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July 7

July 7

July 7 is the 188th day of the year (189th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 177 days remaining.

Events

- 1456 - Joan of Arc is acquitted of heresy (having been executed in 1431).
- 1534 - European colonization of the Americas: First known exchange between Europeans and natives of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, in New Brunswick.
- 1543 - French troops invade Luxembourg.
- 1798 - Quasi-War: The U.S. Congress rescinds treaties with France sparking the 'war.'
- 1799 - Ranjit Singh's men take up their positions outside Lahore.
- 1807 - Napoleonic Wars: Peace of Tilsit between France, Prussia and Russia ends the Fourth Coalition.
- 1846 - Mexican War: American troops occupy Monterey and Yerba Buena, thus beginning the United States annexation of California.
- 1863 - United States begins first military draft; exemptions cost $100
- 1865 - American Civil War: Four conspirators in the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln are hanged.
- 1898 - History of United States imperialism: President of the United States William McKinley signs the Newlands Resolution annexing Hawaii as a territory of the United States.
- 1917 - Russian Revolution: Prince Georgy Yevgenyevich Lvov forms Provisional Government in Russia after the deposing of the tsar.
- 1930 - Industrialist Henry J. Kaiser begins construction of the Boulder Dam (now known as Hoover Dam).
- 1937 - Sino-Japanese War: Battle of Lugou Bridge - Japanese forces invade Beijing, China.
- 1941 - World War II: American forces land in Iceland to forestall an invasion by Germany.
- 1946 - Mother Frances Xavier Cabrini becomes the first American to be canonized.
- 1947 - Downed UFO believed to be found in the Roswell UFO incident.
- 1954 - In Memphis, Tennessee, WHBQ becomes the first radio station to air an Elvis Presley record.
- 1958 - President Dwight D. Eisenhower signs the Alaska Statehood Act into United States law.
- 1959 - 14:28 UT Venus occults the star Regulus. This rare event was used to determine the diameter of Venus and the structure of the Venusian atmosphere.
- 1969 - In Canada, the Official Languages Act is adopted making the French language equal to the English language throughout the Federal government.
- 1978 - The Solomon Islands become independent from the United Kingdom.
- 1983 - Cold War: Samantha Smith, a U.S. schoolgirl, flies to the Soviet Union at the invitation of Premier Yuri Andropov
- 1991 - Yugoslav Wars: Brioni Agreement ended ten-day independence war in Slovenia against the rest of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
- 1994 - Aden is occupied by troops from North Yemen, completing the reunification of Yemen.
- 2003 - The United Communist Party of Armenia was formed.
- 2004 - The last patent on the LZW compression algorithm (in Canada) expires.
- 2005 - Terrorist explosions occur on the London Underground network and on a London Bus.

Births

- 1053 - Emperor Shirakawa of Japan (d. 1129)
- 1119 - Emperor Sutoku of Japan (d. 1164)
- 1586 - Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel, English statesman (d. 1646)
- 1752 - Joseph-Marie Jacquard, French inventor (d. 1834)
- 1843 - Camillo Golgi, Italian physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1926)
- 1848 - Francisco de Paula Rodrigues Alves, President of Brazil
- 1855 - Ludwig Ganghofer, German writer (d. 1920)
- 1860 - Gustav Mahler, Austrian composer (d. 1911)
- 1884 - Lion Feuchtwanger, German dramatist and narrator (d. 1958)
- 1887 - Marc Chagall, Russian-born painter (d. 1985)
- 1893 - Miroslav Krleža, Croatian writer (d. 1981)
- 1899 - George Cukor, American director (d. 1983)
- 1901 - Vittorio De Sica, Italian director (d. 1974)
- 1901 - Sam Katzman, American film producer (d. 1973)
- 1902 - Ted "Double Duty" Radcliffe, baseball player (d. 2005)
- 1906 - William Feller, Croatian mathematician (d.1970)
- 1906 - Leroy "Satchel" Paige, baseball player (d. 1982)
- 1907 - Robert A. Heinlein, American science fiction writer (d. 1988)
- 1911 - Gian Carlo Menotti, Italian-born composer
- 1915 - Yul Brynner, Russian-born actor (d. 1985)
- 1917 - Fidel Sánchez Hernández, President of El Salvador (d. 2003)
- 1919 - Jon Pertwee, British actor (d. 1996)
- 1922 - Pierre Cardin, French fashion designer
- 1927 - Doc Severinsen, American composer and musician
- 1932 - Josef Zawinul, Austrian musician and composer
- 1933 - Murray Halberg, New Zealand runner
- 1937 - Tung Chee-Hwa, Hong Kong administrator
- 1940 - Ringo Starr, English drummer and singer (The Beatles)
- 1941 - Michael Howard, British politician
- 1941 - Bill Oddie, English comedian and ornithologist
- 1942 - Carmen Duncan, Australian actress
- 1943 - Toto Cutugno, Italian singer
- 1945 - Michael Ancram, British politician
- 1947 - Howard Rheingold American author
- 1949 - Shelley Duvall, American actress
- 1959 - Ben Linder, American engineer (murdered) (d. 1987)
- 1966 - Gundula Krause, German folk violinist
- 1967 - Jackie Neal, American singer
- 1969 - Joe Sakic, Canadian hockey player
- 1974 - Karlis Skrastins, Latvian-born hockey player
- 1975 - Michael Voss, Australian footballer
- 1980 - Deidre Downs, American beauty queen
- 1980 - Michelle Kwan, American figure skater
- 1988 - Kaci Brown, Singer Songwriter

Deaths

- 1129 - Emperor Shirakawa, emperor of Japan (b. 1053)
- 1304 - Pope Benedict XI (b. 1240)
- 1307 - King Edward I of England (b. 1239)
- 1537 - Madeleine de Valois, queen of James V of Scotland (b. 1520)
- 1572 - King Sigismund II Augustus of Poland (b. 1520)
- 1573 - Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, Italian architect (b. 1507)
- 1647 - Thomas Hooker, Connecticut colonist (b. 1586)
- 1701 - William Stoughton, American judge at the Salem witch trials (b. 1631)
- 1713 - Henry Compton, Bishop of Oxford and privy councillor (b. 1632)
- 1764 - William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath, English politician (b. 1683)
- 1776 - Jeremiah Markland, English classical scholar (b. 1693)
- 1790 - François Hemsterhuis, Dutch philosopher (b. 1721)
- 1816 - Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Irish playwright and politician (b. 1751)
- 1855 - Konstantin Batyushkov, Russian poet (b. 1787)
- 1880 - Lydia Child, American novelist and abolitionist (b. 1802)
- 1901 - Johanna Spyri, Swiss author (b. 1827)
- 1930 - Arthur Conan Doyle, Scottish writer (b. 1859)
- 1932 - Alexander Grin, Russian novelist (b. 1880)
- 1949 - Bunk Johnson, American musician (b. 1879 or 1889)
- 1956 - Gottfried Benn, German poet (b. 1886)
- 1964 - Lillian Copeland, American athlete (b. 1904)
- 1965 - Moshe Sharett, second Prime Minister of Israel (b. 1894)
- 1967 - Vivien Leigh, English actress (b. 1913)
- 1971 - Claude Gauvreau, Canadian writer (b. 1925)
- 1971 - Ub Iwerks, American artist, director, and cartoonist (b1901)
- 1972 - Athenagoras, Patriarch of Constantinople (b. 1886)
- 1972 - King Talal of Jordan (b. 1909)
- 1973 - Max Horkheimer, German philosopher and sociologist (b. 1895)
- 1973 - Veronica Lake, American actress (b. 1919)
- 1980 - Dore Schary, American film producer and writer (b. 1905)
- 1990 - Bill Cullen, American game show host (b. 1920)
- 2000 - Kenny Irwin, Jr., American race car driver (b. 1969)
- 2003 - Buddy Ebsen, American actor (b. 1908)
- 2003 - Izhak Graziani, Bulgarian-born conductor (b. 1924)
- 2005 - Casualties of the 7 July 2005 London bombings

Holidays and observances

- Bhutan - Guru Rinpoche
- Japan - Tanabata
- Roman Empire - Nonae Caprotinae festival in honor of Juno
- Russia and Ukraine - Ivan Kupala
- Solomon Islands - Independence Day (1978)
- Spain - San Fermín festival or running of the bulls, in Pamplona, Navarre.
- Tanzania - Saba Saba Day (or Peasants' Day, founding of the TANU party, 1954)
- Yemen - Unity Factory Day
- Chicago, Illinois - Smashing Pumpkins Day

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/7 BBC: On This Day] ---- July 6 - July 8 - June 7 - August 7 -- listing of all days ko:7월 7일 ms:7 Julai ja:7月7日 simple:July 7 th:7 กรกฎาคม

July 7

July 7 is the 188th day of the year (189th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 177 days remaining.

Events

Births

Deaths

Holidays and observances

External links

Joan of Arc

Joan of Arc, also Jeanne d'Arc (1412 – 30 May 1431) is a national heroine of France and a Saint of the Roman Catholic Church. Many believed she had visions from God that told her to recover her homeland. In early 1429 she convinced the uncrowned king Charles VII to give her a suit of armor and permission to relieve the siege at Orléans. At first treated as a figurehead by veteran commanders, she gained prominence when she lifted the siege in only nine days. After several other engagements and an important victory at Patay she led a bloodless expedition to Reims for Charles VII's coronation. This settled the disputed royal succession and recovered important territory. The renewed French confidence outlasted her own brief career. Wounded during an unsuccessful attempt to recover Paris, she participated in minor actions until her capture outside Compiègne the following spring. Her Burgundian captors delivered her to the English, who selected clergymen to convict her of heresy. John, Duke of Bedford had her burnt at the stake in Rouen. She had been the heroine of her country at the age of seventeen. She died at just nineteen. Some twenty-four years later Pope Callixtus III reopened the case. The new finding overturned the original conviction. Her piety to the end impressed the retrial court. Pope Benedict XV canonized her on 16 May, 1920. Joan of Arc has remained an important figure in the collective imagination of Western culture. From Napoleon to the present, French politicians of all leanings have invoked her memory. Major writers and composers who created works about her include Shakespeare, Voltaire, Schiller, Verdi, Tchaikovski, Twain, Shaw, and Brecht. Depictions of her continue in film, television, and song.

Historical background

Brecht This was the lowest era in French history until the Nazi occupation. The French king at the time of Joan's birth, Charles VI, suffered bouts of insanity and was unable to rule. A quarrel between his cousins duke John the Fearless of Burgundy and the duke of Orléans over the regency of France and the guardianship of the royal children finally led John the Fearless to order the assassination of the duke of Orléans in 1407. The factions loyal to these two men became known as the Armagnacs and the Burgundians. English king Henry V took advantage of the turmoil. He invaded France and won a dramatic victory at Agincourt in 1415, then proceeded to capture northern French towns. The future French king Charles VII assumed the title of dauphin as heir to the throne at the age of fourteen after all four of his older brothers had died. Almost his first official act was to conclude a peace treaty with John the Fearless in 1419. This ended in disaster when Armagnac partisans murdered John the Fearless during a meeting under Charles's guarantee of protection. The new duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, blamed Charles and entered an alliance with the English. Large sections of France fell to conquest. Charles's mother Isabeau of Bavaria concluded the 1420 Treaty of Troyes granting the royal succession to Henry V and his heirs, disinheriting Charles. Henry V and Charles VI died within two months of each other in 1422, leaving an infant Henry VI of England the nominal monarch of both kingdoms. Henry V's brother John, Duke of Bedford acted as regent. John, Duke of Bedford By the beginning of 1429 nearly all of the north and some parts of the southwest were under foreign control. The English ruled Paris and the Burgundians ruled Rheims. The latter was important as the traditional site of French coronations. Neither claimant to the throne of France had been crowned. The English had laid siege to Orléans, the only remaining loyal French city north of the Loire. Its strategic location along the river made this the last obstacle to an assault on the remaining French heartland. No one was optimistic about the city's chances to resist the siege for long.

Biography

Early life

Joan of Arc was born circa 1412 in the village of Domrémy in the province of Lorraine. Her parents Jacques D'Arc and Isabelle Romee owned a modest farm. The region was part of the duchy of Burgundy during that era. Joan's own village and a few surrounding communities formed an isolated patch of territory that remained loyal to the French crown. Jacques D'Arc, St. Margaret, and St. Catherine in the background. Oil on canvas in two joined vertical panels. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, 1879.]] Joan later said she had her first vision around 1424. She reported that St. Michael, St. Catherine, and St. Margaret told her to drive out the English and bring the Dauphin to Rheims for his coronation. At the age of sixteen she asked a kinsman, Durand Lassois, to bring her to nearby Vaucouleurs. She petitioned garrison commander count Robert de Baudricourt for permission to visit the royal French court at Chinon. Baudricourt's sarcastic response did not deter her. She returned the following January and found supporters in two men of standing: Jean de Metz and Bertrand de Poulegny. With their support she gained a second interview where she made an apparently miraculous prediction about a military reversal near Orléans.

Career

Baudricourt granted her an escort to visit Chinon after news from the front confirmed her prediction. She made the journey through hostile Burgundian territory in male disguise. Upon arriving at the royal court she won Charles's confidence in a private conference. He verified her morality with background inquiries and a theological examination at Poitiers. Charles's mother-in-law Yolande of Aragon was financing a relief expedition to Orléans. Joan of Arc received permission to travel with the army. Her armor, horse, sword, equipment, and entourage were all donations. She had no funds of her own. Yolande of Aragon She arrived at the Orléans on 29 April 1429. Jean d'Orléans, the acting head of the Orléans ducal family, excluded Joan from war councils. She appealed to the town's population and the common soldiers, often disregarding war council decisions. The extent of her military leadership is a subject of historical debate. Traditional analysis cites her condemnation trial testimony to conclude that she was a standard bearer whose primary effect was on morale. Recent scholarship that focuses on rehabilitation trial testimony asserts that her fellow officers esteemed her as a skilled tactician and a successful strategist. In either case, the army enjoyed remarkable success during her brief career. French forces began aggressive actions against siege fortifications at Joan's urging. After several skirmishes the English abandoned peripheral structures and concentrated their forces at the stone fortress controlling the bridge, les Tourelles. This fell to French assault on 7 May. Contemporaries acknowledged Joan as the hero of the engagement after she pulled an arrow from her own shoulder and returned wounded to lead the final charge. 7 May The sudden victory at Orléans led to many proposals for offensive action. Surviving documents show the English expected a direct assault on Paris. French counterintelligence may have contributed to that perception. During Joan's later trial she described a mark the French command used in letters for disinformation. Joan of Arc persuaded Charles VII to approve her plan and grant her co-command of the army with duke John II of Alençon. They would recapture nearby bridges along the Loire then advance on Rheims. This was a daring proposal because Rheims was roughly twice as distant as Paris. Rheims held political importance as the traditional site of French coronations. Detractors have pointed to shortcomings in the army's supply lines to assert that Joan was more lucky than skilled. John II of Alençon. Detail from a portrait by Jean Fouquet, tempera on wood, Louvre Museum, Paris, c. 1445.]] The army recovered Jargeau on 12 June, Meung-sur-Loire on 15 June, then Beaugency on 17 June. Alençon credited Joan with saving his life at Jargeau by warning him of an impending artillery attack. She withstood a stone cannonball blow to her helmet while climbing a scaling ladder. An expected English relief force arrived in the area on 18 June under the command of Sir John Fastolf. The battle at Patay might be compared to Agincourt in reverse. The French vanguard attacked before the English archers finished defensive preparations. A rout ensued that decimated the main body of the English army. The French had minimal losses. A disgraced Fastolf escaped with a small band of soldiers. The French army set out from Gien-sur-Loire on 29 June, accepting the conditional surrender of the Burgundian-held city of Auxerre on 3 July. Every other town in their path returned to French allegiance without resistance. Troyes, the site of the treaty that had tried to disinherit Charles VII, capitulated after a bloodless four-day siege. Rheims opened its gates on 16 July. The coronation took place the following morning. Although Joan and the Duke of Alençon urged a prompt march on Paris, the royal court pursued a negotiated truce with the duke of Burgundy. Duke Philip the Good broke the agreement, using it as a stalling tactic to reinforce the defense of Paris. The French army marched through towns near Paris during the interim, accepting peaceful surrenders. The Duke of Bedford confronted Joan with an English force in a standoff on 15 August. The French assault on Paris ensued on 8 September. Despite a crossbow bolt wound to the leg, Joan continued directing the troops until the day's fighting ended. The following morning she received a royal order to withdraw. Most historians blame French grand chamberlain Georges de la Trémoille for the political blunders following the coronation.

Capture, trial, and execution

After minor action at La-Charité-sur-Loire in November and December, Joan went to Compiègne the following March to defend against an English and Burgundian siege. A skirmish on 23 May 1430 led to her capture. When she ordered a retreat she assumed the place of honor as the last to leave the field. Burgundians surrounded the rear guard. It was customary for a war captive's family to raise a ransom. Joan's relatives lacked financial resources. Many historians condemn Charles VII for failing to intervene. She attempted several escapes, on one occasion leaping from a seventy foot tower to the soft earth of a dry moat. The English government eventually purchased her from duke Philip of Burgundy. Bishop Pierre Cauchon of Beauvais, an English partisan, assumed a prominent role in these negotiations and her later trial. Beauvais Joan's trial for heresy was political. The Duke of Bedford claimed the throne of France for his nephew Henry VI. She was responsible for the rival coronation. Condemning her was an attempt to discredit her king. Legal proceedings commenced on 9 January 1431 at Rouen, the seat of the English occupation government. The procedure was irregular on a number of points. To summarize some major problems, the jurisdiction of promoter bishop Cauchon was a legal fiction. He owed his appointment to his partisanship. The entire trial was financed by the English government. Clerical notary Nicolas Bailly, commissioned to collect testimony against her, could find no adverse evidence. Without this the court lacked grounds to initiate a trial. Opening one anyway, it denied her right to a legal advisor. Nonetheless, her testimony could be brilliant. The transcript's most famous exchange is an exercise in subtlety. "Asked if she knew she was in God's grace, she answered: 'If I am not, may God put me there; and if I am, may God so keep me.'" The question is a scholarly trap. Church doctrine held that no one could be certain of being in God's grace. If she had answered yes, then she would have convicted herself of heresy. If she had answered no, then she would have confessed her own guilt. Her response was not only perfect but poetic. Several court functionaries later testified that significant portions of the transcript were altered in her disfavor. Many clerics served under compulsion, including the inquisitor, and a few even received death threats from the English. Joan should have been confined to an ecclesiastical prison with female guards. Instead the English kept her in a secular prison guarded by their own soldiers. Bishop Cauchon denied Jeanne's appeals to the Council of Basel and the Pope, which should have stopped his proceeding. The twelve articles of accusation that summarize the court's finding contradict the already doctored court record. Illiterate Joan signed an abjuration document she did not understand under threat of immediate execution. The court substituted a different abjuration in the official record. abjuration Heresy was a capital crime only for a repeat offense. Joan agreed to wear women's clothes when she abjured. Shortly afterward she was subject to a sexual assault in prison, possibly by an English lord. This does not appear to have been rape. She resumed male attire either as a defense against molestation or, in the testimony of Jean Massieu, because her dress had been stolen and she was left with nothing else to wear. Eyewitnesses described the scene of the execution on 30 May 1431. Tied to a tall pillar, she asked two of the clergy, Martin Ladvenu and Isambart de la Pierre, to hold a crucifix before her. She repeatedly called out "...in a loud voice the holy name of Jesus, and implored and invoked without ceasing the aid of the saints of Paradise." After she expired the English raked back the coals to expose her charred body so that no one could claim she had escaped alive, then reduced the body to ashes to prevent any collection of relics. They cast her remains into the Seine. The executioner, Geoffroy Therage, confessed to having "...a great fear of being damned, [as] he had burned a saint."

Retrial

After Charles VII regained Rouen in November 1449, the investigation began with an inquest by clergyman Guillaume Bouille. Inquisitor-General Jean Brehal conducted an investigation in 1452. The formal appeal was initiated in November 1455. Pope Callixtus III authorized this appeal, known today as the "Rehabilitation Trial," at the request of Brehal and surviving members of Joan's family. The appellate process included clergy from throughout Europe and observed proper court procedure. After collecting testimony from 115 witnesses, theologians gave opinions. Brehal drew up his final summary of the case in June 1456. This describes Joan as a martyr and her judges as heretics for having convicted an innocent woman in the pursuit of a secular vendetta. The court declared her innocence on 7 July 1456.

Clothing

1456 Joan wore men's clothing between her departure from Vaucouleurs and her abjuration at Rouen. This raised theological questions in her own era and raised other speculation in the twentieth century. Her assumption of male clothing had no sexual overtones. The technical reason for her execution was a Biblical clothing law. Medieval theology recognized exceptions to the stricture. Doctrinally speaking, she was safe to disguise herself as a page during a journey through enemy territory, and she was safe to wear armor during battle. The Chronique de la Pucelle claims it deterred molestation while she was camped in the field. These defenses leave other occasions open to challenge. She referred the court to the Poitiers inquiry when questioned on the matter during her condemnation trial . That record no longer survives. Circumstances indicate the Poitiers clerics approved her practice. In other words, she had a mission to do a man's work so it was fitting that she dress the part. A number of clergy who testified at her rehabilitation trial affirmed that she continued to wear male clothing in prison to deter molestation and rape. The garments she chose would slow an assailant. In the end, as cited above, she probably had no choice at all.

Visions

Joan of Arc's religious visions have interested many people. All agree that her faith was sincere. Devout Roman Catholics regard her visions as divine revelation. She lived in a society that accepted this possibility. Secular explanations that assert hallucination and mental illness encounter an apparent incongruity: she won the support of some leading statesmen, soldiers, and clergy. Most scholars who propose psychiatric explanations such as schizophrenia consider Joan a figurehead rather than an active leader. Among other hypotheses are a handful of neurological conditions that can cause complex hallucinations in otherwise sane and healthy people such as temporal lobe epilepsy. Régine Pernoud, a prominent historian, was sometimes sarcastic about such claims: in response to one such theory alleging that Joan of Arc suffered from Bovine Tuberculosis as a result of drinking unpasteurized milk, Pernoud wrote that if drinking unpasteurized milk can produce such potential benefits for the nation, then the French government should stop mandating the pasteurization of milk. A shortage of reliable evidence is a factor in any attempt to analyse Joan of Arc's religious visions. When questioned about the subject at the Condemnation Trial, she was reluctant to give the court details about her visions, often referring them instead to the transcript of the Poitiers inquiry, which has now been lost.

Legacy

epilepsy.]] Surviving historical evidence about Joan of Arc is abundant. Nineteenth century scholars discovered five separate copies of her condemnation trial transcript in archives across France. Over 100 witnesses submitted depositions to her rehabilitation trial. Numerous original documents still exist including several of her dictated letters. This exceptionally rich historical record has contributed to intense academic interest in her. Several impostors arose in the years following Joan of Arc's death. The most successful of these, Jeanne de Armoises, won the support of two of Joan's brothers and carried on the charade for four years until she met the king. The Hundred Years' War continued for 22 years after Joan's death. Most modern historians consider the Treaty of Arras in 1435 and the weak rulership of England's Henry VI to be greater factors in ending the conflict. Kelly deVries argues that Joan's aggressive use of artillery and frontal assaults influenced French tactics for the remainder of the war. All agree that Joan of Arc had a profound effect on French patriotism. She is among the earliest successful proponents of nationalism to emerge from the feudal era. The Church declared that a religious play in her honor at Orléans was a pilgrimage meriting an indulgence. Joan of Arc became a symbol of the Catholic League during the 16th century. Félix Dupanloup, bishop of Orléans from 1849 to 1878, led the effort for Joan's eventual beatification in 1909. Her canonization followed on 16 May 1920. Her feast day is 30 May. 30 May. The French Resistance used the cross of Lorraine as a symbolic reference to Joan of Arc.]] Joan of Arc was not a feminist. She operated within a religious tradition that believed an exceptional person from any level of society might receive a divine calling. Joan expelled women from the French army and may have struck one stubborn camp follower with the flat of her sword. Nonetheless, some of her most significant aid came from women. Charles VII's mother-in-law Yolande of Aragon confirmed Joan's virginity and financed her departure to Orléans. Joan of Luxembourg, aunt to the count of Luxembourg who held Joan of Arc after Compiegne, alleviated Joan of Arc's conditions of captivity and may have delayed her sale to the English. Finally, Anne of Burgundy the duchess of Bedford declared Joan a virgin during pretrial inquiries. For technical reasons this prevented the court from charging Joan with witchcraft. Ultimately this provided part of the basis for Joan's vindication and sainthood. From Christine de Pizan to the present, women have looked to Joan of Arc as a positive example of a brave and active female. Christine de Pizan.]] Joan of Arc has been a political symbol in France since the time of Napoleon. Liberals emphasized her humble origins. Early conservatives stressed her support of the monarchy. Later conservatives recalled her nationalism. During World War II, both the Vichy Regime and the French resistance used her image: Vichy propaganda remembered her campaign against the English with posters that showed British warplanes bombing Rouen with the ominous caption: "They Always Return to the Scene of Their Crimes". The resistance emphasized her fight against foreign occupation and her origins in the province of Lorraine, which had fallen under Nazi control. Three separate vessels of the French Navy have been named after Joan of Arc, including a helicopter carrier currently in active service. At present the controversial French political party Front National holds rallies at her statues, reproduces her likeness in party publications, and uses a tricolor flame partly symbolic of her martyrdom as its emblem. This party's opponents sometimes satirize its appropriation of her image. Traditional Catholics, especially in France, also use her as a symbol or inspiration, often comparing Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre's excommunication in 1988 to Joan of Arc's excommunication.

Notes

For bibliographical sources and further reading see Joan of Arc bibliography. : A tribunal led by Inquisitor-General Brehal retried her case after the French won the war. The new verdict overturned the original conviction and Brehal described Joan of Arc as a martyr. : See Joan of Arc in art for literary, artistic, and popular culture references. : See Joan of Arc: A Military Leader by Kelly DeVries and Joan of Arc: The Warrior Saint by Stephen W. Richey. : Devout Catholics regard this remarkable act as proof of her divine mission. At Chinon and Poitiers she had declared that she would give a sign at Orléans. The lifting of the siege gained her the support of prominent clergy such as the Archbishop of Embrun and theologian Jean Gerson, who both wrote supportive treatises immediately following this event. : Judges' investigations January 9 - March 26, ordinary trial March 26 - May 24, recantation May 24, relapse trial May 28-29. : The retrial verdict later affirmed that Cauchon had no right to try the case. Also see Joan of Arc: Her Story by Regine Pernoud and Marie-Veronique Clin, p. 108. The vice-inquisitor of France objected to the trial on jurisdictional grounds at its outset. : Quoted from his testimony at her retrial. [http://www.stjoan-center.com/Trials/null03.html] : Condemnation trial, p. 52 [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/joanofarc-trial.html] : George Bernard Shaw made his own translation of the exchange and inserted it into the script for his play Saint Joan. Penguin Classics; Reissue edition (May 1, 2001), p. 138. ISBN 0140437916 : [http://www.stjoan-center.com/Trials/#nullification] See especially the testimony of court clerk Guillaume de Manchon. : See note 8. : See note 9. : Ibid. : Ibid. : Deuteronomy 22:5. [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/bib0510.txt] : Most notably Thomas Aquinas, Outward apparel should be consistent with the state of the person according to general custom. Hence it is in itself sinful for a woman to wear man’s clothes, or vice-versa; especially since this may be the cause of sensuous pleasure; and it is expressly forbidden in the Law (Deut 22) …. Nevertheless this may be done at times on account of some necessity, either in order to hide oneself from enemies, or through lack of other clothes, or for some other such reason. (Summa Theologiae II, II, question 169, article 2, reply to objection 3). : See note 8. : See note 9. : According to medieval clothing expert Adrien Harmand, she wore two layers of pants attached securely to the doublet with twenty fastenings, the outer pants being made of a boot-like leather. See "Jeanne d'Arc, son costume, son armure", p. 123, for the passage from the transcript and explanation; and pp. 177-185 for an examination of the outer pants. : Pernoud, Joan of Arc By Herself and Her Witnesses p. 275. : DeVries, pp. 179-180.

External links

- The [http://www.smu.edu/ijas/International Joan of Arc Society], supervised by Bonnie Wheeler. Repository information about Joan of Arc, containing [http://www.smu.edu/ijas/1431trial.html The trial of Joan of Arc].
- [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/joanofarc-trial.html The text of the condemnation trial] at Medieval Sourcebook.
- [http://www.brynmawr.edu/library/exhibits/jehanne/contemporary.html Bryn Mawr] college library site about Joan of Arc.
- The [http://archive.joan-of-arc.org/ Joan of Arc Archive], by Allen Williamson. An archive concerning Saint Joan of Arc, including a biography, translations and other original research.
- The [http://perso.wanadoo.fr/musee.jeannedarc/indexanglais.htm Joan of Arc Museum] in Rouen, France.
- [http://www.scuttlebuttsmallchow.com/joanarc.html Joan of Arc in the First World War] by B.J. Omanson, covering the interest in Joan of Arc during the First World War.
- The [http://www.marquette.edu/chapel/ Joan of Arc Chapel], Marquette University campus, France.
- A reconstructed [http://www.reportret.info/gallery/joanofarc1.html portrait of Joan of Arc] based on historical sources and in a contemporary style.
- The [http://www.stjoan-center.com/ Saint Joan of Arc Center] compiled by Virginia Frohlick. A center of devotion to Saint Joan of Arc in Albuquerque, New Mexico USA: stories, topics, texts, films and images.
- [http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/saintj05.htm Facts on Joan of Arc from Catholic Online Saints].
- [http://maidjoan.tripod.com/ JoanNet] by Patrick Price. An online Joan of Arc resource.
- The [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08409c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia] about St. Joan of Arc.
- [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/europe/jeanne_d-arc.htm GlobalSecurity.org] page about the Jeanne d'Arc helicopter carrier. Category:1412 births Category:1431 deaths Category:Catholic martyrs Category:History of Catholicism in France Category:History of France Category:Hundred Years' War Category:French_military_leaders Category:French people Category:Middle Ages Category:Nine Worthies Category:People burned for alleged heresy Category:Women in war Category:Saints ja:ジャンヌ・ダルク simple:Joan of Arc th:โยนออฟอาร์ค

1431

Events

- February 21 - The trial of Joan of Arc
- March 3 - Eugenius IV becomes Pope
- May 30 - In Rouen, France, 19-year old Joan of Arc is burned at the stake.
- Foundation of University of Poitiers
- Battle of Inverlochy

Births

- January 1 - Pope Alexander VI (died 1503)
- Vlad III Dracula, Prince of Wallachia (died 1476)
- William Elphinstone, Scottish statesman (died 1514)
- William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings (died 1483)
- John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu, English politician (died 1471)

Deaths

- January 25 - Charles I, Duke of Lorraine (born 1364)
- February 20 - Pope Martin V (born 1368)
- May 30 - Joan of Arc, French soldier and saint (born 1412)
- Thomas de Ros, 9th Baron de Ros, English nobleman (born 1403)
- Makhdoom Ali Mahimi, Indian Sufi mystic
- Stanislaw of Skarbimierz, Polish theologian (born 1360) Category:1431 ko:1431년 simple:1431

1534

Events

- February 27 - Group of Anabaptists of Jan Matthys seize Münster and declare it "The New Little Jerusalem" - they begin to exile dissenters and forcible baptize all others
- May 10 - Jacques Cartier explores Newfoundland while searching for the Northwest Passage.
- June 9 - Jacques Cartier is the first European to discover the St. Lawrence River.
- July 7 - First known exchange between Europeans and natives of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, in New Brunswick.
- Cambridge University Press given Royal Charter by Henry VIII and becomes the first of the privileged presses
- Henry VIII angry at the Pope's refusal to grant divorce from Catherine of Aragon, Henry declares himself Supreme Head of the English church a.k.a. the Anglican Church or Church of England
- Publication of Gargantua by François Rabelais
- Martin Luther's translation of the New Testament into German appears

Births

- February 5 - Giovanni de' Bardi, Italian writer, composer, and soldier (died 1612)
- June 23 - Oda Nobunaga, Japanese warlord (died 1582)
- July 1 - King Frederick II of Denmark (died 1588)
- July 18 - Zacharius Ursinus, German theologian (died 1583)
- September 24 - Guru Ram Das, fourth Sikh Guru (died 1581)
- Lodovico Agostini, Italian composer (died 1590)
- William Harrison, English clergyman (died 1593)
- José de Anchieta, Spanish Jesuit missionary in Brazil (died 1597)
- Isaac Luria, Jewish scholar and mystic (died 1572)
- Henri Ier de Montmorency, Marshal of France (died 1614)
- Henry Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, statesman of the Elizabethan era (died 1601)
- Nicholas Remy, French Catholic priest (died 1600)
- Amy Robsart, wife of Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester
- Paul Skalic, Croatian encyclopedist, humanist and adventurer (died 1573)
- Zofia Tarnowska, Polish noble lady (died 1570)

Deaths

- January 25 - Magdalena of Saxony (born 1507)
- March 5 - Antonio da Correggio, Italian painter (born 1488)
- April 20 - Elizabeth Barton English nun (executed) (born 1506)
- August 9 - Cardinal Cajetan, Italian theologian (born 1470)
- September 25 - Pope Clement VII (born 1478)
- Johannes Aventinus, Bavarian historian and philologist (born 1477)
- István Báthory, Hungarian noble (born 1477)
- Edward Guilford, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (born 1474)
- Michal Glinski, Lithuanian prince
- Cesare Hercolani, Italian soldier (born 1499)
- William Blount, 4th Baron Mountjoy, scholar and patron
- Amago Okihisa, Japanese nobleman
- Antonio Pigafetta, Italian navigator (born 1491)
- Antonio da Sangallo the Elder, Florentine architect (born 1453)
- John Taylor, Master of the Rolls (born 1480) Category:1534 ko:1534년

Europe

:This article is about the continent. For other meanings, see Europe (disambiguation). Europe is geologically and geographically a peninsula or subcontinent, forming the westernmost part of Eurasia. It is conventionally considered a continent, which, in this case, is more of a cultural distinction than a geographic one. It is bounded to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the west by the Atlantic Ocean and to the south by the Mediterranean and Black Seas and the Caucasus. Europe's boundary to the east is vague, but has traditionally been given as the Ural Mountains and Caspian Sea to the southeast: the Urals are considered by most to be a geographical and tectonic landmark separating Asia from Europe. :See also Continent, Bicontinental country, and Table of European territories and regions. Table of European territories and regions Table of European territories and regions Europe is the world's second-smallest continent in terms of area, covering around 10,790,000 km² (4,170,000 sq mi) or 2.1% of the Earth's surface, and is only larger than Australia. In terms of population, it is the third-largest continent (Asia and Africa are larger) with a population of more than 700,000,000, or about 11% of the world's population.

Etymology

Africa.]] In Greek mythology, Europa was a Phoenician princess who was abducted by Zeus in bull form and taken to the island of Crete, where she gave birth to Minos. For Homer, Europé (Greek: Ευρωπη; see also List of traditional Greek place names) was a mythological queen of Crete, not a geographical designation. Later Europa stood for mainland Greece, and by 500 BC its meaning had been extended to lands to the north. The Greek term Europe has been derived from Greek words meaning broad (eurys) and face (ops) -- broad having been an epitheton of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion; see Prithvi (Plataia). A minority, however, suggest this Greek popular etymology is really based on a Semitic word such as the Akkadian erebu meaning "sunset" (see also Erebus). From the Middle Eastern vantagepoint, the sun does set over Europe, the lands to the west. Likewise, Asia is sometimes thought to have derived from the Akkadian word asu, meaning "sunrise", and is the land to the east from a Mesopotamian perspective.

History

Europe has a long history of cultural and economic achievement, starting as far back as the Palaeolithic, although this is true for the rest of the Old World as well. The recent discovery at Monte Poggiolo, Italy, of thousands of hand-shaped stones, tentatively carbon-dated to 800,000 years ago, may prove to be of particular importance. The origins of Western democratic and individualistic culture are often attributed to Ancient Greece, though numerous other distinct influences, in particular Christianity, can also be credited with the spread of concepts like egalitarianism and universality of law. The Roman Empire divided the continent along the Rhine and Danube for several centuries. Following the decline of the Roman Empire, Europe entered a long period of changes arising from what is known as the Age of Migrations. That period has been known as the "Dark Ages" to Renaissance thinkers. During this time, isolated monastic communities in Ireland and elsewhere carefully safeguarded and compiled written knowledge accumulated previously. The Renaissance and the New Monarchs marked the start of a period of discovery, exploration, and increase in scientific knowledge. In the 15th century Portugal opened the age of discoveries, soon followed by Spain. They were later joined by France, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom in building large colonial empires with vast holdings in Africa, the Americas, and Asia. After the age of discovery, the ideas of democracy took hold in Europe. Struggles for independence arose, most notably in France during the period known as the French Revolution. This led to vast upheaval in Europe as these revolutionary ideas propagated across the continent. The rise of democracy led to increased tensions within Europe on top of the tensions already existing due to competition within the New World. The most famous of these conflicts was when Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power and set out on a conquest, forming a new French empire that soon collapsed. After these conquests Europe stabilised, but the old foundations were already beginning to crumble. The Industrial Revolution started in the United Kingdom in the late 18th century, leading to a move away from agriculture, much greater general prosperity and a corresponding increase in population. Many of the states in Europe took their present form in the aftermath of World War I. From the end of World War II through the end of the Cold War, Europe was divided into two major political and economic blocks: Communist nations in Eastern Europe and capitalist countries in Western Europe. Around 1990, with the fall of the Berlin Wall, the Eastern bloc disintegrated.

Geography and extent

Eastern bloc Geographically Europe is a part of the larger landmass known as Eurasia. The continent begins at the Ural Mountains in Russia, which define Europe's eastern boundary with Asia. The southeast boundary with Asia isn't universally defined. Most commonly the Ural or, alternatively, the Emba river can serve as possible boundaries. The boundary continues with the Caspian Sea, and then the Araxes river in the Caucasus, and on to the Black Sea; the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles conclude the Asian boundary. The Mediterranean Sea to the south separates Europe from Africa. The western boundary is the Atlantic Ocean, but Iceland, much farther away than the nearest points of Africa and Asia, is also often included in Europe. There is ongoing debate on where the geographical centre of Europe is. At times "Europe" is defined with greater regard to political, economic, and other cultural considerations. This has led to there being several different Europes that are not always identical in size, including or excluding countries according to the definition of Europe used. Almost all European countries are members of the Council of Europe, the exceptions being Belarus, and the Holy See (Vatican City). The idea of the European continent is not held across all cultures. Some non-European geographical texts refer to the continent of Eurasia, or to the European peninsula, given that Europe is not surrounded by sea. In the past concepts such as Christendom were deemed more important. In another usage, Europe is increasingly being used as a short-form for the European Union (EU) and its members, currently consisting of 25 member states. A number of other European countries are negotiating for membership, and several more are expected to begin negotiations in the future (see Enlargement of the European Union).

Physical features

In terms of shape, Europe is a collection of connected peninsulas. The two largest of these are "mainland" Europe and Scandinavia to the north, divided from each other by the Baltic Sea. Three smaller peninsulas (Iberia, Italy and the Balkans) emerge from the southern margin of the mainland into the Mediterranean Sea, which separates Europe from Africa. Eastward, mainland Europe widens much like the mouth of a funnel, until the boundary with Asia is reached at the Ural Mountains. Land relief in Europe shows great variation within relatively small areas. The southern regions, however, are more mountainous, while moving north the terrain descends from the high Alps, Pyrenees and Carpathians, through hilly uplands, into broad, low northern plains, which are vast in the east. This extended lowland is known as the Great European Plain, and at its heart lies the North German Plain. An arc of uplands also exists along the northwestern seaboard, beginning in the western British Isles and continuing along the mountainous, fjord-cut spine of Norway. This description is simplified. Sub-regions such as Iberia and Italy contain their own complex features, as does mainland Europe itself, where the relief contains many plateaus, river valleys and basins that complicate the general trend. Iceland and the British Isles are special cases. The former is a land unto itself in the northern ocean which is counted as part of Europe, while the latter are upland areas that were once joined to the mainland until rising sea levels cut them off. Due to the few generalisations that can be made about the relief of Europe, it is less than surprising that its many separate regions provided homes for many separate nations throughout history.

Biodiversity

Having lived side-by-side with agricultural peoples for millennia, Europe's animals and plants have been profoundly affected by the presence and activities of man. With the exception of Scandinavia and northern Russia, few areas of untouched wilderness are today to be found in Europe, except for different natural parks. The main natural vegetation cover in Europe is forest. The conditions for growth are very favourable. In the north, the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift warm the continent. Southern Europe could be described as having a warm, but mild climate. There are frequent summer droughts in this region. Mountain ridges also affect the conditions. Some of these (Alps, Pyrenees) are oriented east-west and allow the wind to carry large masses of water from the ocean in the interior. Others are oriented south-north (Scandinavian Mountains, Dinarides, Carpathians, Apennines) and because the rain falls primarily on the side of mountains that is oriented towards sea, forests grow well on this side, while on the other side, the conditions are much less favourable. Few corners of mainland Europe have not been grazed by livestock at some point in time, and the cutting down of the pre-agricultural forest habitat caused disruption to the original plant and animal ecosystems. Eighty to ninety per cent of Europe was once covered by forest. It stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Arctic Ocean. Though over half of Europe's original forests disappeared through the centuries of colonisation, Europe still has over one quarter of the world's forests - spruce forests of Scandinavia, vast pine forests in Russia, chestnut rainforests of the Caucasus and the cork oak forests in the Mediterranean. During recent times, deforestation has been stopped and many trees were planted. However, in many cases conifers have been preferred over original deciduous trees, because these grow quicker. The plantations and monocultures now cover vast areas of land and this offers very poor habitats for European forest dwelling species. The amount of original forests in Western Europe is just two to three per cent (in the European part of Russia five to ten per cent). The country with the smallest forest-covered area is Ireland (eight per cent), while the most forested country is Finland (72 per cent). In "mainland" Europe, deciduous forest prevails. The most important species are beech, birch and oak. In the north, where taiga grows, a very common tree species is the birch tree. In the Mediterranean, many olive trees have been planted, which are very well adapted to its arid climate. Another common species in Southern Europe is the cypress. Coniferous forests prevail at higher altitudes up to the forest boundary and as one moves north within Russia and Scandinavia, giving way to tundra as the Arctic is approached. The semi-arid Mediterranean region hosts much scrub forest. A narrow east-west tongue of Eurasian grassland—the steppe—extends eastwards from Ukraine and southern Russia and ends in Hungary and traverses into taiga to the north. Glaciation during the most recent ice age and the presence of man affected the distribution of European fauna. As for the animals, in many parts of Europe most large animals and top predator species have been hunted to extinction. The woolly mammoth and aurochs were extinct before the end of the Neolithic period. Today wolves (carnivores) and bears (omnivores) are endangered. Once they were found in most parts of Europe. However, deforestation caused these animals to withdraw further and further. By the Middle Ages the bears' habitats were limited to more or less inaccessible mountains with sufficient forest cover. Today, the brown bear lives primarily in the Balkan peninsula, in the North and in Russia; a small number also persist in other countries across Europe (Austria, Pyrenees etc.), but in these areas brown bear populations are fragmented and marginalised because of the destruction of their habitat. In the far North of Europe, polar bears can also be found. The wolf, the second largest predator in Europe after the brown bear, can be found primarily in Eastern Europe and in the Balkans. Other important European carnivores are Eurasian lynx, European wild cat, foxes (especially the red fox), jackal and different species of martens, hedgehogs, different species of snakes (