ireland, 22 bomb explosions, 9 people were killed,130 seriously injured.
- 1973 - In the Lillehammer affair in Norway, Israeli Mossad agents kill a waiter whom they mistakenly thought was involved in 1972's Munich Olympics Massacre.
- 1976 - Christopher Ewart-Biggs British ambassador to the Republic of Ireland is assassinated by the Provisional IRA
- 1978 - Big-bust model Francine Dee is born.
- 1984 - In Jackson, Michigan, a factory robot crushes a worker against a safety bar in apparently the first robot-related death in the United States.
- 1994 - Tony Blair is declared the winner of the leadership election of the British Labour Party, paving the way to him becoming Prime Minister in 1997.
- 1995 - Third Taiwan Strait Crisis: The People's Liberation Army begins firing missiles into the waters north of Taiwan.
- 1997 - The fully restored USS Constitution (aka "Old Ironsides") celebrates her 200th birthday by setting sail for the first time in 116 years.
- 2002 - Telecom giant WorldCom files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the largest such filing in United States history.
- 2003 - The last Volkswagen old-style Beetle rolls off the assembly line at Puebla, Mexico.
- 2004 - The United Kingdom government publishes Delivering Security in a Changing World, a paper detailing wide-ranging reform of the country's armed forces.
- 2005 - Clarence Richard Silva ordained to the episcopate as bishop of Honolulu.
- 2005 - Four terrorist bombings, occurring exactly two weeks after the similar July 7 bombings, target London's public transportation system. All four bombs fail to detonate and all four suspected suicide bombers escape.

Births


- 1414 - Pope Sixtus IV (d. 1484)
- 1515 - Philip Neri, Italian churchman (d. 1595)
- 1620 - Jean Picard, French astronomer (d. 1682)
- 1664 - Matthew Prior, English poet and diplomat (d. 1721)
- 1693 - Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, English statesman (d. 1768)
- 1710 - Paul Möhring, German physician and scientist (d. 1792)
- 1810 - Henri Victor Regnault, French chemist and physicist (d. 1878)
- 1858 - Lovis Corinth, German painter and graphic artist (d. 1925)
- 1870 - Emil Orlik, Czech painter and graphic artist (d. 1932)
- 1893 - Hans Fallada, German writer (d. 1947)
- 1899 - Hart Crane, American poet (d. 1932)
- 1899 - Ernest Hemingway, American writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1961)
- 1903 - Roy Neuberger, American financier and art collector
- 1911 - Marshall McLuhan, Canadian author (d. 1980)
- 1920 - Isaac Stern, Ukrainian-born violinist (d. 2001)
- 1923 - Rudolph A. Marcus, Canadian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1922 - Kay Starr, American singer
- 1924 - Don Knotts, American actor
- 1925 - Anne Meacham, American actress
- 1926 - Norman Jewison, Canadian film director
- 1932 - Ernie Warlick, American football player
- 1933 - John Gardner, American author (d. 1982)
- 1935 - Norbert Blüm, German politician
- 1938 - Janet Reno, United States Attorney General
- 1939 - John Negroponte, U.S. Director of National Intelligence
- 1943 - Edward Herrmann, American actor
- 1944 - Tony Scott, British film director
- 1944 - Paul Wellstone, U.S. Senator from Minnesota (d. 2002)
- 1946 - Kenneth Starr, American lawyer and judge
- 1948 - Ed Hinton, American sportswriter
- 1948 - Cat Stevens, English singer
- 1948 - Garry Trudeau, American cartoonist
- 1950 - Ubaldo Fillol, Argentinian footballer
- 1951 - Robin Williams, American comedian
- 1953 - Brian Talbot, English football player and manager
- 1957 - Jon Lovitz, American comedian
- 1960 - Lance Guest, American actor
- 1964 - Jens Weißflog, German ski jumper
- 1968 - Brandi Chastain, American soccer player
- 1968 - Lyle Odelein, Canadian hockey player
- 1978 - Josh Hartnett, American actor
- 1979 - David Carr, American football player
- 1983 - Eivør Pálsdóttir, Faroese singer and composer
- 1983 - Kellen Winslow Jr., American football player
- 1984 - Liam Ridgewell, English footbller

Deaths


- 1403 - Henry Percy, English soldier (killed in battle)
- 1425 - Manuel II Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor (b. 1350)
- 1688 - James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde, English statesman and soldier (b. 1610)
- 1796 - Robert Burns, Scottish poet (b. 1759)
- 1798 - François Sebastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt, Austrian field marshal (b. 1733)
- 1870 - Josef Strauss, Austrian composer (b. 1827)
- 1899 - Robert G. Ingersoll, American politician and military officer (b. 1833)
- 1937 - Louis Vierne, French composer (b. 1870)
- 1938 - Owen Wister, American author (b. 1860)
- 1943 - Charlie Paddock, American athlete (b. 1900)
- 1944 - Claus von Stauffenberg, German army colonel who tried to assassinate Hitler (b. 1907)
- 1948 - David Wark Griffith, American film director (b. 1875)
- 1967 - Jimmie Foxx, baseball player (b. 1907)
- 1967 - Albert Lutuli, South African politician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- 1967 - Basil Rathbone, English actor (b. 1892)
- 1968 - Ruth St. Denis, dancer and choreographer (b. 1878)
- 1970 - Bob Kalsu, American football player (b. 1945)
- 1972 - Ralph Craig, American athlete (b. 1889)
- 1982 - Dave Garroway, American television host (b. 1913)
- 1998 - Alan Shepard, astronaut (b. 1923)
- 1998 - Robert Young, American actor (b. 1907)
- 2001 - Steve Barton, American actor (b. 1954)
- 2003 - John Davies, New Zealand Olympic Committee president (b. 1938)
- 2003 - Walter M. "Matt" Jefferies, American film art director (b. 1921)
- 2004 - Jerry Goldsmith, American composer (b. 1929)
- 2004 - Edward B. Lewis, American geneticist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1918)
- 2005 - Andrzej Grubba, Polish table tennis player (b. 1958)
- 2005 - Long John Baldry, British blues musician (b. 1941)

Holidays and observances


- Belgium: National holiday (1831 - inauguration of Léopold I, first king of the Belgians)
- Bolivia: Martyrs' Day
- Guam: Liberation Day (1944)
- Singapore: Racial Harmony Day

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/21 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050721.html The New York Times: On This Day] ---- July 20 - July 22 - June 21 - August 21 -- listing of all days ko:7월 21일 ms:21 Julai ja:7月21日 simple:July 21 th:21 กรกฎาคม

Leap year

A leap year (or intercalary year) is a year containing an extra day or month in order to keep the calendar year in sync with an astronomical or seasonal year. Seasons and astronomical events do not repeat at an exact number of days, so a calendar which had the same number of days in each year would over time drift with respect to the event it was supposed to track. By occasionally inserting (or intercalating) an additional day or month into the year, the drift can be corrected. Leap years (which keep the calendar in sync with the year) should not be confused with leap seconds (which keep clock time in sync with the day).

Gregorian calendar

The Gregorian calendar, the current standard calendar in most of the world, adds a 29th day to February in all years evenly divisible by 4, except for century years (those ending in -00), which receive the extra day only if they are evenly divisible by 400. Thus 1996 was a leap year whereas 1999 was not, and 1600, 2000 and 2400 are leap years but 1700, 1800, 1900 and 2100 are not. The reasoning behind this rule is as follows:
- The Gregorian calendar is designed to keep the vernal equinox on or close to March 21, so that the date of Easter (celebrated on the Sunday after the 14th day of the Moon that falls on or after 21 March) remains correct with respect to the vernal equinox.
- The vernal equinox year is currently about 365.242375 days long.
- The Gregorian leap year rule gives an average year length of 365.2425 days. This difference of a little over 0.0001 days means that in around 8,000 years, the calendar will be about one day behind where it should be. But in 8,000 years' time the length of the vernal equinox year will have changed by an amount we can't accurately predict (see below). So the Gregorian leap year rule does a good enough job. Image:Gregoriancalendarleap.png

Which day is the leap day?

The Gregorian calendar is a modification of the Julian calendar first used by the Romans. The Roman calendar originated as a lunar calendar (though from the 5th century BC it no longer followed the real moon) and named its days after three of the phases of the moon: the new moon (calends, hence "calendar"), the first quarter (nones) and the full moon (ides). Days were counted down (inclusively) to the next named day, so 24 February was ante diem sextum calendas martii ("the sixth day before the calends of March"). Since 45 BC, February in a leap year had two days called "the sixth day before the calends of March". The extra day was originally the second of these, but since the third century it was the first. Hence the term bissextile day for 24 February in a bissextile year. Where this custom is followed, anniversaries after the inserted day are moved in leap years. For example, the former feast day of Saint Matthias, 24 February in ordinary years, would be 25 February in leap years. This historical nicety is, however, in the process of being discarded: The European Union declared that, starting in 2000, 29 February rather than 24 February would be leap day, and the Roman Catholic Church also now uses 29 February as leap day. The only tangible difference is felt in countries that celebrate feast days.

Julian calendar

The Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by 4. This rule gives an average year length of 365.25 days. The excess of about 0.0076 days with respect to the vernal equinox year means that the vernal equinox moves a day earlier in the calendar every 130 years or so.

Revised Julian Calendar

The Revised Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by 4, except for years divisible by 100 that do not leave a remainder of 200 or 600 when divided by 900. This rule agrees with the rule for the Gregorian calendar until 2799. The first year that dates in the Revised Julian calendar will not agree with the those in the Gregorian calendar will be 2800, because it will be a leap year in the Gregorian calendar but not in the Revised Julian calendar. This rule gives an average year length of 365.242222… days. This is a very good approximation to the mean tropical year, but because the vernal equinox tropical year is slightly longer, the Revised Julian calendar does not do as good a job as the Gregorian calendar of keeping the vernal equinox on or close to 21 March.

Chinese calendar

The Chinese calendar is lunisolar, so a leap year has an extra month, often called an embolismic month after the Greek word for it. In the Chinese calendar the leap month is added according to a complicated rule, which ensures that month 11 is always the month that contains the northern winter solstice. The intercalary month takes the same number as the preceding month; for example, if it follows the second month then it is simply called "leap second month".

Hebrew calendar

The Hebrew calendar is also lunisolar with an embolistic month. In the Hebrew calendar the extra month is called Adar Alef (first Adar) and is added before Adar, which then becomes Adar Sheni (second Adar). According to the Metonic cycle, this is done seven times every nineteen years, specifically, in years, 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19. In addition, the Hebrew calendar has postponement rules that postpone the start of the year by one or two days. The year before the postponement gets one or two extra days, and the year whose start is postponed loses one or two days. These postponement rules reduce the number of different combinations of year length and starting day of the week from 28 to 14, and regulate the location of certain religious holidays in relation to the Sabbath.

Hindu Calendar

In the Hindu calendar, which is a lunisolar calendar, the embolismic month is called adhika maas (extra month). It is the month in which the sun is in the same sign of the stellar zodiac on two consecutive dark moons.

Iranian calendar

The Iranian calendar also has a single intercalated day once in every four years, but every 33 years or so the leap years will be five years apart instead of four years apart. The system used is more accurate and more complicated, and is based on the time of the March equinox as observed from Teheran. The 33-year period is not completely regular; every so often the 33-year cycle will be broken by a cycle of 29 or 37 years.

Long term leap year rules

The accumulated difference between the Gregorian calendar and the vernal equinoctial year amounts to 1 day in about 8,000 years. This suggests that the calendar needs to be improved by another refinement to the leap year rule: perhaps by avoiding leap years in years divisible by 8,000. (The most common such proposal is to avoid leap years in years divisible by 4,000 [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22gregorian+calendar%22+error+%22leap+year%22+4000]. This is based on the difference between the Gregorian calendar and the mean tropical year. Others claim, erroneously, that the Gregorian calendar itself already contains a refinement of this kind [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mleapyr.html].) However, there is little point in planning a calendar so far ahead because over a timescale of tens of thousands of years the number of days in a year will change for a number of reasons, most notably: #Precession of the equinoxes moves the position of the vernal equinox with respect to perihelion and so changes the length of the vernal equinoctial year. #Tidal acceleration from the sun and moon slows the rotation of the earth, making the day longer. In particular, the second component of change depends on such things as post-glacial rebound and sea level rise due to climate change. We can't predict these changes accurately enough to be able to make a calendar that will be accurate to a day in tens of thousands of years.

Marriage proposal

There is a tradition, said to go back to Saint Patrick and Saint Bridget in 5th century Ireland, whereby women may only make marriage proposals in leap years.

Saint Patrick and the leap year

:Saint Patrick, having driven the frogs out of the bogs was walking along the shores of Lough Neagh, when he was accosted by Saint Bridget in tears, and was told that a mutiny had broken out in the nunnery over which she presided, the ladies claiming the right of popping the question. :Saint Patrick said he would concede them the right every seventh year, when Saint Bridget threw her arms round his neck, and exclaimed, "Arrah, Pathrick, jewel, I daurn't go back to the girls wid such a proposal. Make it one year in four." Saint Patrick replied, "Bridget, acushla, squeeze me that way again, an' I'll give ye leap-year, the longest of the lot." Saint Bridget, upon this, popped the question to St Patrick himself, who, of course, could not marry: so he patched up the difficulty as best he could with a kiss and a silk gown. (Source: Evans, Ivor H, Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, Cassell, London, 1988) According to a 1288 law in Scotland, fines were levied if the proposal was refused by the man; compensation ranged from a kiss to a silk gown to soften the blow. Because men felt that put them at too great a risk, the tradition was in some places tightened to restricting female proposals to 29 February.

Birthdays

A person who was born on 29 February may be called a "leapling". In non-leap years they usually celebrate their birthday on 28 February or 1 March. There are many instances in children's literature where a person's claim to be only a quarter of their actual age turns out be based on counting their leap-year birthdays. A similar device is used in the plot of the Gilbert and Sullivan operetta The Pirates of Penzance. Category:Calendars Category:Units of time als:Schaltjahr ko:윤년 ja:閏年 simple:Leap year th:ปีอธิกสุรทิน

1298

Events


- July 2 - The Battle of Göllheim is fought between Albert I of Habsburg and Adolf of Nassau-Weilburg.
- End of the reign of Emperor Fushimi, emperor of Japan
- Emperor Go-Fushimi ascends to the throne of Japan
- 21 July - Battle of Falkirk (1298): England's Edward Longshank defeats William Wallace's Scottish rebels
- While in prison in Genoa, Marco Polo dictates his Travels to a local writer
- A fire causes severe damage to the Palace of Westminster.

Births


- December 12 - Albert II of Austria (died 1358)

Deaths


- July 2 - Adolf of Nassau-Weilburg, King of the Romans
- July 10 - King Ladislaus IV of Hungary (b. 1262)
- July 13 - Jacobus de Voragine, Italian chronicler and archbishop of Genoa
- September 11 - Philip of Artois, French soldier (born 1269)
- Smilets of Bulgaria (born 1292) Category:1298 ko:1298년

Battle of Falkirk (1298)

The Battle of Falkirk was a battle of the Wars of Scottish Independence.

Prelude

William Wallace had secured control of Scotland with his victory against the English at the Battle of Stirling Bridge in 1297. Edward Longshanks had been distracted with his wars on the European continent, and did not return to retake Scotland until six months after the English defeat.

Battle

Edward and his reluctant army forced Wallace's Scots into a pitched battle at Falkirk. Wallace placed his men on higher ground overlooking a small creek (Westquarter Burn) with the Callender Wood to his rear. The ground opposite his centre was boggy. He deployed his men in four schiltrons, with archers and light troops between them, while his Noble cavalry were held in reserve. Longshank's army entered the field in column led by three bodies of knights. The centre unit became mired in the marshy ground but disengaged itself to circle left while the second unit circled right to hit the Scottish left and right flanks respectively. The Scottish schiltrons held, but many archers and light troops were cut down by the English Knights. At this point, Wallace's noble cavalry abandoned the battle. Unable to make headway against the leveled pikes of the Scots schiltrons with his Knights, Longshanks moved forward his archers and Irish mercenaries. Several historical sources record that Longshank's subject Welsh longbow units refused to participate. The English and Irish mercenaries were able, however, to inflict casualties and create confusion in the schiltrons, which the English Knights were eventually able to exploit. Finally, the schiltrons broke and the remnants of Wallace's army fled.

Aftermath

Wallace survived, and Edward was not able to follow up on his victory: lack of supplies forced him to return to England. Wallace's campaign suffered greatly by the defeat at Falkirk. The Scottish struggle for independence ultimately passed next to Robert the Bruce. The Scottish cavalry have been judged by some people as treacherous for leaving the field at Falkirk. However, Wallace's plan purportedly called for them to make a nearly suicidal charge on the English troops. The Scottish cavalry were few and those at Falkirk were a significant portion, if not nearly all of those that were available at that time. By staying behind to fight, they would almost certainly have inflicted a large amount of additional casualties to the English army, but whether that would have turned Falkirk into a Scottish victory is not able to be determined based on what information is available to us now. The Scottish cavalry did fight later at the Battle of Bannockburn, and that battle resulted in a firm Scottish victory.

Braveheart

Mel Gibson's film Braveheart made a number of historical mistakes in its depiction of the battle. It showed the Irish charging, then stopping, shaking hands with the Scottish troops, and switching sides. This may have been a confusion with the Welsh longbow units. Also, it describes the Irish as conscripts, an anachronism in the Middle Ages. Wallace is shown losing a one-on-one fight with Robert the Bruce, who fights on the English side, defending the king. Falkirk Falkirk Falkirk

Edward I of England

King Edward I of England (June 17 1239 – July 7, 1307), popularly known as "Longshanks" because of his 6 foot 2 inch frame and the "Hammer of the Scots" (his tombstone, in Latin, read, Hic est Edwardvs Primus Scottorum Malleus, "Here lies Edward I, Hammer of the Scots"), achieved fame as the monarch who conquered Wales and who kept Scotland under English domination. He reigned from 1272 to 1307, ascending the throne of England on November 21, 1272 after the death of his father, King Henry III of England. His mother was Queen consort Eleanor of Provence.

Biography

Edward was born at the Palace of Westminster on June 17 or 18, 1239. He married twice; his first marriage, in October 1254, was to Eleanor of Castile which produced sixteen children, and her death in 1290 affected Edward deeply. He displayed his grief by erecting the Eleanor crosses, one at each place where her funeral cortege stopped for the night. His second marriage, in September 1299, to Marguerite of France (known as the "Pearl of France" by her English subjects), the daughter of King Philippe III of France (Phillip the Bold) and Maria of Brabant, produced three children. Edward's character greatly contrasted that of his father, who reigned in England throughout Edward's childhood and consistently tended to favour compromise with his opponents. Edward had already shown himself as an ambitious and impatient man, displaying considerable military prowess in defeating Simon de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham in 1265. He gained a reputation for treating rebels and other foes with great savagery. He relentlessly pursued the surviving members of the de Montfort family, his cousins.

Military campaigns

Crusades

In 1269 Cardinal Ottobono, the Papal Legate, arrived in England and appealed to Prince Edward and his brother Edmund to participate in the Eighth Crusade alongside Louis IX of France. In order to fund the crusade, Edward had to borrow heavily from Louis IX and the Jews of England. It is estimated by scholars such as P.R. Coss that Edward raised and spent close to half a million livres. The number of knights and retainers that accompanied Edward on the crusade was quite small, possibly around 230 knights. Many of the members of Edward's expedition were close friends and family including his wife Eleanor of Castile, his brother Edmund, and his first cousin Henry De Alamain. The original goal of the crusade was to relieve the beleagured Christian stronghold of Acre, but Louis had been diverted to Tunis. By the time that Edward arrived at Tunis, Louis had died of disease. The majority of the French forces at Tunis returned home, but a small number of them joined Edward who continued onward to Acre to participate in the Ninth Crusade. After a short stop in Cyprus, Edward arrived in Acre with thirteen ships. While in Acre, Edward engaged in diplomacy with the Mongols hoping to form an alliance against Sultan Baibars of Egypt. This did not come to fruition. In 1271 Hugh III of Cyprus arrived with a contingent of knights. The arrival of the additional forces emboldened Edward, who engaged in a raid on the town of Ququn. Soon afterward Edward signed a ten year peace treaty with Baibars. Around the same time, Edward was nearly assassinated but warded off his attacker, according to Matthew Paris, by bludgeoning his would be assassin with a metal tripod. Edward left the Holy Land and returned to England in 1272. Overall, Edward's crusade was insignificant and only gave the city of Acre a reprieve of ten years. However, Edward's reputation was greatly enhanced by his participation in the crusade and was hailed by some contemporary commentators as a new Richard the Lionheart. Furthermore, some historians believe Edward was inspired by the design of the castles he saw while on crusade and incorporated similar features into the castles he built to secure portions of Wales, such as Caernarfon Castle.

Welsh Wars

One of Edward's early achievements was the conquest of Wales. Under the 1267 Treaty of Montgomery, Llewelyn ap Gruffydd had extended Welsh territories southwards into what had been the lands of the English Marcher lords, and gained the title of Prince of Wales although he still owed homage to the English monarch as overlord. Edward refused to recognise the Treaty which had been concluded by his father. In 1275, pirates in Edward's pay intercepted a ship carrying Eleanor de Montfort, Simon de Montfort's only daughter, from France (where her family had lived in exile) to Wales, where she expected to marry Llywelyn. The parties' families had arranged the marriage previously, when an alliance with Simon de Montfort still counted politically. However, Llywelyn wanted the marriage largely to antagonise his long-standing enemy, Edward. With the hijacking of the ship, Edward gained possession of Eleanor and imprisoned her at Windsor. After Llywelyn repeatedly refused to pay homage to Edward in 1274-5, Edward raised an army and launched his first campaign against the Welsh prince in 1276-77. After this campaign Llywelyn was forced to pay homage to Edward and was stripped of all but a rump of territory in Gwynedd. But Edward allowed Llywelyn to retain the title of Prince of Wales, and the marriage with Eleanor de Montfort went ahead. However, Llywelyn's younger brother, Dafydd (who had briefly been an ally of the English) started another rebellion in 1282. Llywelyn died shortly afterwards in a skirmish. Subsequently, Edward destroyed the remnants of resistance, capturing, brutally torturing and executing Dafydd in the following year. To consolidate his conquest, he commenced the construction of a string of massive stone castles encircling the principality, of which Caernarfon Castle provides a notable surviving example. Wales became incorporated into England under the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 and in 1301 Edward created his eldest son Edward Prince of Wales, since which time the eldest son of each English monarch has borne the same title.

Scottish Wars

Edward then turned his attentions to Scotland and on May 10 1291 Scottish nobles recognised the authority of Edward I. He had planned to marry off his son to the child queen, Margaret of Scotland (Called 'The Maid of Norway') but when Margaret died the Scottish nobles agreed to have Edward select her successor from the various claimants to the throne, and he chose John Balliol over other candidates. Edward was anxious to impose his overlordship on Scotland and hoped that John Balliol would prove the most biddable candidate. Indeed, Edward summoned John Balliol to do homage to him in Westminster in 1293 and made it clear he expected John's military and financial support against France. But this was too much for Balliol, who concluded a pact with France and prepared an army to invade England. 1293 Edward gathered his largest army yet and razed Berwick, massacring its inhabitants, proceeding to Dunbar and Edinburgh. The Stone of Destiny was removed from Scone Palace and taken to Westminster Abbey. Until 1996, it formed the seat on King Edward's Chair, on which all English monarchs since 1308 have been crowned, with the exception of Mary I. In 1996, the stone was returned to Scotland, to return only during royal coronations. Balliol renounced the crown and was imprisoned in the Tower of London for three years before withdrawing to his estates in France. All freeholders in Scotland were required to swear an oath of homage to Edward, and he ruled Scotland like a province through English Viceroys. Opposition sprang up (see Wars of Scottish Independence), and Edward executed the focus of discontent, William Wallace, on August 23 1305, having earlier defeated him at the Battle of Falkirk (1298). His plan to unite the two countries never came to fruition during his lifetime, however, and he died in 1307 at Burgh-by-Sands, Cumberland on the Scottish border, while on his way to wage another campaign against the Scots under the leadership of Robert the Bruce. Against his wishes, Edward was buried in Westminster Abbey. His son, King Edward II of England, succeeded him.

Government and law under Edward I

Unlike his father, Henry III of England, Edward I took great interest in the workings of his government and undertook a number of reforms to safeguard the preservation of royal rights and improve the administration of the law. He spearheaded a wave of nationalism and solidified central authority over the country, a trend also used by contemporary monarchs. Late in his reign, Edward I issued the first trailbaston commissions (1305-7).

Edward and the Jews

To help finance his war to conquer Wales, Edward I taxed the Jewish moneylenders. However, the cost of Edward's ambitions soon drained the money-lenders dry. When the Jews could no longer pay, the state accused them of disloyalty. Already restricted to a limited number of occupations, Edward furthermore abolished their right to lend money at interest with the Statute of Jewry, [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/timelines/britain/mid_eng_jews.shtml] and eventually restricted their extra-curricular movements and activities. Edward decreed that all Jews wear a yellow patch in the shape of a star attached to their outer clothing to identify them in public (compare Star of David, Yellow badge). In the course of King Edward's persecution of the Jews, he arrested all the heads of Jewish households. The authorities took over 300 of them to the Tower of London and executed them, while killing others in their homes. Finally, in 1290, the King banished all Jews from the country.

Issue

Children of Edward and Eleanor: #Daughter, stillborn in May 1255 in Bordeaux, France. #Katherine, living June 17 1264, died September 5 1264 and buried at Westminster Abbey. #Eleanor, born 18 June 1264 and died 12 October 1297. She married (1) Alfonso III of Aragon, (2) Count Henry III of Bar. #Joan, born January 1265, buried at Westminster Abbey before September 7 1265. #John, born July 13 1266, died August 3 1271 at Wallingford, in the custody of his granduncle, Richard, Earl of Cornwall. Buried at Westminster Abbey. #Henry, born before May 6 1268, died October 16 1274. #Daughter, born May 1271 in Palestine and died before September 1271. #Joan of Acre born May 1271 and died April 7 1307. She married (1) Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Hertford, (2) Ralph Morthermer, 1st Baron Monthermer. #Alphonso, Earl of Chester, born 24 November 1273, died 19 August 1284, buried in Westminster Abbey. #Margaret, born March 15 1275 and died after 1333. She married John II, Duke of Brabant. #Berengaria, born 1 May 1276 and died before June 27 1278, buried in Westminster Abbey. #Daughter, died shortly after birth, January 1278. #Mary, born 11 March 1279 and died 29 May 1332, a nun in Amesbury, Wiltshire (England). #Elizabeth of Rhuddlan, born August 1281 at Rhuddlan, died 5 May 1316. She married (1) John I, Count of Holland, (2) Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford & 3rd Earl of Essex. #Edward of Caernavon, born 25 April 1284 at Caernarvon, died 21 September 1327. He married Isabella of France. Children of Edward and Marguerite: #Thomas of Brotherton, 1st Earl of Norfolk (1300–1338), married firstly, Alice Hayles and had issue. He married secondly, Mary Brewes and had issue. #Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent, married Margaret Wake, Baroness Wake of Liddell and had issue. #Eleanor (1306–1311), died young.

References


- Michael Prestwich, Edward I (London: Methuen, 1988, updated edition Yale University Press, 1997 ISBN 0-300-07209-0) Edward I Edward I Category:Londoners Category:House of Anjou Category:Heirs to the English & British thrones Edward I of England Category:Crusades Category:Wars of Scottish Independence Category:History of Wales Category:Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports Category:Earls in the Peerage of England ja:エドワード1世 (イングランド王)

William Wallace

:For other people named William Wallace, see William Wallace (disambiguation). William Wallace (disambiguation) Sir William Wallace (c. 1270 – August 22, 1305), sometimes called The Wallace, was a Scottish knight who led his countrymen in resistance to English domination in the reign of King Edward I, during significant periods of the Wars of Scottish Independence.

Origins

Tradition often describes Wallace as "one of the common people", contrasted to his countrymen, such as Robert the Bruce, who came from noble stock. Wallace's family descends from Richard Wallace the Welshman, a landowner under an early member of the House of Stuart, which later became royal lineage. While some suggest Wallace was born around 1270, the 16th century work History of William Wallace and Scottish Affairs claims 1276 as his year of birth. Due to the lack of conclusive evidence, Wallace's birthdate and birthplace are disputed. Traditionally, the birthplace of William Wallace is claimed to be Elderslie, near Paisley in Renfrewshire; although it has been suggested that his birthplace was closer to Ellerslie, an alternative name for Riccarton, near Kilmarnock in Ayrshire. In support of the Ellerslie origins, some proposed that William's traditional father, Malcolm Wallace of Elderslie, a knight and vassal to James the Steward, actually came from Riccarton, Ayrshire, from nearby Loudoun. There are also strong family connections to Craigie Castle, southeast of Kilmarnock. Some of Wallace's earliest actions were in Ayrshire, and local tradition has the dispute with English soldiers over fish not in Lanark but west of Riccarton at a site known as the "Bickering Bush". To the contrary, the Elderslie origins are defended with the arguments that Ellerslie is a former mining village known only from the 19th century, whereas Elderslie is known from earlier. Wallace's first action was at Lanark, which is near neither Elderslie nor Ellerslie, and afterward he moved into Ayrshire to join some Scottish nobles who were fighting the English at Irvine. The 1999 rediscovery of William Wallace's seal further enshrouds Wallace's early history in mystery. While tradition claims Sir Malcolm Wallace of Elderslie as the father of three sons, Malcolm, John, and William Wallace, the seal identifies William as the son of Alan Wallace of Ayrshire, who appears in the Ragman Roll of 1296 as "crown tenant of Ayrshire". Dr. Fiona Watson in "A Report into Sir William Wallace's connections with Ayrshire", published in March 1999, reassesses the early life of William Wallace and concludes, "Sir William Wallace was a younger son of Alan Wallace, a crown tenant in Ayrshire". Historian Andrew Fisher, author of William Wallace (2002), writes, "If the Alan of the Ragman Roll was indeed the patriot's father, then the current argument in favour of an Ayrshire rather than a Renfrewshire origin for Wallace can be settled". Wallace was educated in French and Latin by two uncles who had become priests. Blind Harry does not mention Wallace's departure from Scotland or that Wallace had combat experience prior to 1297. A record from August 1296 references "a thief, one William le Waleys" in Perth.

Scotland in Wallace's time

1296 At the time of Wallace's birth, King Alexander III had reigned for over twenty years. His rule had seen a period of peace and economic stability, and he had successfully fended off continuing English claims to suzerainty. In 1286, Alexander died after falling from his horse; none of his children survived him. The Scottish lords declared Alexander's 4 year-old granddaughter, Margaret (called "the Maid of Norway"), Queen. Due to her age, they set up an interim government to administer Scotland until she came of age. King Edward I took advantage of the potential instability by arranging the Treaty of Birgham with the lords, betrothing Margaret to his son, Edward II, on the understanding that Scotland would preserve its status as a separate nation. But Margaret fell ill and died at only 8 years old (1290) on her way from her native Norway to Scotland. A number of claimants to the Scottish throne came forward almost immediately. Contrary to popular belief, John Balliol had a right to the throne. However, the Scots deemed it desirable to have an independent arbitrator to determine the issue — in order to avoid accusations of bias. Shrewdly, the Scots invited King Edward I of England to decide the royal succession. Instead of coming as an independent arbitrator, he arrived at the Anglo-Scottish border with a large army and announced that he had come as an overlord to solve a dispute in a vassal state, forcing each potential king to pay homage to him. After hearing every claim, Edward in 1292 picked Balliol to reign over what he described as "the vassal state of Scotland". In March of 1296, Balliol renounced his homage to Edward, and by the end of the month Edward had stormed Berwick-upon-Tweed, sacking the then Scottish border town with much bloodshed. He slaughtered almost everyone who resided there, even if they fled to the churches. Pope Boniface VIII at this time kept his court in Edward's dominions in Gascony, and gave him a medal for his actions. In April, he defeated the Scots at the Battle of Dunbar (1296) in Lothian, and by July he had forced Balliol to abdicate at Kincardine Castle. Edward went to Berwick in August to receive formal homage from some 2,000 Scottish nobles (see Ragman Roll), having previously removed the Stone of Destiny from Scone Palace, the stone on which all of the Kings of Scots had been crowned.

Wallace's exploits begin

According to local Ayrshire legend, two English soldiers challenged Wallace in the Lanark marketplace regarding his catching of fish. The argument escalated into a brawl in which the two soldiers were killed. The authorities issued a warrant for his arrest shortly thereafter. Whatever the truth of this story, Wallace had long hated the English. Wallace murdered Sir William Heselrig, the English Sheriff of Lanark, in May 1297, and dismembered his corpse, supposedly to avenge the death of Marion Braidfute of Lamington — the young maiden Wallace allegedly courted and married in Blind Harry's tale. No evidence exists to corroborate this detail. Soon, he achieved victory in battles at Loudoun Hill (near Darvel, Ayrshire) and Ayr; he also fought alongside Sir William Douglas in Scone, routing the English justiciar, William Ormesby. Supporters of the growing revolt suffered a major blow when Scottish nobles agreed to terms with the English at Irvine in July. In August, Wallace left Selkirk Forest to join Andrew Moray's army at Stirling. Moray began another uprising, and their forces combined at Stirling, where they prepared to meet the English in battle.

The Battle of Stirling Bridge

Stirling On September 11, 1297, Wallace achieved victory at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. Although vastly outnumbered, the Scottish forces led by Andrew Moray (a more prominent noble, being a first son) and with Wallace as their captain, routed the English army. The Earl of Surrey's professional army of 300 cavalry and 10,000 infantry met disaster as they crossed over to the north side of the river. The narrowness of the bridge prevented many soldiers from crossing together (possibly as few as three men abreast), so while the English soldiers crossed, the Scots held back until half of them had passed and then killed the English as quickly as they could cross. A pivotal charge was led by Hamish Cambell, Wallace's long time companion and one of his captains. English soldiers started to retreat as others pushed forward, and under the overwhelming weight, the bridge collapsed and many English soldiers drowned. Unbeknownst to the now chaotic English army, part of the Scottish army had forded further up the river. With the English army divided opposite each bank of the river, the two Scot forces pressed both halves of the English army towards the river. The Scots won an overwhelming victory and hugely boosted the confidence of their army. Hugh Cressingham, Edward's treasurer in Scotland, died in the fighting. Moray died of wounds suffered on the battlefield three months after the Battle of Stirling Bridge. Upon his return from the Battle of Stirling Bridge, Robert the Bruce knighted and elected Wallace the "Guardian of the Kingdom of Scotland and Leader of its armies", now Sir William Wallace. The legality of this title is disputed, as Robert the Bruce was not technically king of Scotland.

The Battle of Falkirk

A year later the military tables turned at the Battle of Falkirk. On April 1, 1298, the English had invaded Scotland at Roxburgh. They plundered Lothian and regained some castles, but had failed to bring Wallace to combat. The Scots had adopted a scorched-earth policy, and English suppliers' mistakes had left morale and food low, but Edward's search for Wallace would end at Falkirk. Wallace had arranged his spearmen in four "schiltrons" — circular, hedgehog formations surrounded by a defensive wall of wooden stakes. The English gained the upper hand, however, attacking first with cavalry, and wreaking havoc through the Scottish archers. The Scottish knights fled, and Edward's men began to attack the schiltrons. It remains unclear whether the infantry throwing bolts, arrows and stones at the spearmen proved the deciding factor, or a cavalry attack from the rear. Either way, gaps in the schiltrons soon appeared, and the English exploited these to crush the remaining resistance. The Scots lost many men, but Wallace escaped, though his pride and military reputation suffered badly. By September 1298, Wallace had decided to resign as Guardian of Scotland in favour of Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick, and John Comyn of Badenoch, ex-King John Balliol's brother-in-law. Bruce became reconciled with King Edward in 1302, while Wallace spurned such moves towards peace. He spent some time in France on a presumed diplomatic mission, although the true reason is unknown.

Wallace's capture and execution

France Sir William evaded capture by the English until August 5, 1305, when Sir John de Menteith, a Scottish knight loyal to Edward, turned Wallace over to English soldiers at Robroystoun, near Glasgow. Wallace was transported to London and tried for treason at Westminster Hall where he was crowned with a garland of oak to suggest that he was the king of outlaws. He responded to the charge, "I could not be a traitor to Edward, for I was never his subject." The absent John Balliol was officially his king; however, Wallace was declared guilty. On August 23, 1305, following the trial Wallace was removed from the courtroom, stripped naked and dragged at the heels of a horse to Smithfield Market. He was strangled by hanging, but released near death, emasculated, drawn and quartered, and beheaded, rendering the execution complete at the Elms in Smithfield. His head was placed on a pike atop London Bridge, which was later joined by the heads of his brother, John, and Sir Simon Fraser. His limbs were displayed, separately, in Newcastle, Berwick, Stirling, and Perth. The plaque in the photograph above stands in a wall of St. Bartholomew's Hospital near the site of Wallace's execution at Smithfield. Scottish patriots and other interested people frequently visit the site, and flowers often appear there. A sword which supposedly belonged to Wallace was held for many years in Dumbarton Castle, and is now in the Wallace National Monument near Stirling. However, examination of the sword by the experts has concluded that its design belongs to a period a few centuries after Wallace.

Portrayal in fiction

An insignificant amount of comprehensive and historically accurate information was written about Wallace. Many stories, however, are based on the wandering 15th century minstrel Blind Harry's epic poem, "The Acts and Deeds of Sir William Wallace, Knight of Elderslie", written around 1470. Historians disagree with parts of Blind Harry's tale, or dismiss the entire composition. Blind Harry's poem "Barns of Ayr", for example, describes the incident when three hundred and sixty Scottish nobles, led by Wallace’s uncle, Sir Ranald Crawford, were summoned by the English to a conference. As each passed through a narrow entry, a rope was dropped around his neck, and he was hanged. In fact, this incident did not occur. Blind Harry misread a line from an earlier poem about Robert the Bruce, which tells how certain Scottish nobles were hanged "in ar" (a legal term meaning "by a circuit court"). The incident, more or less as described by Blind Harry, does however appear in the film Braveheart. In the early 19th century, Sir Walter Scott wrote of Wallace in Exploits and Death of William Wallace, the "Hero of Scotland", and Jane Porter penned a romantic version of the Wallace legend in The Scottish Chiefs in 1810. Famed historian G.A. Henty wrote a novel in 1885 about this time period titled In Freedom's Cause. Henty, noted for historical accuracy, portrays the life of William Wallace, Robert the Bruce, The Black Douglas, and others, while dovetailing the novel with historical fiction. Nigel Tranter authored an intended fiction titled The Wallace, published in 1975, which is said by academics to be more accurate than its literary predecessors. Perhaps the best known account of the life of William Wallace is the 1995 film, Braveheart, directed by and starring Mel Gibson and written by Randall Wallace. This film has been criticized for its considerable historical inaccuracies, but was a commercial and critical success, winning five Academy Awards. Academy Awards

700th anniversary of Wallace's execution

In 2005, the 700th anniversary of Wallace's execution, his sword became the most popular feature of an exhibition in New York during the celebrations of Tartan Week. This marked the first time the sword, weighing 6 pounds (2.5 kilograms) and measuring five feet and four inches, was removed from Scotland. A symbolic funeral was held at the site of Wallace's execution in Smithfield, London with an empty coffin. While the event hosted 300 attendees, more than 900 people unsuccessfully applied for tickets to the event — a testament to Wallace's enduring legacy.

Bibliography


- Clater-Roszak, Christine. "Sir William Wallace ignited a flame." Military History 14 (1997): 12–15.
- Fisher, Andrew. William Wallace. Edinburgh: Birlinn, 2002. ISBN 0859765571.
- Folklore, Myths and Legends of Britain. London: The Reader’s Digest Association, 1973, 519-20.
- Harris, Nathaniel. Heritage of Scotland: A Cultural History of Scotland & Its People. London: Hamlyn, 2000. ISBN 0600598349.
- MacKay, James A. William Wallace: Brave Heart. Mainstream: 1996. ISBN 185158823X.
- MacLean, Fitzroy. Scotland: A Concise History. London: Thames & Hudson, 1997. ISBN 0500277060.
- Morton, Graeme. William Wallace. London: Sutton, 2004. ISBN 0750935235.
- Reese, Peter. William Wallace: A Biography. Edinburgh: Canongate, 1998. ISBN 0862416078.
- Ross, David R. On the Trail of William Wallace. Edinburgh: Luath, 1999. ISBN 0946487472.
- Scott, Sir Walter. "Exploits and death of William Wallace, the 'Hero of Scotland'."
- Stead, Michael J., and Alan Young. In the Footsteps of William Wallace. London: Sutton, 2002.
- Tranter, Nigel. The Wallace. London: Trafalgar Square, 1996. ISBN 0340212373. [most recent] Original 1975 by Hodder and Stoughton ?ISBN, Common edition is Coronet's 1989 ISBN 0340212373.
- Wallace, Margaret. William Wallace: Champion of Scotland. Musselborough: Goblinshead, 1999. ISBN 1899874194.

See also


- Lugar Water Wallace, William Wallace, William Wallace, William Wallace, William Wallace, William Wallace, William Wallace, William Wallace, William Wallace, William Wallace, William Wallace, William ja:ウィリアム・ウォレス

1403

Events


- July 21 - Battle of Shrewsbury. King Henry IV of England defeats a rebel army led by "Hotspur" Percy, who is killed.
- Jan Hus begins preaching Wycliffite ideas in Bohemia
- Ming Emperor Zhu Li renamed the old Yuan (Mongul) capital as Beijing
- Yongle Encyclopedia, Chinese proto-encyclopedia has 22937 volumes (only three printed) (According to other sources, 11092 parts)

Births


- February 22 - King Charles VII of France (died 1461)
- June 11 - John IV, Duke of Brabant (d. 1427)
- Thomas de Ros, 9th Baron de Ros (died 1431)
- Robert Wingfield, English politician (died 1454)

Deaths


- July 21 - Henry Percy, English soldier (killed in battle)
- July 23 - Thomas Percy, 1st Earl of Worcester, English rebel (executed) (born 1343)
- Beyazid, Ottoman Sultan (born 1354)
- Katherine Swynford, English noblewoman
- Hajji Zayn al-Attar, Persian physician
- William de Lode, English prior Category:1403 ko:1403년

Henry IV of England

Henry IV (April 3, 1367 – March 20, 1413) was born at Bolingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire, hence the other name by which he was known, "Henry of Bolingbroke". His father, John of Gaunt was the third and oldest surviving son of King Edward III of England, and enjoyed a position of considerable influence during much of the reign of Richard II. Henry, however, had a rather more equivocal relationship with Richard: they were first cousins and childhood playmates, and were admitted together to the Order of the Garter in 1377, but Henry participated in the Lords Appellant’s rebellion against the King in 1387. After regaining power, Richard did not punish Henry (many of the other rebellious barons were executed or exiled), and in fact elevated him from earl of Derby to duke of Hereford. The relationship between Henry and the King reached a second crisis in 1398, when Richard banished Henry from the kingdom for ten years -- with John of Gaunt's approval -- to avoid a blood feud between Henry of Bolingbroke and Thomas de Mowbray, 1st Duke of Norfolk (who was exiled for life). The following year, however, John of Gaunt died, and without explanation, Richard cancelled the legal documents that would have allowed Henry to inherit Gaunt's land automatically -- instead, Henry would be required to ask for the lands from Richard. After some hesitation, Henry met with the exiled Thomas Arundel, former (and future) Archbishop of Canterbury, who had lost his position because of his involvement with the Lords Appellant, and Henry and Arundel returned to England while Richard was on a military campaign in Ireland. With Arundel as his advisor, Henry Bolingbroke began a military campaign, confiscating land from those who opposed him and ordering his soldiers to destroy much of Cheshire. Quickly, Henry gained enough power and support to have himself declared King Henry IV, imprisoning King Richard (who died in prison under mysterious circumstances) and by-passing Richard’s heir-presumptive Roger Mortimer. Henry's coronation, on October 13, 1399, is notable as the first time following the Norman Conquest that the monarch made an address in English. Henry consulted with parliament frequently, but was sometimes at odds with them, especially over ecclesiastical matters. On Arundel's advice, Henry was the first English king to allow the burning of heretics, mainly to suppress the Lollard movement. In 1380 Henry had married Mary de Bohun; they had two daughters and four sons, one of which was the future Henry V of England. In 1406, one of their daughters, Philippa, married Eric of Pomerania, king of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Mary died in 1394, and in 1403 Henry married Joanna of Navarre, the daughter of Charles d'Evreux, King of Navarre. She was the widow of John V of Brittany, with whom she had four daughters and four sons, but she and Henry had no children. The fact that in 1399 Henry had four sons from his first marriage was undoubtedly a clinching factor in his acceptance onto the throne. By contrast, Richard II had no children, and Richard's heir-apparent Mortimer was only seven years old. Henry spent much of his reign defending himself against plots, rebellions and assassination attempts. His first problem was what to do with the deposed Richard, and after an early assassination plot was foiled, he probably ordered his death by starvation in early 1400, although there is no evidence for this. Richard's body was put on public display in the old St Paul's Cathedral to show his supporters that he was dead. Rebellions continued throughout the first ten years of Henry’s reign, including the revolt of Owen Glendower who declared himself Prince of Wales in 1400, and the rebellion of Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland. The king's success in putting down these rebellions was due partly to the military ability of his eldest son, Henry, who would later become King Henry V of England, though the younger Henry himself (who had maintained a close relationship with Richard II) managed to seize much effective power from his father in 1410. 1410.]] In 1406, English soldiers captured the future James I of Scotland as he was going to France. James remained a prisoner of Henry for the rest of Henry's reign. The later years of Henry's reign were marked by serious health problems. He had some sort of disfiguring skin disease, and more seriously suffered acute attacks of some grave illness in June 1405, April 1406, June 1408, during the winter of 1408–9, December 1412, and then finally a fatal bout in March 1413. Medical historians have long debated the nature of this affliction or afflictions. The skin disease might have been leprosy (which in any case didn't mean precisely the same thing as it does to modern medicine), perhaps psoriasis, a symptom of syphilis, or some other disease. The acute attacks have been given a wide range of explanations, from epilepsy to some form of cardiovascular disease. In 1413, he died in the Jerusalem Chamber in the house of the Abbot of Westminster. He was buried in Canterbury Cathedral. His body was well embalmed, as an exhumation some centuries later established.

References


- Peter McNiven, "The Problem of Henry IV's Health, 1405–1413", English Historical Review, 100 (1985), pp747–772

External links


- [http://www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon34.html Britannia: Henry IV ] Category:1367 births Category:1413 deaths Category:Natives of Lincolnshire Category:House of Lancaster Category:English monarchs Category:Lord High Stewards Category:Knights of the Garter Category:Hundred Years' War Category:History of Wales Category:Dukes in the Peerage of England ja:ヘンリー4世 (イングランド王)

1568

Events


- March 23 - Peace of Longjumeau ends the Second War of Religion in France. Again Catherine de Medici and Charles IX make substantial concessions to the Huguenots.
- May 2 - Mary Queen of Scots escapes from Loch Leven Castle.
- May 13 - Battle of Langside: the forces of Mary Queen of Scots are defeated by a confederacy of Scottish Protestants under James Stewart, Earl of Moray, her half-brother.
- May 16 - Mary Queen of Scots flees to England.
- May 19 - Queen Elizabeth I of England arrests Mary Queen of Scots.
- May 23 - Battle of Heiligerlee - Troops under Louis of Nassau, brother of William I of Orange, defeat a smaller loyalist force under the Duke of Arenberg in an attempt to invade the Northern Netherlands.
- July 21 - Battle of Jemmingen - The main Spanish army of the Duke of Alva utterly defeats Louis of Nassau's invading army in the Northeastern Netherlands.
- August 18 - Beginning of the Third War of Religion in France after an unsuccessful attempt by the Royalists to capture Condé and Coligny, the Huguenot leaders.
- October 5 - William of Orange invades the Southeastern Netherlands.
- October 20 - Battle of Jodoigne. Spanish forces under the Duke of Alva destroy Orange's rearguard. Orange abandons his offensive.
- Beginning of the Azuchi-Momoyama period in Japan.
- Start of Eighty Years' War.
- Peace of Adrianople: The Ottomans agree to pay tribute to the Habsburgs.

Births


- February 11 - Honoré d'Urfé, French writer (d. 1625)
- March 9 - Aloysius Gonzaga, Italian Jesuit and saint (died 1591)
- September 3 - Adriano Banchieri, Italian composer (died 1634)
- September 5 - Tommaso Campanella, Italian theologian and poet (d. 1639)
- Nikolaus Ager, French botanist (died 1634)
- John Welsh of Ayr, Scottish Presbyterian leader
- Barnabe Barnes, English poet (died 1609)
- Teodosio II, Duke of Braganza (died 1630)
- Luisa Carvajal y Mendoza, Spanish religious leader (died 1614)
- Edward Chichester, 1st Viscount Chichester (died 1648)
- Marin Getaldic, Croatian scientist (died 1626)
- Nakagawa Hidemasa, Japanese military leader (died 1592)
- Gervase Markham, English poet and writer (died 1637)
- April - Pope Urban VIII (died 1644)
- Edward Somerset, 4th Earl of Worcester (died 1628)
- Henry Wotton, English author and diplomat (died 1639)
- Wei Zhongxian, Grand Secretary of China See also :Category: 1568 births.

Deaths


- January 15 - Catherine Carey, Chief Lady of the Bedchamber to Elizabeth I of England
- January 20 - Myles Coverdale, English Bible translator
- January 21 - Amato Lusitano, Portuguese physician (born 1511)
- March 20 - Duke Albert of Prussia (born 1490)
- June 5 - Lamoral, Count of Egmont, Flemish statesman (born 1522)
- July 7 - William Turner, British ornithologist and botanist
- July 24 - Don Carlos of Spain, son of Philip II of Spain (born 1545)
- October 3 - Elizabeth of Valois, Queen of Philip II of Spain (born 1545)
- October 14 - Jacques Arcadelt, Flemish composer (born 1504)
- October 28 - Ashikaga Yoshihide, Japanese shogun (born 1538)
- December 23 - Roger Ascham, tutor of Elizabeth I of England (born 1515)
- December 31 - Shimazu Tadayoshi, Japanese warlord (born 1493)
- Andrés de Urdaneta, Spanish Friar (born 1498)
- Jean de Ligne, Duke of Aremberg (born 1528)
- Henry, Count of Bréderode, Dutch reformer (born 1531)
- Henry Sutton Dudley, English soldier and sailor (born 1517)
- Lamoraal Egmond, Flemish general and political figure (born 1522)
- Gherman, archbishop of Kazan and later Metropolitan of Moscow
- Catherine Grey, Countess of Hertford (born 1539)
- Philip de Montmorency, Count of Hoorn
- Aben Humeya, last independent king of Granada (born 1520)
- Antoine Héroet, French poet
- Garcia de Orta, Portuguese Jewish physician (born 1501)
- Dirk Philips, early Anabaptist writer and theologian
- Yan Song, Chinese prime minister (born 1481)
- Thomas Wharton, 1st Baron Wharton (born 1495) See also :Category: 1568 deaths. Category:1568 ko:1568년 simple:1568

Battle of Jemmingen

After the Battle of Heiligerlee Louis of Nassau failed to capture the city Groningen. Louis was chased by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alva and defeated at the Battle of Jemmingen on 21 July 1568. The Spanish army consisted of 12,000 infantry (4 tercios), 3,000 cavalry, and some guns. Louis of Nassau opposed them with 10,000 infantry (2 groups), some cavalry, and 16 guns. After three hours of skirmishes, Louis' army left its trenches and advanced. Pounded by effective musket fire and intimidated by the Spanish cavalry, the advance turned into a general retreat towards the river Ems. The Duke of Alva lost 100 men. Louis of Nassau lost 7,000 men. Category:1568 Jemmingen 1568

Louis of Nassau

Louis of Nassau (January 10 1538 – April 14 1574) was a brother of William I of Orange. Three times Louis led an army into battle:
- Battle of Heiligerlee - a victorious ambush;
- Battle of Jemmingen - a disastrous route;
- Battle of Mookerheyde - killed during desertion. Category:1538 births Category:1574 deaths Category:House of Nassau Category:Eighty Years' War (Persons)

Kazan Cathedral

Kazan Cathedral is a name of several Russian churches dedicated to Our Lady of Kazan, a holy icon which the Russian Orthodox Church probably venerates the most. The principal of these are the Kazan Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow (1638, 1932, 1993) and the Kazan Cathedral on the Nevsky Prospect in St Petersburg (1810-11).

The icon

Our Lady of Kazan was discovered on July 8, 1579, underground in the city of Kazan, after the Blessed Virgin Mary herself reportedly revealed its location to a little girl. The icon is credited with helping Russia to survive the Time of Troubles, the Swedish invasion of 1709, and Napoleon's invasion of 1812. The original icon was kept in one of the monasteries in Kazan, whereas its ancient and venerated copies have been displayed at the Kazan Cathedrals of Moscow and St Petersburg (see below). In the night on June 29, 1904 the icon was stolen from a cathedral in Kazan where it had been kept for centuries. Thieves apparently coveted the icon's golden setting, which featured many jewels of highest value. When several years later Russian police finally apprehended the thieves and recovered the precious setting, they declared that the icon itself had been cut to pieces and burnt down. The Orthodox church interpreted disappearance of the icon as a sign of tragedies that would plague Russia after the Holy Protectress of Russia had been lost. 1904 After the Russian Revolution, there were plenty of theories speculating that the original icon was in fact preserved in St Petersburg and later sold by the Bolsheviks abroad. Although such theories were not given credit by the Russian Orthodox church, one of several reputed originals (dated by experts to ca. 1730) was acquired by a shrine in Fátima, Portugal in the 1970s. Pope John Paul II claimed that this icon saved his life during an assassination attempt on May 13, 1981. In 1993, the icon was given to the Pope, who took it to the Vatican and had it installed in his bedchamber, where it was venerated by him for 11 years. John Paul II wished to visit Moscow or Kazan in order to return the icon to the Russian Orthodox Church. When these efforts were blocked by the Moscow Patriarchy, the icon was presented to the Russian Church unconditionally in August 2004. On August 26, 2004 it was exhibited for veneration in the altar of St Peter's Basilica and then delivered to Moscow. On the next feast day of the holy icon, July 21, 2005, Patriarch Alexis II and the President of Tatarstan placed it at the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kazan Kremlin.

Cathedral in Moscow

Upon liberating Moscow from the Poles in 1612, Prince Dmitry Pozharsky attributed his success to the divine help of Our Lady of Kazan, whom he had prayed on several occasions. He financed from his private funds construction of a wooden church to the Virgin of Kazan on Red Square in Moscow. After the diminutive shrine was destroyed by fire in 1632, the Tsar ordered it to be replaced by a brick church. The one-domed edifice, featuring several tiers of kokoshniki, a wide gallery and a tented belfry, was consecrated in 1638. That its history was tempestous is evidenced by the fact that its archpriest Avvakum led the party of religious dissenters, or Old Believers. After numerous renovations of the cathedral undertaken in the imperial period, the original design was lost behind later additions. The distinguished Russian restorator Peter Baranovsky had the church's exterior completely reconstructed to its original design in 1929-32. Some specialists, however, criticised the accuracy of this reconstruction. In 1936, when Red Square was being prepared for holding military parades, Stalin ordered to clear the square from churches. Although Baranovsky managed to save Saint Basil's Cathedral from destruction, he could not prevent the Kazan Cathedral from being demolished. The Kazan Cathedral was the first church to be completely rebuilt after having been destroyed by the Communists. The cathedral's restoration (1990-93) was based on Baranovsky's detailed measurements and photographs of the original church. [http://img.photosight.ru/2005/10/13/1080069.jpg]

Cathedral in St Petersburg

Saint Basil's Cathedral Saint Basil's Cathedral The vast Kazan Cathedral on the Nevsky Prospect in St Petersburg was modelled by Andrey Voronikhin after St Peter's Basilica in Rome. Although the Russian Orthodox Church strongly disapproved of the plans to create a replica of the Popish cathedral in the Russian capital, several courtiers infatuated with Roman Catholicism supported Voronikhin's Empire Style design. The construction was started in 1801 and continued for 10 years. After Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812, and the commander-in-chief Mikhail Kutuzov asked Our Lady of Kazan for help, the church's purpose was to be altered. The Patriotic War over, the cathedral was perceived primarily as a memorial to the Russian victory against Na