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July 24

July 24

July 24 is the 205th day (206th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 160 days remaining.

Events

- 311 - The end of the fifth year of reign of Constantine the Great
- 1216 - Cencio Savelli is consecrated as Pope Honorius III
- 1411 - Battle of Harlaw, one of the bloodiest battles on Scottish soil.
- 1487 - Citizens of Leeuwarden, Netherlands strike against ban on foreign beer
- 1534 - French explorer Jacques Cartier planted a cross on the Gaspé Peninsula and took possession of the territory in the name of the King Francis I of France.
- 1567 - Mary Queen of Scots is deposed and replaced by her 1 year old son King James VI.
- 1701 - Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded trading post at Ft Pontchartrain, which later becomes the city of Detroit.
- 1814 - War of 1812: General Phineas Riall advances toward Niagara to halt Jacob Brown's American invaders.
- 1832 - Benjamin Bonneville leads the first wagon train across the Rocky Mountains by using Wyoming's South Pass.
- 1847 - After 17 months of travel, Brigham Young leads 148 Mormon pioneers into Salt Lake Valley, resulting in the establishment of Salt Lake City.
- 1864 - American Civil War: Battle of Kernstown - Confederate General Jubal Early defeats Union troops led by General George Crook in an effort to keep Yankees out of the Shenandoah Valley.
- 1866 - Reconstruction: Tennessee becomes the first U.S. state to be readmitted to the Union following the American Civil War.
- 1901 - O. Henry is released from prison in Austin, Texas after serving three years for embezzlement from a bank.
- 1910 - James MacGillivray publishes first account of Paul Bunyan in the Detroit News.
- 1911 - Hiram Bingham III re-discovers Machu Picchu "the Lost City of the Incas".
- 1915 - Passenger ship Eastland capsizes in central Chicago, Illinois, with the loss of 845 lives.
- 1923 - The Treaty of Lausanne, settling the boundaries of modern Turkey, is signed in Switzerland by Greece, Bulgaria and other countries that fought in the First World War.
- 1927 - The Menin Gate war memorial is unveiled at Ypres.
- 1929 - The Kellogg-Briand Pact, renouncing war as an instrument of foreign policy, goes into effect (it was first signed in Paris on August 27, 1928 by most leading world powers).
- 1931 - A fire at a home for aged people in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania kills 48 people.
- 1935 - The dust bowl heat wave reaches its peak, sending temperatures to 109°F (44°C) in Chicago, Illinois and 104°F (40°C) in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
- 1937 - Alabama drops rape charges against the so-called "Scottsboro Boys."
- 1943 - World War II: Operation Gomorrah begins: British and Canadian aeroplanes bomb Hamburg by night, those of the Americans by day. By the end of the operation in November, 9,000 tons of explosives will have killed more than 30,000 people and destroyed 280,000 buildings.
- 1956 - At New York City's Copacabana Club, Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis perform their last comedy show together which started on July 25, 1946.
- 1959 - At the opening of the American National Exhibition in Moscow, US vice-president Richard Nixon and Nikita Khrushchev have a "kitchen debate."
- 1965 - Vietnam War: Four F-4C Phantoms escorting a bombing raid at Kang Chi are the targets of antiaircraft missiles in the first such attack against American planes in the war. One is shot down and the other three sustain damage.
- 1967 - During an official state visit to Canada, French President Charles de Gaulle declares to a crowd of over 100,000 in Montreal: Vive le Québec libre! (Long live free Quebec!). The statement, interpreted as support for Quebec independence, delighted many Quebecers but angered the Canadian government and many English Canadians.
- 1969 - Apollo program: Apollo 11 splashes down safely in the Pacific Ocean.
- 1974 - Watergate Scandal: The United States Supreme Court unanimously rule that President Richard Nixon did not have the authority to withhold subpoenaed White House tapes and they order him to surrender the tapes to the Watergate special prosecutor.
- 1983 - George Brett, batting for the Kansas City Royals against the New York Yankees, has a game-winning home run nullified in the "Pine Tar Incident".
- 1998 - Russel Eugene Weston Jr. bursts into the United States Capitol and opens fire killing two police officers. He is later ruled to be incompetent to stand trial.
- 2001 - Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, the last Tsar of Bulgaria when he was a child, was sworn in as Prime Minister of Bulgaria, and became the only monarch in history to regain political power through democratic election to a different office.
- 2001 - The Taiwan Solidarity Union is established.
- 2002 - James Traficant is expelled from the United States House of Representatives on a vote of 420 to 1.
- 2002 - Alfred Moisiu becomes President of Albania.
- 2005 - Lance Armstrong wins his seventh Tour de France.

Births

- 1660 - Charles Talbot, 1st Duke of Shrewsbury, English politician (d. 1718)
- 1725 - John Newton English cleric and hymnist (d. 1807)
- 1783 - Simón Bolívar, South American liberator (d. 1830)
- 1786 - Joseph Nicollet, French mathematician and explorer (d. 1843)
- 1802 - Alexandre Dumas père, French writer (d. 1870)
- 1803 - Adolphe Charles Adam, French composer (d. 1856)
- 1853 - William Gillette, American actor and author (d. 1937)
- 1857 - Henrik Pontoppidan, Danish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1943)
- 1860 - Alfons Mucha, Czech artist (d. 1939)
- 1864 - Frank Wedekind, German writer (d. 1918)
- 1874 - Oswald Chambers, Christian writer (d. 1917)
- 1878 - Lord Dunsany, Irish writer (d. 1957)
- 1880 - Ernest Bloch, Swiss composer (d. 1959)
- 1895 - Robert Graves, English author (d. 1985)
- 1898 - Amelia Earhart, American aviator (disappeared 1937)
- 1899 - Chief Dan George, Meti actor (d. 1981)
- 1908 - Cootie Williams, American trumpeter (d. 1985)
- 1916 - John D. MacDonald, American novelist, (d. 1986)
- 1917 - Robert Farnon, Canadian-born conductor, composer, and arranger (d. 2005)
- 1918 - Ruggiero Ricci, American violinist
- 1920 - Bella Abzug, U.S. Congresswoman (d. 1998)
- 1929 - Oriana Fallaci, Italian journalist and author
- 1931 - Ermanno Olmi, Italian director
- 1933 - Doug Sanders, American golfer
- 1935 - Pat Oliphant, Australian political cartoonist
- 1936 - Ruth Buzzi, American actress and comedienne
- 1940 - Stanley Hauerwas, American theologian
- 1942 - Chris Sarandon, American actor
- 1945 - Azim Premji, Indian businessman
- 1947 - Robert Hays, American actor
- 1947 - Peter Serkin, American pianist
- 1949 - Michael Richards, American comedian
- 1951 - Lynda Carter, American actress
- 1951 - Chris Smith, British politician
- 1952 - Gus Van Sant, American film director
- 1957 - Pam Tillis, American singer
- 1963 - Karl Malone, American basketball player
- 1964 - Barry Bonds, baseball player
- 1965 - Kadeem Hardison, American actor
- 1968 - Kristin Chenoweth, American singer and actress
- 1968 - Laura Leighton, American actress
- 1969 - Rick Fox, Canadian basketball player
- 1969 - Jennifer Lopez, American actress and singer
- 1980 - Gauge, American actress
- 1981 - Summer Glau, American actress
- 1982 - Anna Paquin, Canadian-born actress
- 1985 - Teagan Presley, American actress

Deaths

- 1115 - Matilda, Countess of Tuscany (b. 1046)
- 1129 - Shirakawa, Emperor of Japan (b. 1053)
- 1394 - Alexander Stewart, 1st Earl of Buchan, Scottish prince (b. 1343)
- 1568 - Prince Don Carlos of Spain (b. 1545)
- 1739 - Benedetto Marcello, Italian composer (b. 1686)
- 1768 - Nathanial Lardner, English theologian (b. 1684)
- 1862 - Martin Van Buren, eighth President of the United States (b. 1782)
- 1927 - Ryunosuke Akutagawa, Japanese writer (b. 1892)
- 1965 - Constance Bennett, American actress (b. 1904)
- 1969 - Witold Gombrowicz, Polish novelist and dramatist (b. 1904)
- 1970 - Peter de Noronha, Indian buisnessman (b. 1897)
- 1974 - James Chadwick, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1891)
- 1980 - Peter Sellers, British comedian and actor (b. 1925)
- 1986 - Fritz Albert Lipmann, American biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1899)
- 1991 - Isaac Bashevis Singer, Polish-born Yiddish author, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1995 - George Rodger, British photojournalist (b. 1908)
- 1996 - Mohammed Farah Aidid, Somali warlord (b. 1934)
- 1997 - William J. Brennan, U.S. Supreme Court Justice (b. 1906)
- 2005 - Richard Doll, English epidemiologist (b. 1912)

Holidays and observances

- Ecuador - Simón Bolívar Day
- Utah - Pioneer Day (1847)
- Vanuatu - Children's Day
- Venezuela - Birth of the Libertador (Simón Bolívar Day)
- Ancient Latvia - Jekaupa Diena held

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/24 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.tnl.net/when/7/24 This Day in History] ---- July 23 - July 25 - June 24 - August 24 -- listing of all days ko:7월 24일 ms:24 Julai ja:7月24日 simple:July 24 th:24 กรกฎาคม

July 24

July 24 is the 205th day (206th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 160 days remaining.

Events

Births

Deaths

Holidays and observances

- Ecuador - Simón Bolívar Day
- Utah - Pioneer Day (1847)
- Vanuatu - Children's Day
- Venezuela - Birth of the Libertador (Simón Bolívar Day)
- Ancient Latvia - Jekaupa Diena held

External links

Constantine I (emperor)

Gaius Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (Latin: IMP CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS PIVS FELIX INVICTVS AVGVSTVS ¹) (February 27, 272–May 22, 337), commonly known as Constantine I or Constantine the Great, was proclaimed Augustus by his troops on July 25,306 and ruled an ever-growing portion of the Roman Empire until his death. Constantine is famed for his refounding of Byzantium (modern Istanbul) as "Nova Roma" (New Rome) or Constantinople (Constantine's City). Constantine is best remembered in modern times for the Edict of Milan in 313 and the Council of Nicaea in 325, which fully legalized and then legitimized Christianity in the Empire for the first time. These actions are considered major factors in that religion's spread, and his reputation as the "first Christian Emperor" has been promulgated by historians from Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea to the present day.

Early life

Eusebius of Caesarea]] Constantine was born at Naissus,(today's Niš, Serbia, Serbia and Montenegro) in Upper Moesia, to Greek general Constantius I Chlorus, and his first wife Helena, an innkeeper's daughter who at the time was an adolescent of only sixteen years. His father left his mother around 292 to marry Flavia Maximiana Theodora, daughter or step-daughter of the Western Roman Emperor Maximian. Theodora would give birth to six half-siblings of Constantine, including Julius Constantius. Young Constantine served at the court of Diocletian in Nicomedia, after the appointment of his father as one of the two caesares(junior emperors) of the Tetrarchy in 293. In 305, the Augustus, Maximian, abdicated, and Constantius succeeded to the position. However, Constantius fell sick during an expedition against the Picts and Scots of Caledonia, and died on July 25, 306. Constantine managed to be at his deathbed in Eboracum (York) of Roman Britain, where the loyal general Chrocus, of Alamannic descent, and the troops loyal to his father's memory proclaimed him an Augustus ("Emperor"). For the next eighteen years, he fought a series of battles and wars of consolidation that first obtained him co-rule with the Eastern Roman Emperor, and then finally leadership of a reunified Roman Empire.

Constantine and Christianity

Constantine is perhaps best known for being the first Roman Emperor to freely allow Christianity. Christian historians ever since Lactantius have adhered to the view that Constantine "adopted" Christianity as a kind of replacement for the official Roman paganism. Despite the questions surrounding Constantine's Christianity, he is celebrated as a major Saint of Eastern Orthodoxy. Though he was not baptized until he was on his deathbed, his conversion, according to official Christian sources, was the immediate result of an omen before his victory in the Battle of Milvian Bridge, October 28, 312. Upon seeing this vision, Constantine is said to have instituted a new standard to be carried into battle called the labarum. Constantine and Licinius' Edict of Milan (313) removed penalties for professing Christianity, under which many were martyred in previous persecutions of Christians, and returned confiscated Church property. After the Edict, new avenues were opened to Christians, including the right to compete with pagan Romans in the traditional cursus honorum for high government positions, and greater acceptance into general civil society. New churches were allowed to be constructed and Christian leadership became increasingly bold — Christian bishops took aggressive public stances that were unheard of among other religions. As a result, Church controversies, which had been lively within the Christian communities since the mid-2nd century, now flared in public schisms, often with violence. Constantine saw quelling religious disorder as the divinely-appointed emperor's duty and eventually called the First Council of Nicaea (May 20 - July 25, 325) to settle some of the doctrinal problems plaguing the early church, notably Arianism.

Persian Reaction

Beyond the limites, east of the Euphrates, the Sassanid rulers of the Persian Empire had usually tolerated their Christians. With the edicts of toleration in the Roman Empire, Christians in Persia would now be regarded as allies of Persia's ancient enemy, and were thus persecuted. A letter supposedly from Constantine to Shapur II of Persia and alleged to have been written in c. 324 urged Shapur to protect the Christians in his realm. Shapur II wrote to his generals: :You will arrest Simon, chief of the Christians. You will keep him until he he turns to girl and signs this document and consents to collect for us a double tax and double tribute from the Christians … for we Gods have all the trials of war and they have nothing but repose and pleasure. They inhabit our territory and agree with Caesar, our enemy. (quoted in Freya Stark, Rome on the Euphrates 1967, p. 375)

Constantine's Life and Actions after The Edict of Milan

Coins struck for emperors often reveal details of their personal iconography. During the early part of Constantine's rule, representations first of Mars and then (from 310) of Apollo as Sun god consistently appear on the reverse of the coinage. Mars had been associated with the Tetrarchy, and Constantine's use of this symbolism served to emphasize the legitimacy of his rule. After his breach with his father's old colleague Maximian in 309–310, Constantine began to claim legitimate descent from the 3rd century emperor Marcus Aurelius Claudius Gothicus, the hero of the Battle of Naissus (September, 268). The Augustan History of the 4th century reports Constantine's paternal grandmother Claudia to be a daughter of Crispus, Crispus being a reported brother of both Claudius II and Quintillus. Historians however suspect this account to be a genealogical fabrication to flatter Constantine. fabrication fabrication with the chi-rho.]] Gothicus had claimed the divine protection of Apollo-Sol Invictus. In mid-310, two years before the victory at the Milvian Bridge, Constantine reportedly experienced the publicly announced vision in which Apollo-Sol Invictus appeared to him with omens of success. Thereafter the reverses of his coinage were dominated for several years by his "companion, the unconquered Sol" — the inscriptions read SOLI INVICTO COMITI. The depiction represents Apollo with a solar halo, Helios-like, and the globe in his hands. In the 320s Constantine has a halo of his own. There are also coins depicting Apollo driving the chariot of the Sun on a shield Constantine is holding and another in 312 shows the Christian chi-rho on a helmet Constantine is wearing. Constantine was also known for being ruthless with his political enemies, deposing the Eastern Roman Emperor Licinius, his brother-in-law, by strangulation in 325 even though he had publicly promised not to execute him upon Licinius' surrender in 324. In 326, Constantine executed first his eldest son Crispus and a few months later his own second wife Fausta. (Crispus was the only known son of Constantine by his first wife Minervina). There are rumours of step-mother and step-son having had an affair which caused Constantine's jealousy. The rumours were reported however by 5th century historian Zosimus and 12th century historian Joannes Zonaras. Their sources are not stated. Family influence is thought to account for a personal adoption of Christianity: Helena is said to be "probably born a Christian" though virtually nothing is known of her background, save that her mother was the daughter of an innkeeper and her father a successful soldier, a career that excluded overt Christians. Helena became known later in life for numerous pilgrimages. Constantine, following a widespread custom, was not baptized until close to his death in 337, when his choice fell upon the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, who happened, despite his being an ally of Arius, to still be the bishop of the region. Also, Eusebius was a close friend of Constantine's sister; she probably secured his recall from exile. Arius The great staring eyes in the iconography of Constantine, though not specifically Christian, show how official images were moving away from early imperial conventions of realistic portrayal towards schematic representations: the Emperor as Emperor, not merely as this particular individual Constantine, with his characteristic broad jaw and cleft chin. The large staring eyes will loom larger as the 4th century progresses: compare the early 5th century silver coinage of Theodosius I.

Later Life

His victory in 312 over Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge resulted in his becoming Western Augustus, or ruler of the entire Western Roman Empire. He gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In the year 320, Licinius, emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan in 313 and began another persecution of the Christians. This was a puzzling inconsistency since Constantia, half-sister of Constantine and wife of Licinius, was an influential Christian. It became a challenge to Constantine in the west, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. The armies were so large another like these would not be seen again until at least the 14th century. Licinius, aided by Goth mercenaries, represented the past and the ancient faith of Paganism. Constantine and his Franks marched under the Christian standard of the labarum, and both sides saw the battle in religious terms. Supposedly outnumbered, but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious. He was the sole emperor of the entire Roman Empire. (MacMullen 1969) Roman Empire, c. 1000)]] This battle represented the passing of old Rome, and the beginnings of the Eastern Empire as a center of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation. Constantine rebuilt the city of Byzantium which was said to have been founded by colonists from the Greek city of Megara under Byzas in 667 BC. He renamed the city Nova Roma (New Rome), providing it with a Senate and civic offices similar to the older Rome, and the new city was protected by the alleged True Cross, the Rod of Moses and other holy relics. The figures of old gods were replaced and often assimilated into Christian symbolism. On the site of a temple to Aphrodite was built the new Basilica of the Apostles. Generations later there was the story that a Divine vision lead Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see, led him on a circuit of the new walls. After his death it was renamed Constantinopolis (or Constantinople, "Constantine's City"), and gradually became the capital of the empire. (MacMullen 1969) Constantine also passed laws making the occupations of butcher and baker hereditary, and more importantly, supported converting the coloni (tenant farmers) into serfs — laying the foundation for European society during the Middle Ages. In his later life he even turned to preaching, giving his own sermons in the palace before his court and invited crowds. His sermons preached harmony at first, but gradually turned more confrontational with the old pagan ways. The reason for this later "change of heart" remains conjectural. However, pagans still received appointments, even up to the end of his life. Exerting his absolute power, the army recited his composed Latin prayer in an attempt to convert them to Christianity, which failed. He began a large building program of churches in the Holy Land, which while greatly expanding the faith also allowed considerable increase in the power and wealth of the clergy.

Constantine's Legal Standards

Constantine's laws in many ways improved those of his predecessors, though they also reflect his more violent age. Some examples:
- For the first time, girls could not be abducted.
- A punishment of death was mandated to anyone collecting taxes over the authorized amount.
- A prisoner was no longer to be kept in total darkness, but must be given the outdoors and daylight.
- A condemned man was allowed to die in the arena, but he could not be branded on his "heavenly beautified" face, just on the feet.
- Parents caught allowing their daughters to be seduced were to have molten lead poured down their throats.
- Gladiatorial games were ordered to be eliminated in 325, although this had little real effect.
- A slave master's rights were limited, but a slave could still be beaten to death.
- Crucifixion was abolished for reasons of Christian piety, but was replaced with hanging, to show there was Roman law and justice.
- Easter could be publicly celebrated.
- Sunday was declared a day of rest, on which markets were banned and public offices were closed (except for the purpose of freeing slaves). There were however no restrictions on farming work. (MacMullen 1969, New Catholic Encyclopedia 1908)

Constantine's Courts and Appointees

Constantine respected cultivation and Christianity, and his court was composed of older, respected, and honored men. Leading Roman families that refused Christianity were denied positions of power, yet two-thirds of his top government was non-Christian. (MacMullen 1969,1984, New Catholic Encyclopedia 1908) "From Pagan temples Constantine had his statue removed. The repair of Pagan temples that had decayed was forbidden. These funds were given to the favored Christian clergy. Offensive forms of worship, either Christian or Pagan, were suppressed. At the dedication of Constantinople in 330 a ceremony half Pagan and half Christian was performed, in the market place, the Cross of Christ was placed over the head of the Sun-God's chariot. There was a singing of hymns." (New Catholic Encyclopedia 1908)

Constantine's Legacy

Although he earned his honorific of "The Great" from Christian historians long after he had died, he could have claimed the title on his military achievements alone. In addition to reuniting the empire under one emperor, Constantine won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni (306–308), the Franks again (313–314), the Visigoths in 332 and the Sarmatians in 334. In fact, by 336, Constantine had actually reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia, which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to put an end to raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire. He was succeeded by his three sons by Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans, who secured their hold on the empire with the murder of a number of relatives and supporters of Constantine. The last member of his dynasty was his nephew and son-in-law, Julian, who attempted to restore paganism.

Legend and Donation of Constantine

In later years, historical facts were clouded by legend. It was considered inappropriate that Constantine was baptized only on his death-bed and by a bishop of questionable orthodoxy, and hence a legend emerged that Pope Silvester I (314-335) had cured the pagan Emperor from leprosy. According to this legend, Constantine was baptized after that and donated buildings to the Pope. In the 8th century, a document called the "Donation of Constantine" first appeared, in which the freshly converted Constantine hands the temporal rule over Rome, Italy and the Occident to the Pope. In the High Middle Ages, this document was used to and accepted as the basis for the the Pope's temporal powers, though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto III and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by the poet Dante Alighieri. In the 15th century renewed philological expertise proved the document a forgery.

Constantine in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia

Because of his fame and his being proclaimed Emperor in Britain, Constantine was later also considered a British King. In the 11th century, the English chronicler Geoffrey of Monmouth published a work called Historia Regum Britanniae, in which he narrates the supposed history of the Britons and their kings from the Trojan War to King Arthur and the Anglo-Saxon conquest. In this work, Geoffrey claimed that Constantine's mother Helena was actually the daughter of "King Cole", the mythical King of the Britons and eponymous founder of Colchester. A daughter for King Cole had not previously figured in the lore, at least not as it has survived in writing, and this pedigree is likely to reflect Geoffrey's desire to create a continuous line of regal descent. It was indecorous, Geoffrey considered, that a king might have less-than-noble ancestors. Monmouth also said that Constantine was proclaimed "King of the Britons" at York, rather than Roman Emperor.

Notes

1- In the English language, Constantine's official Imperial title is Imperator Caesar Flavius Constantine Augustus, the pious, the fortunate, the undefeated. After 312, he added maximus ("the greatest"), and after 325 replaced invictus ("undefeated") with victor, as invictus reminded of Sol Invictus, the Sun God.

External links

- [http://www.roman-emperors.org/conniei.htm RomanEmperors.org Vita of Constantine]; with bibliography
- Diocletian: Edicts against the Christians [http://www.tacentral.com/echmiadzin/Diocletian.htm]
- [http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/Valley/8920/European/edictofmilan.htm The Edict of Milan AD 313]
- [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf202.ii.iv.vii.html Constantine's open letter] Letter to Alexander and Arius
- [http://odur.let.rug.nl/~drijvers/ammianus/ Ammianus Marcellinus on-line project]

References and Further reading

- Ancient History
- Chuvin, Pierre, 1990, B. A. Archer, translator, A Chronicle of the Last Pagans (Harvard) ISBN 0-674-12970-9
- Dodds, E. R., 1964 The Greeks and the Irrational (University of California)
- Dodds, E. R., 1965. Pagan and Christian in an Age of Anxiety: Some Aspects of the Religious Experience from Marcus Aurelius to Constantine (Cambridge)
- Jones, A.H.M., 1949. Constantine and the Conversion of Europe (Macmillan) The Association of Ancient Historians has honored Ramsay MacMullen as being the finest ancient historian of the Roman Empire in our time. Some may find him difficult, he speaks the language of the professional scholar, but reading his works is certainly worth the time and effort.
- MacMullen, Ramsay, 1969. Constantine, (Dial Press)
- MacMullen, Ramsay, 1984, Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100-400, (Yale)
- MacMullen, Ramsay, 1990. Changes in the Roman Empire: Essays in the Ordinary (Princeton)
- MacMullen, Ramsay, 1966. Enemies of the Roman Order: Treason, Unrest, and Alienation (Harvard)
- Wilken, Robert L., 1984 Christians As the Romans Saw Them (Yale)
- Eusebius of Caesarea, The Life of the blessed Emperor Constantine in 4 books from AD 306 to 337.
- [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org Encyclopaedia Britannica 1911:] Constantine
- Lactantius , (AD 240-320) Of the Manner the in Which the Persecutors Died,
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04295c.htm "Constantine the Great"], by Charles G. Herbermann and Georg Grupp. The Catholic Encyclopedia (1908)
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05121a.htm "Donatists"], by John Chapman. The Catholic Encyclopedia (1909)
- Sources on the Antonine Plague
- Galen, On the Natural Faculties
- Marcus Cornelius Fronto, Letters of Marcus Cornelius Fronto
- Vlassis R. Rassias,"Es Edafos Ferein", 2nd edition, Athens, 2000, ISBN 960-7748-20-4 Category:272 births Category:337 deaths Category:Roman emperors Category:Late Antiquity Category:Romans in Britain Category:Ancient Roman Christianity Category:Constantine Dynasty Category:British traditional history ko:콘스탄틴 1세 ja:コンスタンティヌス1世

1216

Events

- Prince Louis of France, the future King Louis VIII, invades England in the First Barons' War
- Henry III becomes King of England.
- Dresden, Germany becomes a city
- ascension of Pope Honorius III;in the same year he officially approved the Order of Preachers (the Dominican Order)
- Ballintubber Abbey is founded by King Cathal Crovdearg O'Connor of Connaught in Ireland.

Births

- Robert I of Artois
- Eric IV of Denmark (died 1250)
- Zahed Gilani, Grand master of the Zahediyeh Sufi Order (died 1301)

Deaths

- June 11 - Henry of Flanders, emperor of the Latin Empire (poisoned) (born c. 1174)
- June 16 - Pope Innocent III
- October 18 - John of England (born 1166)
- Ida, Countess of Boulogne
- Eric X of Sweden (born 1180)
- Kamo no Chomei, Japanese author (born 1155)

Heads of state

- England — John, King of England (reigned from 1199 to 1216)
- France — Philippe II, Auguste King of France (reigned from 1180 to 1223)
- Mongolia — Genghis Khan
- Scotland — Alexander II King of Scotland (reigned from 1214 to 1249) Category:1216 ko:1216년

Pope Honorius III

Honorius III, né Cencio Savelli (Rome, 1148 – Rome, March 18, 1227), was pope from 1216 to 1227. His family was named after the fortress of Sabellum, near Albano.

Early Work

For a time he was canon at the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, then he became papal chamberlain in 1188 and Cardinal Deacon of Santa Lucia in Selci in 1193. Under Pope Clement III and Pope Celestine III he was treasurer of the Roman Church. Celestine III made him a cardinal deacon before March 5, 1193. In 1197 he became tutor of the future Emperor Frederick II, who had been given as ward to Pope Innocent III by the Empress-widow Constantia. Innocent III raised him to the rank of a Cardinal Priest before March 13, 1198, obtaining the Titulus Ss. Ioannis et Pauli.

Elected Pope

On July 18, 1216, nineteen cardinals assembled at Perugia (where Innocent had died two days previously) with the purpose of electing a new pope. The troubled state of affairs in Italy, the threatening attitude of the Tatars, and the fear of a schism induced the cardinals to agree to an election by compromise. Cardinals Ugolino of Ostia (afterwards Gregory IX) and Guido of Praeneste were empowered to appoint the new pope. Their choice fell upon Cencio Savelli, who accepted the tiara with reluctance and took the name of Honorius III. He was consecrated at Perugia, 24 July, was crowned at Rome 31 August, and took possession of the Lateran 3 September. The Roman people were greatly elated at the election, for Honorius III was himself a Roman and by his extreme kindness had endeared himself to the hearts of all. Like his famous predecessor Innocent III, he set his mind on the achievement of two great things, the recovery of the Holy Land in the Fifth Crusade and a spiritual reform of the entire Church; but quite in contrast with Innocent he sought these achievements by kindness and indulgence rather than by force and severity.

Fifth Crusade

The crusade was endorsed by the Lateran Council of 1215, and he started preparations for the crusade to begin in 1217. To procure the means necessary for this colossal undertaking, the pope and the cardinals were to contribute the tenth part, and all other ecclesiastics the twentieth part, of their income for three years. Though the money thus collected was considerable, it was by no means sufficient for a general crusade as planned by Honorius. Far-reaching prospects seemed to open before him when he crowned Pierre de Courtenay (Apr., 1217) as Latin Emperor of Constantinople; but the new emperor was captured on his eastward journey and died in confinement. ConstantinopleHonorius was aware that there was only one man in Europe who could bring about the recovery of the Holy Land, and that man was his former pupil Frederick II of Germany. Like many other rulers, Frederick II had taken an oath to embark for the Holy Land in 1217. But Frederick hung back, and Honorius repeatedly put off the date for the beginning of the expedition. In April 1220, Frederick was elected emperor, and on November 22, 1220 he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in Rome. In spite of the insistence of Honorius, Frederick still delayed, and the Egyptian campaign failed miserably with the loss of Damietta (September 8, 1221). Most rulers of Europe were engaged in wars of their own and could not leave their countries for any length of time. Andrew II of Hungary and, somewhat later, a fleet of crusaders from the region along the Lower Rhine finally departed for the Holy Land, took Damietta and a few other places in Egypt; but lack of unity among the Christians, also rivalry between the leaders and the papal legate Pelagius, resulted in failure. June 24, 1225, was finally fixed as the date for the departure of Frederick; and Honorius brought about his marriage with Isabella, heiress of the kingdom of Jerusalem, with a view to binding him closer to the plan. But the Treaty of San Germano in July 1225 permitted a further delay of two years. Frederick now made serious preparations for the crusade. In the midst of it, however, Honorius died on March 18, 1227 without seeing the achievement of his hopes. It was left to his successor Gregory IX to insist upon their accomplishment. But Honorius really had too large a task; besides the liberation of the Holy Land, he felt bound to forward the repression of heresy in the south of France, the war for the faith in the Spanish peninsula, the planting of Christianity in the lands along the Baltic Sea, and the maintenance of the impossible Latin empire in Constantinople. Of these duties the rooting out of heresy lay nearest to Honorius's heart. In the south of France he carried on Innocent's work, confirming Simon de Montfort in the possession of the lands of Raymond of Toulouse and succeeding, as Innocent had not, in drawing the royal house of France into the conflict. The most widely important event of this period was the siege and capture of Avignon. Both Honorius and Louis VIII turned a deaf ear to Frederick's assertion of the claims of the empire to that town.

Other Work

Honorius gave papal sanction to the Dominican order in 1216, and to the Franciscan in 1223. He approved the Rule of St. Dominic in his Bull Religiosam vitam, dated December 22, 1216, and that of St. Francis in his Bull Solet annuere, dated November 29, 1223. During his pontificate also many of the tertiary orders first came into existence. On January 30, 1226, he approved the Carmelite Order in his Bull Ut vivendi normam. He also approved the religious congregation "Val des Ecoliers" (Vallis scholarium, Valley of scholars), which had been founded by four pious professors of theology at the University of Paris. Being a man of learning, Honorius insisted that the clergy should receive a thorough training, especially in theology. In the case of a certain Hugh whom the chapter of Chartres had elected bishop, he withheld his approbation because the bishop-elect did not possess sufficient knowledge, quum pateretur in litteratura defectum, as the pope states in a letter dated January 8, 1219. Another bishop he even deprived of his office on account of illiteracy. He bestowed various privileges upon the universities of Paris and Bologna, the two greatest seats of learning during those times. In order to facilitate the study of theology in dioceses that were distant from the great centres of learning, he ordered in his Bull Super specula Domini that some talented young men should be sent to a recognized theological school to study theology with the purpose of teaching it afterwards in their own dioceses.

Writings

Honorius III acquired some fame as an author. The most important of his writings is the Liber censuum Romanae ecclesiae, which is the most valuable source for the medieval position of the Church in regard to property, and also serves in part as a continuation of the Liber Pontificalis. It comprises a list of the revenues of the Apostolic See, a record of donations received, privileges granted, and contracts made with cities and rulers. It was begun under Clement III and completed in 1192 under Celestine III. The original manuscript of the Liber Censuum is still in existence (Vaticanus latinus 8486). Honorius III wrote also a life of Celestine III; a life of Gregory VII; an "Ordo Romanus", which is a sort of ceremonial containing the rites of the Church for various occasions; and thirty-four sermons. Initial text taken from a paper copy of the 9th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica; 1881. Please update as needed.
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1411

Events

- February 11 : Peace of Toruń 1411 signed in Toruń, Poland

Births

- September 21 - Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, claimant to the English throne (died 1460)
- Juan de Mena, Spanish poet (died 1456)

Deaths

- June 3 - Duke Leopold IV of Austria (born 1371)
- November 4 - Khalil Sultan, ruler of Transoxiana (born 1384)
- Hasdai Crescas, Jewish philosopher
- Anne de Mortimer, English politician (born 1390) Category:1411 ko:1411년

1487

Events

- Richard Fox becomes Bishop of Exeter.
- May 24 - Lambert Simnel is crowned King "Henry VI of England" in Christchurch Cathedral, Dublin, Ireland. He claims to be Edward, Earl of Warwick and rivals Henry VII for the throne of England.
- June 16 - Battle of Stoke Field. The rebellion of Lambert Simnel, who pretended to be Edward, Earl of Warwick, son of the Duke of Clarence, is crushed by troops loyal to Henry VII
- Publication of the witch-hunter manual Malleus Maleficarum.
- Hongzhi becomes emperor of China (Ming dynasty).
- Aztec emperor Auitzotl dedicates Great Temple Pyramid of Tenochtitlán with thousands of human sacrifices.
- Diaz reaches the Cape of Good Hope.
- Spanish take Málaga.
- Italian architects begin to build the Kremlin in Moscow.

Births

- February 8 - Ulrich, Duke of Württemberg (died 1550)
- July 17 - Ismail I, Shah of Persia (d. 1524)
- September 10 - Pope Julius III (died 1555)
- November 3 - Melin de Saint-Gelais, French poet (died 1558)
- Andrea del Sarto, Italian painter (died 1531)
- Magdalena de la Cruz, Franciscan nun of Cordova (died 1560)
- Fray Tomás de Berlanga, Bishop of Panama (died 1551)
- Piotr Gamrat, Polish Catholic archbishop (died 1545)
- Stanisław Kostka, Polish noble (died 1555)
- Pedro de Mendoza, Spanish conquistador (died 1537)
- Michael Stifel, German mathematician (died 1567)
- Giovanni da Udine, Italian painter (died 1564)
- Peter Vischer the Younger, German sculptor (died 1528)
- William the Rich, count of Nassau-Dillenburg (died 1559)

Deaths

- March 21 - Nicholas of Flue, Swiss hermit and saint (born 1417)
- September 9 - Chenghua Emperor of China (born 1447)
- September 30 - John Sutton, 1st Baron Dudley, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (born 1400)
- William FitzAlan, 16th Earl of Arundel (born 1417)
- Charlotte of Cyprus, daughter of John II of Cyprus (born 1436)
- John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln
- Tlacaelel, high priest of Tenochtitlán (born 1397) Category:1487 ko:1487년

Leeuwarden

Leeuwarden (Frisian: Ljouwert) is a municipality and the capital city of the Dutch province of Friesland. It is situated in the north of the country.

Population centres

Goutum, Hempens, Leeuwarden, Lekkum, Miedum, Snakkerburen, Swichum, Teerns, Wirdum and Wytgaard.

The city of Leeuwarden

History

Wytgaard, 1945]] The city acquired city rights in 1435, but the area has been populated since the 10th century. Situated along the Middelzee it was an important trade centre, but it lost importance after the waterway fell dry in the 13th century. However, Leeuwarden remained one of the most important cities in the country until the mid-17th century. In 1901 the city had a population of 32,203. At present, the city still has a strong regional influence. Famous natives of Leeuwarden include stadtholder William IV of Orange, graphical artist M. C. Escher and exotic dancer and convicted spy Mata Hari.

Government

Leeuwarden, as capital of the province of Friesland, is home to the seat of the provincial authorities. Although the politics in the provincial authority were dominated for decades by the christian democratic CDA party, Leeuwarden itself during that time always had a socialist rule by the PvdA in the municipal council. That dominance has been steadily eroded during the 1980's and 1990's. Currently the PvdA holds 10 seats in the 37 seat municipal council. Closely followed by the CDA (7), the conservative liberal VVD (5), the progressive PAL Groenlinks (4), the Leeuwarder Lokale Partij (3), the socialist SP (3), the progressive liberal D66 (2), the confessional Christenunie (1), Leefbaar Leeuwarden (1) and the moderate Frisian nationalistic party FNP (1). The municipal government is a coalition of PvdA, CDA, VVD and PAL Groenlinks.

Sights

Well-known buildings in the city centre include the Kanselarij (the former chancellary), the Waag (old trade centre of the city), and the leaning tower Oldehove. Leeuwarden is also the site of the country's largest cattle market, and on Ascension Day, the largest flower market of the Netherlands is held here.

Education

Leeuwarden has a number of professional universities (HBO in Dutch), such as the Van Hall Instituut (agricultural and lifesciences), the Christelijke Hogeschool Nederland (economical and educational studies) and the Noordelijke Hogeschool Leeuwarden (any mainstream study). Although the city has no university, several dependencies are located here, including the Universiteit Twente and the Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. About 16.000 students, among them an increasing number of foreign students, study at the professional universities. Leeuwarden is planning to concentrate the professional universities in a knowledge campus (kenniscampus), just outside the historic city. Besides higher education the city is also home to two regional vocational schools (MBO): the [http://www.friesepoort.nl/ Friese Poort] and [http://www.fcroc.nl/ Friesland College].

Sports

Leeuwarden is the start and finish location of the famous Elfstedentocht, a 200 km long speed skating race, which is held whenever it gets cold enough for the canals to freeze over. The last time this happened was January 1997, before that it was organised in 1985 and 1986. Being a rare occurrence, it is a major event celebrated by the entire country when conditions allow it to be held. The city's local football club, Cambuur plays in the 1st Division of the professional Dutch soccer league. Its home matches are played in Cambuurstadion, which was openend in 1995.

Famous people from Leeuwarden

- Maurits Cornelis Escher
- Mata Hari
- Willem van Haren
- Johannes Henricus Gerardus Jansen
- Piet Paaltjens
- Pieter Jelles Troelstra

Transport

Train routes with starting number of the train number series:
- 500 IC Den Haag Centraal / Rotterdam Centraal - Groningen / Leeuwarden
- 700 IC Schiphol / Amsterdam Centraal - Groningen / Leeuwarden
- 30000 R Leeuwarden - Stavoren
- 30100 R Leeuwarden - Harlingen Haven
- 30200 R/D Groningen - Leeuwarden

External link

- [http://www.leeuwarden.nl/ Official Website] Category:Friesland Category:Cities in the Netherlands

Netherlands

The Netherlands (Dutch: Nederland; IPA pronunciation: /"ne:dərlant/) is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands that is formed by the Netherlands, the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba. (Dutch: Koninkrijk der Nederlanden). The Netherlands is a parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarch, located in northwestern Europe. It borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east. In many countries, the Netherlands is often referred to by the name Holland, and even within the Netherlands itself this name is occasionally used as an acceptable translation of the country's name. However widespread, this usage is technically incorrect, as "Holland" is actually a region in the central-western part of the Netherlands, divided into two provinces. Also, the English plural form 'the Netherlands' is a remnant from times when the country was not yet independent and united. See below under 'naming conventions'. The Netherlands is one of the most densely populated and geographically low-lying countries in the world (its name literally means "low country") and is famous for its dikes, windmills, wooden shoes, tulips, bicycles and social tolerance. Its liberal policies (towards drugs and prostitution among other things) receive international attention. The country is host to the International Court of Justice. The English adjective and noun for "of or relating to the Netherlands" is "Dutch," which is also the name of the Dutch language. In the Netherlands, "Netherlands" is sometimes used as an adjective. The origin of this local usage may be that the Dutch word for "Dutch" is Nederlands and to avoid confusion with the words "Duits" (in Dutch) and "Deutsch" (in German) that refer to the country Germany and its language.

Capital

Amsterdam is the hoofdstad ("capital city"), where according to the constitution, the sovereign must be sworn in. The Hague is the Netherlands regeringszetel or residentie (seat of government, residence of the monarch). It is the seat of government, the home of the monarch, and the location of most foreign embassies.

History

:For more details on this topic, see History of the Netherlands and Dutch monarchy. Under Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and king of Spain, the region was part of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands, which also includes most of present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and some land of France and Germany. In 1568 the Eighty Years' War started after the entire population had been condemned to death by the Holy See and confirmed by the king, and in 1579, the northern half of the Seventeen Provinces declared itself independent and formed the Union of Utrecht, which is seen as the foundation of the modern Netherlands. Philip II, the son of Charles V, was not prepared to l

July 24

Events

Births

Deaths

Holidays and observances

External links

July 24

Events

Births

Deaths

Holidays and observances

External links

Constantine I (emperor)

Early life

Constantine and Christianity

Persian Reaction

Constantine's Life and Actions after The Edict of Milan

Later Life

Constantine's Legal Standards

Constantine's Courts and Appointees

Constantine's Legacy

Legend and Donation of Constantine

Constantine in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia

Notes

See also

External links

References and Further reading

1216

Events

Births

Deaths

Heads of state

Pope Honorius III

Early Work

Elected Pope

Fifth Crusade

Other Work

Writings

1411

Events

Births

Deaths

1487

Events

Births

Deaths

Leeuwarden

Population centres

The city of Leeuwarden

History

Government

Sights

Education

Sports

Famous people from Leeuwarden

Transport

External link

Netherlands

Capital

History