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June

June

June is the sixth month of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with a length of 30 days The month is named after the Roman goddess Juno, wife of Jupiter and equivalent to the Greek goddess Hera. At the start of June, the sun rises in the constellation of Taurus; at the end of June, the sun rises in the constellation of Gemini. However, due to the precession of the equinoxes, June begins with the sun in the astrological sign of Gemini, ends with the sun in the astrological sign of Cancer.

Events in June

- The first Monday in June is one of the public holidays in the Republic of Ireland; in the Irish Calendar the month is called Meitheamh and is the middle month of the Summer season.
- The solstice called the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere and the winter solstice in the southern hemisphere occurs on dates varying from 20 June to 22 June (in UTC). In the pagan wheel of the year the summer solstice is the time of Litha and the winter solstice is that of Yule.
- Midsummer is celebrated in Sweden on the third Friday in June.
- Father's Day is celebrated in Belgium on the second Sunday in June. In the United States, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Ireland and Canada it is celebrated on the third Sunday in June.
- Gay pride celebrations take place in many countries in honor of the Stonewall riots.
- The majority of the Portland Rose Festival occurs.
- St Jean Baptiste Day is celebrated on June 24 and is considered an important national holiday in Quebec.
- June Dairy Month is a month long celebration of Wisconsin's proud dairy heritage and quality dairy products. dairy rtyertyrt

Trivia

- No other month begins on the same day of the week as June.
- June's flower is the rose.
- June's birthstone is the pearl and Alexandrite.

External links

- [http://www.astro.uu.nl/~strous/AA/en/antwoorden/seizoenen.html Astronomy Answers article on the seasons] Category:Months ko:6월 ms:Jun ja:6月 simple:June th:มิถุนายน

Sixth

In music, see the intervals:
- Major sixth
- minor sixth The submediant, and the chord built on the submediant, is often simply called the sixth as it is the sixth scale degree. The note of a chord forming the interval of a sixth with the chord's root, such as in the chords G6 or G6 added 9, is known as the sixth of the chord. wiktionary:sixth

Year

A year is the time between two recurrences of an event related to the orbit of the Earth around the Sun. By extension, this can be applied to any planet: for example, a "Martian year" is a year on Mars.

Seasonal year

A seasonal year is the time between successive recurrences of a seasonal event such as the flooding of a river, the migration of a species of bird, the flowering of a species of plant, the first frost, or the first scheduled game of a certain sport. All of these events can have wide variations of more than a month from year to year.

Calendar year

A calendar year is the time between two dates with the same name in a calendar. Solar calendars usually aim to predict the seasons, but because the length of individual seasonal years varies significantly, they instead use an astronomical year as a surrogate. For example, the ancient Egyptians used the heliacal rising of Sirius to predict the flooding of the Nile. The Gregorian calendar aims to keep the vernal equinox on or close to March 21; hence it follows the vernal equinox year. The average length of its year is 365.2425 days. No astronomical year has an integer number of days or months, so any calendar that follows an astronomical year must have a system of intercalation such as leap years. In the formerly used Julian calendar, the average length of a year was 365.25 days. This is still used as a convenient time unit in astronomy, see below.

Astronomical years

Julian year

The Julian year, as used in astronomy and other sciences, is a time unit defined as exactly 365.25 days. This is the normal meaning of the unit "year" (symbol "a" from the Latin annus, annata) used in various scientific contexts. The Julian century of 36525 days and the Julian millennium of 365250 days are used in astronomical calculations. Fundamentally, expressing a time interval in Julian years is a way to precisely specify how many days (not how many "real" years), for long time intervals where stating the number of days would be unwieldy and unintuitive.

Sidereal year

The sidereal year is the time for the Earth to complete one revolution of its orbit, as measured in a fixed frame of reference (such as the fixed stars, Latin sidus). Its duration in SI days of 86,400 SI seconds each is on average: :365.256 363 051 days (365 d 6 h 9 min 9 s) (at the epoch J2000.0 = 2000 January 1 12:00:00 TT).

Tropical year

A tropical year is the time for the Earth to complete one revolution with respect to the framework provided by the intersection of the ecliptic (the plane of the orbit of the Earth) and the plane of the equator (the plane perpendicular to the rotation axis of the Earth). Because of the precession of the equinoxes, this framework moves slowly westward along the ecliptic with respect to the fixed stars (with a period of about 26,000 tropical years); as a consequence, the Earth completes this year before it completes a full orbit as measured in a fixed reference frame. Therefore a tropical year is shorter than the sidereal year. The exact length of a tropical year depends on the chosen starting point: for example the vernal equinox year is the time between successive vernal equinoxes. The mean tropical year (averaged over all ecliptic points) is: :365.242 189 67 days (365 d 5 h 48 min 45 s) (at the epoch J2000.0).

Anomalistic year

The anomalistic year is the time for the Earth to complete one revolution with respect to its apsides. The orbit of the Earth is elliptical; the extreme points, called apsides, are the perihelion, where the Earth is closest to the Sun (January 2 in 2000), and the aphelion, where the Earth is farthest from the Sun (July 2 in 2000). Because of gravitational disturbances by the other planets, the shape and orientation of the orbit are not fixed, and the apsides slowly move with respect to a fixed frame of reference. Therefore the anomalistic year is slightly longer than the sidereal year. It takes about 112,000 years for the ellipse to revolve once relative to the fixed stars. The anomalistic year is also longer than the tropical year (which calendars attempt to track) and so the date of the perihelion gradually advances every year. It takes about 21,000 years for the ellipse to revolve once relative to the vernal equinox, thus for the date of perihelion to return to the same place (given a calendar that tracks the seasons perfectly). The average duration of the anomalistic year is: :365.259 635 864 days (365 d 6 h 13 min 52 s) (at the epoch J2000.0).

Draconic year

The draconitic year, eclipse year or ecliptic year is the time for the Sun (as seen from the Earth) to complete one revolution with respect to the same lunar node (a point where the Moon's orbit intersects the ecliptic). This period is associated with eclipses: these occur only when both the Sun and the Moon are near these nodes; so eclipses occur within about a month of every half eclipse year. Hence there are two eclipse seasons every eclipse year. The average duration of the eclipse year is: :346.620 075 883 days (346 d 14 h 52 min 54 s) (at the epoch J2000.0). :This term is sometimes also used to designate the time it takes for a complete revolution of the Moon's ascending node around the ecliptic: 18.612 815 932 years (6798.331 019 days).

Fumocy

The full moon cycle or fumocy is the time for the Sun (as seen from the Earth) to complete one revolution with respect to the perigee of the Moon's orbit. This period is associated with the apparent size of the full moon, and also with the varying duration of the anomalistic month. The duration of one full moon cycle is: :411.784 430 29 days (411 d 18 h 49 min 34 s) (at the epoch J2000.0).

Heliacal year

A heliacal year is the interval between the heliacal risings of a star. It equals the sidereal year only if the star is on the ecliptic. It differs from the sidereal year for stars north or south of the ecliptic because of the significant angle (23.5°) between Earth's celestial equator and the ecliptic.

Sothic year

The Sothic year is the interval between heliacal risings of the star Sirius. Its duration is very close to the mean Julian year of 365.25 days.

Gaussian year

The Gaussian year is the sidereal year for a planet of negligible mass (relative to the Sun) and unperturbed by other planets that is governed by the Gaussian gravitational constant. Such a planet would be slightly closer to the Sun than Earth's mean distance. Its length is: :365.256 898 3 days (365 d 6 h 9 min 56 s).

Besselian year

The Besselian year is a tropical year that starts when the fictitious mean Sun reaches an ecliptic longitude of 280°. This is currently on or close to 1 January. It is named after the 19th century German astronomer and mathematician Friedrich Bessel. An approximate formula to compute the current time in Besselian years from the Julian day is: :B = 2000 + (JD - 2451544.53)/365.242189

Great year

The Great year, Platonic year, or Equinoctial cycle corresponds to a complete revolution of the equinoxes around the ecliptic. Its length is approximately 25,770.639 22 years (9,412,725 d 23 h 22 min).

Variation in the length of the year and the day

The exact length of an astronomical year changes over time. The main sources of this change are: #The precession of the equinoxes changes the position of astronomical events with respect to the apsides of Earth's orbit. An event moving toward perihelion recurs with a decreasing period from year to year; an event moving toward aphelion recurs with an increasing period from year to year. #The gravitational influence of the Moon and planets changes the shape of the Earth's orbit. Tidal drag between the Earth and the Moon and Sun increases the length of the day and of the month. This in turn depends on factors such as continental rebound and sea level rise. It is also suspected that changes in the effective mass of the sun, caused by nuclear fusion, could have a significant impact on the earth year over time.

Summary of various kinds of year

- 353, 354 or 355 days — the lengths of regular years in some lunisolar calendars
- 354.37 days — 12 lunar months; the average length of a year in lunar calendars
- 365 days — a common year in many solar calendars; ~31.53 million seconds
- 365.24219 days — a mean tropical year near the year 2000
- 365.2424 days — a vernal equinox year.
- 365.2425 days — the average length of a year in the Gregorian calendar
- 365.25 days — the average length of a year in the Julian calendar; the light year is based on it; it is 31,557,600 seconds
- 365.2564 days — a sidereal year
- 366 days — a leap year in many solar calendars; 31.62 million seconds
- 383, 384 or 385 days — the lengths of leap years in some lunisolar calendars
- 383.9 days — 13 lunar months; a leap year in some lunisolar calendars An average Gregorian year is 365.2425 days = 52.1775 weeks, 8,765.82 hours = 525,949.2 minutes = 31,556,952 seconds (mean solar, not SI). A common year is 365 days = 8,760 hours = 525,600 minutes = 31,536,000 seconds. A leap year is 366 days = 8,784 hours = 527,040 minutes = 31,622,400 seconds. An easy to remember approximation for the number of seconds in a year is

\begin\pi\end

×10⁷ seconds. The 400-year cycle of the Gregorian calendar has 146097 days and hence exactly 20871 weeks. See also Numerical facts about the Gregorian calendar.

Day

:The Day language is spoken in Chad. A day (symbol: d) is a unit of time. It is not an SI unit but it is accepted for use with SI. The SI unit of time is the second. It has several definitions.

Definition of a day in SI

There is one day for every 86,400 SI seconds.

Definition of a day in astronomy

For a given planet, there are two types of day defined in astronomy: 1 apparent sidereal day = a single rotation of a planet with respect to the distant stars (for Earth it is 23.934 solar hours or 24 sidereal hours) 1 solar day = a single rotation of a planet with respect to Sun.

Origin

The term comes from the Old English dæg, with similar terms common in all other Indo-European languages, such as dies in Latin and dive in Sanskrit.

Colloquial definition of day

The word refers either to the period of light when the Sun is above the local horizon or to the full day covering a dark and a light period. The latter is sometimes called a nychthemeron in English, from the Greek for night-day. Greek painting by Peter Nicolai Arbo.]]

Introduction

Different definitions of the day are based on the apparent motion of the Sun across the sky (solar day; see solar time). The reason for this apparent motion is the rotation of the Earth around its axis, as well as the revolution of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun. A day, as opposed to night, is commonly defined as the period during which sunlight directly reaches the ground, assuming that there are no local obstacles. Two effects make days on average longer than nights. The Sun is not a point, but has an apparent size of about 32 minutes of arc. Additionally, the atmosphere refracts sunlight in such a way that some of it reaches the ground even when the Sun is below the horizon by about 34 minutes of arc. So the first light reaches the ground when the centre of the Sun is still below the horizon by about 50 minutes of arc. The difference in time depends on the angle at which the Sun rises and sets (itself a function of latitude), but amounts to almost seven minutes at least. Ancient custom has a new day start at either the rising or setting of the Sun on the local horizon (Italian reckoning, for example). The exact moment of, and the interval between, two sunrises or two sunsets depends on the geographical position (longitude as well as latitude), and the time of year. This is the time as indicated by ancient hemispherical sundials. A more constant day can be defined by the Sun passing through the local meridian, which happens at local noon (upper culmination) or midnight (lower culmination). The exact moment is dependent on the geographical longitude, and to a lesser extent on the time of the year. The length of such a day is nearly constant (24 hours ± 30 seconds). This is the time as indicated by modern sundials. A further improvement defines a fictitious mean Sun that moves with constant speed along the celestial equator; the speed is the same as the average speed of the real Sun, but this removes the variation over a year as the Earth moves along its orbit around the Sun (due to both its velocity and its axial tilt). The Earth's day has increased in length over time. The original length of one day, when the Earth was new about 4.5 billion years ago, was about six hours as determined by computer simulation. It was 21.9 hours 620 million years ago as recorded by rhythmites (alternating layers in sandstone). This phenomenon is due to tides raised by the Moon which slow Earth's rotation. Because of the way the second is defined, the mean length of a day is now about 86,400.002 seconds, and is increasing by about 1.7 milliseconds per century (an average over the last 2700 years). See tidal acceleration for details.

Civil day

For civil purposes a common clock time has been defined for an entire region based on the mean local solar time at some central meridian. Such time zones began to be adopted about the middle of the 19th century when railroads with regular schedules came into use, with most major countries having adopted them by 1929. For the whole world, 39 such time zones are now in use. The main one is "world time" or UTC (Coordinated Universal Time). The present common convention has the civil day starting at midnight, which is near the time of the lower culmination of the mean Sun on the central meridian of the time zone. A day is commonly divided into 24 hours of 60 minutes of 60 seconds each.

Leap seconds

In order to keep the civil day aligned with the apparent movement of the Sun, leap seconds may be inserted. A civil clock day is typically 86400 SI seconds long, but will be 86401 s long in the event of a leap second. Leap seconds are announced in advance by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service which measures the Earth's rotation and determines whether a leap second is necessary. Leap seconds occur only at the end of a UTC month, and have only ever been inserted at the end of June 30 or December 31.

Astronomy

In astronomy, the sidereal day is also used; it is about 3 minutes 56 seconds shorter than the solar day, and close to the actual rotation period of the Earth, as opposed to the Sun's apparent motion. In fact, the Earth spins 366 times about its axis during a 365-day year, because the Earth's revolution about the Sun removes one apparent turn of the Sun about the Earth.

Boundaries of the day

For most diurnal animals, including Homo sapiens, the day naturally begins at dawn and ends at sunset. Humans, with our cultural norms and scientific knowledge, have supplanted Nature with several different conceptions of the day's boundaries. The Jewish day begins at either sunset or at nightfall (when three second-magnitude stars appear). Medieval Europe followed this tradition, known as Florentine reckoning: in this system, a reference like "two hours into the day" meant two hours after sunset and thus times during the evening need to be shifted back one calendar day in modern reckoning. Days such as Christmas Eve, Halloween, and the Eve of Saint Agnes are the remnants of the older pattern when holidays began the evening before. Present common convention is for the civil day to begin at midnight, that is 00:00, and last a full twenty-four hours until the next 00:00 (also known as 24:00, but this is not as widely used). In ancient Egypt the day was reckoned from sunrise to sunrise. Muslims fast from dawn (traditionally when a white thread can be distinguished from a black thread) to sunset each day of the month of Ramadan. In the United States, nights are named after the previous day, e.g. "Friday night" usually means the entire night between Friday and Saturday. This is the opposite of the Jewish pattern. This difference from the civil day often leads to confusion. Events starting at midnight are often announced as occurring the day before. TV-guides tend to list nightly programs at the previous day, although programming a VCR requires the strict logic of starting the new day at 00:00 (to further confuse the issue, VCRs set to the 12-hour clock notation will label this "12:00 AM"). Expressions like "today", "yesterday" and "tomorrow" become ambiguous during the night. Validity of tickets, passes, etc., for a day or a number of days may end at midnight, or closing time, when that is earlier. However, if a service (e.g. public transport) operates from e.g. 6:00 to 1:00, the last hour may well count as being part of the previous day (also for the arrangement of the timetable). For services depending on the day ("closed on Sundays", "does not run on Fridays", etc.) there is a risk of ambiguity. As an example, for the Dutch Railways, a day ticket is valid 28 hours, from 0:00 to 4:00 the next night.

List of famous days

- Black Monday
- Black Friday
- Bloody Sunday
- D-Day
- The Day The Music Died
- Ides of March
- Judgement Day
- September 11, 2001 See also List of commemorative days

People named Day

Some noted people with the name Day include Doris Day, Stockwell Day, and Dorothy Day.

External links

- [http://www.fourmilab.ch/cgi-bin/uncgi/Earth/action?opt=-p&img=learth.evif Show where it is daytime at the moment]
- [http://ptaff.ca/soleil/?lang=en_CA Sunrise and sunset, all year long, anywhere] Category:Units of time als:Tag ko:일 (시간) ja:日 simple:Day th:วัน

Juno (mythology)

Juno was a Roman goddess, the equivalent of the Greek Hera, queen of the gods.

Place in Roman Culture

Every year, on the first of March, women held a festival in honor of Juno called the Matronalia. Another festival in her honor, the Nonae Caprotinae ("The Nones of the Wild Fig") was held on July 7. Many people consider the month of June, which is named after the goddess who is the patroness of marriage, to be the most favorable time to marry. Juno's own warlike aspect among the Romans is apparent in her attire. She often appeared armed and wearing a goatskin cloak, which was the garment favored by Roman soldiers on campaign. This warlike aspect was assimilated from the Greek goddess Athena, whose goatskin was called the aegis. Juno was called Regina ("queen"). As Juno Moneta ("she who warns"), she protected the finances of the Roman Empire. Lucina was an epithet for Juno as "she who brings children into light". Lucina

Origin

There is a strong possible etymology from Indo-European
- yeu-, "vital force", as in English young. Such a derivation would be consistent with a descent from the mother goddess. More immediately, her Etruscan name was Uni. Whether Juno comes from Uni or vice versa or neither remains to be settled.

Later Uses of the Name

The asteroid 3 Juno bears her name.

Links

- [http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE599.html Juno the young] ja:ユノ

Hera

:This article is about the Greek goddess. For the asteroid, see 103 Hera, and also 1 Ceres, which briefly bore the name Hera. For the particle accelerator see Hadron Elektron Ring Anlage. For the missile system, see Hera missile. In the Olympian pantheon of classical Greek Mythology, Hêra (Greek or ) was the wife and sister of Zeus. She also presided as goddess of marriage, the patriarchal bond of her own subordination. (Slater 1968) Hera is portrayed as being majestic and solemn, often enthroned and crowned with the polos, the high cylindrical crown worn by several of the Great Goddesses. In her hand she may bear the pomegranate, emblem of fertile blood and death and a substitute for the narcotic capsule of the opium poppy (Ruck and Staples 1994). "Nevertheless, there are memories of an earlier, aniconic representation, as a pillar in Argos and as a plank in Samos" (Burkert 1985 p.131). In Roman mythology, the consort of Jupiter (Zeus) was Juno.

Etymology and Pre-History

Unlike some Greek gods, such as Zeus and Poseidon, Hera's name is not analyzable as a Greek or Indo-European word. She therefore seems to be a survival of a pre-Greek "great goddess" figure - perhaps one of the powerful female divinities of the Minoan pantheon, or of some unidentified pre-Greek ("Pelasgian") people. Hera's importance in the early archaic period is attested by the large building projects undertaken in her honor. The temples of Hera in the two main centers of her cult, at Samos and in the Argolid, were the very earliest monumental Greek temples constructed, in the 8th century BC. At Olympia, her seated cult figure was older than the warrior figure of Zeus that accompanied it. Homer expressed her relationship with Zeus delicately in The Iliad, in which she declares to Zeus, "I am Cronus' eldest daughter, and am honourable not on this ground only, but also because I am your wife, and you are king of the gods."[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2199] Though Zeus is often called Zeus Heraios ("Zeus, consort of Hera"), Homer's treatment of Hera is less than respectful, and in late anecdotal versions of the myths (see below) she appeared to spend most of her time plotting revenge on the nymphs seduced by her Consort, for Hera upheld all the old right rules of Hellene society and sorority. nymph

Cult

Hera was especially worshipped, as "Argive Hera" (Hera Argeia), at her sanctuary that stood between the former Mycenaean city-states of Argos and Mycenae, where the festivals in her honor called Heraia were celebrated. "The three cities I love best," the ox-eyed Queen of Heaven declares (Iliad, book iv) "are Argos, Sparta and Mycenae of the broad streets." Her other main center of cult was at Samos. There were also temples to Hera in Olympia, Corinth, Tiryns, Perachora and the sacred island of Delos. In Magna Graecia, the temple long called the Temple of Poseidon among the group at Paestum was identified in the 1950s as a second temple there of Hera. Greek altars of Classical times were always under the open sky. Hera may have been the first to whom an enclosed roofed temple sanctuary was dedicated, at Samos about 800 BC. (It was replaced later by the Heraion, one of the largest Greek temples anywhere.) Earlier sanctuaries, whose dedication is less secure, were of the Mycenaean type called "house sanctuaries". Samos excavations have revealed votive offerings, many of them late 8th and 7th century, which reveal that Hera at Samos was not merely a local Greek goddess of the Aegean: the museum there contains figures of gods and suppliants and other votive offerings from Armenia, Babylon, Iran, Assyria, Egypt, testimony to the reputation which this sanctuary of Hera enjoyed and to the large influx of pilgrims— and a general reminder to us that Greek myths did not evolve in a cultural vacuum (Burkert 1998). In Euboea the festival of the Great Daedala, sacred to Hera, was celebrated on a sixty-year cycle. In Hellenistic imagery, Hera's wagon was pulled by peacocks, birds not known to Greeks before the conquests of Alexander: Alexander's tutor, Aristotle, refers to it as "the Persian bird." The peacock motif was revived in the Renaissance iconography that unified Hera and Juno, and which European painters have kept familiar to us (Seznec 1953). A bird that had been associated with Hera on an archaic level, where most of the Aegean goddesses were associated with "their" bird, was the cuckoo, which appears in mythic fragments concerning the first wooing of a virginal Hera by Zeus. Her archaic association was primarily with cattle, as a Cow Goddess, who was especially venerated in "cattle-rich" Euboea. Her familiar Homeric epithet boôpis, is always translated "cow-eyed", for, like the Greeks of Classical times, we reject its other natural translation "cow-faced" or at least "of cow aspect". A cow-headed Hera, like a Minotaur would make a dark demon of fear. But on Cyprus, very early archaeological sites contain bull skulls that have been adapted for use as masks (see Bull (mythology)). The pomegranate, an ancient emblem of the Great Goddess (see Pomegranate), remained an emblem of Hera: many of the votive pomegranates and poppy capsules recovered at Samos are made of ivory, which survives burial better than the wooden ones that must have been more common. Like all goddesses, Hera may be displayed wearing a diadem and be veiled.

Hera and children

Hera presides over the right arrangements of the marriage and is the archetype of the union in the marriage bed, but she is not notable as a mother. The legitimate offspring of her union with Zeus is Ares, Apollo, Hebe (the goddess of youth), Eris (the goddess of discord) and Eileithyia (goddess of childbirth). Hera was jealous of Zeus' giving birth to Athena without recourse to her (actually with Metis), so she gave birth to Hephaestus without him. (An alternate version discounts this and says Zeus and Hera were both parents of Hephaestus) Zeus and/or Hera herself were then disgusted with Hephaestus' ugliness and threw him from Mount Olympus. As another alternative version, Hera gave birth to all of the children usually accredited to her and Zeus together, alone by beating her hand on the Earth, a solemnizing action for the Greeks, or by eating lettuce. Hephaestus gained revenge against Hera for rejecting him by making her a magical throne which, when she sat on it, didn't allow her to leave it. The other gods begged Hephaestus to return to Olympus to let her go but he repeatedly refused. Dionysus got him drunk and took him back to Olympus on the back of a mule. Hephaestus released Hera after being given Aphrodite as his wife.

Hera the nemesis of Heracles

Hera was the enemy of Heracles, the hero who, more than even Perseus, Cadmus or Theseus, introduced the Olympian ways in Greece (Ruck and Staples 1994). When Alcmene was pregnant with Heracles, Hera tried to prevent the birth from occurring. She was foiled by Galanthis, her servant, who told Hera that she had already delivered the baby. Hera turned her into a weasel. While Heracles was still an infant, Hera sent two serpents, to kill him as he lay in his cot, the mythographers interpreted the event. Heracles throttled a single snake in each hand and was found by his nurse playing with their limp bodies as if they were child's toys. The anecdote is built upon a representation of the hero gripping a serpent in each hand, precisely as the familiar Minoan snake-handling goddesses had once done. One account of the origin of the Milky Way is that Zeus had tricked Hera into nursing the infant Heracles: discovering who he was, she had pulled him from her breast, and a spurt of her milk formed the smear across the sky that can be seen to this day.

The Twelve Labors

Hera assigned Heracles to labor for King Eurystheus at Mycenae. She attempted to make almost each of Heracles' twelve labors more difficult. When he fought the Lernaean Hydra, she sent a crab to bite at his feet in the hopes of distracting him. To annoy Heracles after he took the cattle of Geryon, Hera sent a gadfly to bite the cattle, irritate them and scatter them. Hera then sent a flood which raised the water level of a river so much Heracles could not ford the river with the cattle. He piled stones into the river to make the water shallower. When he finally reached the court of Eurystheus, the cattle were sacrificed to Hera. Eurystheus also wanted to sacrifice Cretan Bull to Hera, who hated Heracles. She refused the sacrifice because it reflected glory on Heracles. The bull was released and wandered to Marathon, becoming known as the Marathonian Bull.

Hera's jealousies

Echo

For a time, a nymph named Echo had the job of distracting Hera from Zeus' affairs by incessantly talking. When Hera discovered the deception, she cursed Echo to only speak the words of others (hence our modern word "echo").

Leto and Artemis/Apollo

When Hera discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Hera's husband, Zeus, was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on "terra-firma", or the mainland, or any island at sea. She found the floating island of Delos, which was neither mainland nor a real island and gave birth there. The island was surrounded by swans. As a gesture of gratitude, Delos was secured with four pillars. The island later became sacred to Apollo. Alternatively, Hera kidnapped Ilithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods forced Hera to let her go. Either way, Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo. Another version states that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of Ortygia and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo.

Callisto/Arcas

Hera also figures in the myth of Callisto and Arcas. A follower of Artemis, Callisto took a vow to remain a virgin. But Zeus fell in love with her and disguised himself as Apollo in order to lure her into his embrace. Hera then turned Callisto into a bear out of revenge. Later, Callisto's son with Zeus, Arcas, nearly killed her in a hunt but Zeus placed them both in the sky as the constellations Ursa Major and Ursa Minor. An alternate version: One of Artemis' companions, Callisto lost her virginity to Zeus, who had come disguised as Artemis. Enraged, Artemis changed her into a bear. Callisto's son, Arcas, nearly killed his mother while hunting, but Zeus or Artemis stopped him and placed them both in the sky as Ursa Major and Ursa Minor. Another alternate version: Artemis killed Callisto in bear form, deliberately. Hera was not pleased with the placement of Callisto and Arcas in the sky, so she asked her nurse, Tethys, to help. Tethys, a marine goddess, cursed the constellations to forever circle the sky and never drop below the horizon, hence explaining why they are circumpolar.

Semele/Dionysus

Dionysus was a son of Zeus by a mortal woman. A jealous Hera again attempted to kill the child, this time by sending Titans to rip Dionysus to pieces after luring the baby with toys. Though Zeus drove the Titans away with his thunderbolts but only after the Titans ate everything but the heart, which was saved, variously, by Athena, Rhea, or Demeter. Zeus used the heart to recreate Dionysus and implant him in the womb of Semele, hence he was again "the twice-born". Sometimes it was said that he gave Semele the heart to eat to impregnate her. See also Dionysus' birth for other variations.

Io

Hera almost caught Zeus with a mistress named Io, a fate avoided by Zeus turning Io into a beautiful white heifer. However, Hera was not completely fooled and demanded Zeus give her the heifer as a present. Once Io was given to Hera, she placed her in the charge of Argus to keep her separated from Zeus. Zeus then commanded Hermes to kill Argus, which he did by lulling all one-hundred eyes to sleep. Hera sent a gadfly to sting Io as she wandered the earth. Alternate version: Io was transformed back into a nymph by Hera in Egypt. The Egyptians saw her, and worshipped her as a goddess and her former form, the cow.

Lamia

Lamia was a queen of Libya, whom Zeus loved. Hera turned her into a monster and murdered their children. Or, alternately, she killed Lamia's children and the grief turned her into a monster. Lamia was cursed with the inability to close her eyes so that she would always obsess over the image of her dead children. Zeus gave her the gift to be able to take her eyes out to rest, and then put them back in. Lamia was envious of other mothers and ate their children.

Hera in Neopaganism

Hera is one of the most popular gods among modern Neopagan sects in the United States, particularly among Hellenistic Neopagans. While most mythology regarding Hera seems to be conveniently omitted by most modern Neopagans, her roles remain much the same as they were in classical Hellenistic Paganism. Hera is seen as the goddess of the home and monogamy, and is believed to inspire love, loyalty, and happiness. Hera is also believed to inspire jealousy and is most commonly worshipped by women. All sects that include the worship of Hera encourage monogamy and the fulfillment of domestic duties. Worship of Hera may include or inspire the collecting of fragrances and ornaments, extravagant home decoration, the burning of oils and incense (particularly within the home), and the spilling of drinks or the burning of bread and other foods as sacrifice. Some have jested that the most common form of worship is the spilling of drinks and the burning of food within the home.

References

- Burkert, Walter, Greek Religion 1985.
- Burkert, Walter, The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age, 1998
- Graves, Robert, The Greek Myths 1955
- Kerenyi, Carl, The Gods of the Greeks 1951 (paperback 1980)
- Ruck, Carl A.P., and Danny Staples, The World of Classical Myth 1994
- Seznec, Jean, The Survival of the Pagan Gods : Mythological Tradition in Renaissance Humanism and Art, 1953
- Slater, Philip E. The Glory of Hera : Greek Mythology and the Greek Family (Boston: Beacon Press) 1968 (Princeton University 1992 ISBN 0691002223 ) Concentrating on family structure in 5th-century Athens; some of the crude usage of myth and drama for psychological interpreting of "neuroses" is dated.

External links

- [http://hellas.teipir.gr/Thesis/Samos/english/tdk158.html The Samos Museum:] cult objects recovered from the Heraion at Samos Category:Greek goddesses Category:Fictional queens ko:헤라 ja:ヘラ

Gemini

:For information on the US space program named Gemini see Project Gemini. :In mythology, the Gemini are Castor and Polydeuces. :For the awards for Canadian television, see Gemini Award. Gemini (18px, and Latin for twins) is one of the constellations of the zodiac. It is part of the winter sky, lying between Taurus to the west and the dim Cancer to the east, with Auriga and the near-invisible Lynx to the north and Monoceros and Canis Minor to the south. The Gemini program is named for it.

Notable features

Gemini includes two bright stars, named after the two twins, who correspond to the Dioscuri in Greek mythology - Castor (α), a pretty telescopic binary (actually sextuple), and Pollux (β), which is brighter and more southwesterly. The other stars are relatively dim - only one, γ Gem (Alhena) is ever seen from a large city - and trace out a rectangle to the southeast. The planet Pluto was discovered in this constellation in 1930, near the star δ Gem (Wasat).

Notable deep sky objects

The brightest deep sky object of Gemini is M35, an open cluster of 5th magnitude, 2 800 light-years from earth. It is northwest of η Geminorum, near the western edge of the constellation.

Mythology

Since this constellation is easily viewable as two parallel stick figures [http://www.coldwater.k12.mi.us/lms/planetarium/myth/Gem.gif], considering faint stars visible to the naked eye, it was associated with the myth of Castor and Polydeuces (also known as the Dioscuri). A myth of these twins heavily concerns cattle theft, and may be connected to early views of the Milky Way, as a herd of dairy cows or cattle, by which they are situated. The orientation of the constellation can vary (since they readily form stick figures whether leaning right or left), though the twins are usually viewed as left leaning. However, when right leaning, one of the twins resides in the Milky Way, and the other outside it, a situation making it appear that one of the twins is stealing the cattle, and the other is observing. In this situation, together with the area of the sky that is deserted (now considered as the new and extremely faint constellations Camelopardalis and Lynx), and the other features of the area in the Zodiac sign of Gemini (i.e. Orion, Auriga, and Canis Major), this may be the origin of the myth of the cattle of Geryon, which forms one of The Twelve Labours of Herakles.

Astrology

The Western astrological sign Gemini of the tropical zodiac (May 21 - June 20) differs from the astronomical constellation and the Hindu astrological sign of the sidereal zodiac (June 20 - July 20). In some cosmologies, Gemini is associated with the classical element Air, and thus called an Air Sign (with Libra and Aquarius). It is also one of the four mutable signs (along with Virgo, Sagittarius, and Pisces). Its polar opposite is Sagittarius. It is the domicile of Mercury. Each astrological sign is assigned a part of the body, viewed as the seat of its power. Gemini rules the hands and arms. The symbol for Gemini is the twins.

Gemini

:Stars with proper names: :
- Castor (66/α Gem) – sextuple 1.98, 2.88 :
- Pollux (78/β Gem) 1.16 :
- (24/γ Gem) 1.93 Alhena or Almeisan :
- : < ? al-han'ah The brand (on the neck of a camel) :
- : < ? al-maisan The shining one :
- (55/δ Gem) 3.50 Wasat [Wesat] :
- : < وسط السما wasaţ as-samā Middle of the sky :
- (27/ε Gem) 3.06 Mebsuta [Melucta, Meboula] :
- : < المبسوطة al-mabsūţa[h] The outstretched (paw of Leo) :
- (43/ζ Gem) 4.01 Mekbuda :
- : < المقبوضة al-maqbūđ̧a[h] The pulled in (paw) :
- (7/η Gem) 3.31 Propus [Praepes] or Tejat Prior :
- : < πρόπους The fore foot :
- (60/ι Gem) (or Propus, see η Gem) 3.78 :
- (13/μ Gem) 2.87 Tejat Posterior or Nuhatai or Calx or Pish Pai :
- (31/ξ Gem) 3.35 Alzirr :
- : < الزر az-zarr/az-zir :
- 1 Gem (or Propus, see η Gem) 4.16 :Stars with Bayer designations: :: 34/θ Gem 3.60; 77/κ Gem 3.57; 54/λ Gem 3.58; 18/ν Gem 4.13; 71/ο Gem 4.89; 80/π Gem 5.14; 62/ρ Gem 4.16; 75/σ Gem 4.23; 46/τ Gem 4.41; 69/υ Gem 4.06; χ Gem 4.94; 83/φ Gem 4.97; 42/ω Gem 5.20; 65/b Gem 5.01; 76/c Gem 5.30; 36/d Gem 5.28; 38/e Gem 4.73; 74/f Gem 5.04; 81/g Gem 4.89; 57/A Gem 5.04 :Stars with Flamsteed designations: :: 2 Gem 6.67; 3 Gem 5.75; 4 Gem 6.88; 5 Gem 5.83; 6/BU Gem 6.51; 8 Gem 6.09; 9 Gem 6.24; 10 Gem 6.58; 11 Gem 6.91; 12 Gem 6.95; 15 Gem 6.54; 15 Gem 9.21; 16 Gem 6.22; 19 Gem 6.38; 20 Gem 6.26; 23 Gem 6.73; 25 Gem 6.45; 26 Gem 5.20; 28 Gem 5.42; 30 Gem 4.49; 32 Gem 6.47; 33 Gem 5.87; 35 Gem 5.68; 37 Gem 5.74 – nearby; 39 Gem 6.20; 40 Gem 6.40; 41 Gem 5.73; 44 Gem 6.00; 45 Gem 5.47; 47 Gem 5.75; 48 Gem 5.85; 49 Gem 7.06; 51 Gem 5.07; 52 Gem 5.84; 53 Gem 5.75; 56 Gem 5.09; 58 Gem 6.17; 59 Gem 5.77; 61 Gem 5.94; 63 Gem 5.20; 64 Gem 5.07; 68 Gem 5.27; 70 Gem 5.58; 79 Gem 6.53; 82 Gem 6.18; 85 Gem 5.38

External links

- [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/gemini/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Gemini]
- [http://astrology.yahoo.com/astrology/general/dailyoverview/gemini Gemini Links on Yahoo.com]
- [http://www.astrology.com/ssc/gemini.html?ice=ast,scopes,mssc Gemini Links on Astrology.com]
- [http://www.doublesign.com/astro/western/signs.php?signid=gemini Gemini Links on DoubleSign.com] Category:Astrological signs ko:쌍둥이자리 ja:ふたご座 th:กลุ่มดาวคนคู่

Astrology

) - Y2K Chart — This particular chart is calculated for January 1, 2000 at 12:01:00 A.M. Eastern Standard Time in New York City, New York, USA. (Longitude: 074W00'23" - Latitude: 40N42'51"), using the tropical zodiac]] Astrology (from Greek: αστρολογία = άστρον, astron, "star" + λόγος, logos, "word") is any of several traditions or systems in which knowledge of the apparent positions of celestial bodies is held to be useful in understanding, interpreting, and organizing knowledge about reality and human existence on earth. All traditions are based on the relative positions and movements of various real and construed celestial bodies as seen at the time and place of the birth or other event being studied. These are chiefly the Sun, Moon, planets, Ascendant & Midheaven axes, and the lunar nodes. A practitioner of astrology is called an astrologer, or sometimes an astrologist. Astromancy, divination by the stars, is a slightly archaic synonym for astrology (likewise for astromancer and the rather rarely used astromancist). Many of those who practice astrology believe the positions of certain celestial bodies relative to the Earth either influence or correlate with people's personality traits, important events in their lives, illnesses, and relationships. Astrologers maintain that the cosmos of which the Earth is a part, runs in cycles and patterns. In fact, those practicing astrology learn at the start that astrology is a very serious study of cycles in time. Serious astrology is an applied science not to be confused with "sun-sign astrology" - the popularized entertainment form of astrology. Judicial Astrologers, or true classical scientific astrologers, do not separate from astronomy, the scientific study of outer space. Known as "judges of the heavens" - judicial astrologers rank among the most well-known astronomers, mathematicians and medical doctors in human history, and include such names as Hippocrates, Copernicus, Nostradamus, Brahe, Johann Kepler, Galileo, William Lilly and Isaac Newton, the inventor of calculus. The origin of astrology included astronomy and both were combined as one as an applied science before the emergence of materialist conventional scientists in the 18th Century. Judicial astrologers were considered masters of the art and applied science of astrology and were much sought-after mathematicians and astrological forecasters by royalty and the wealthy. One of the first uses of astrology was in predicting the weather using astrometeorology - a branch of judicial astrology. Judicial astrologers were once called prophets or seers and one of the earliest known astrologers was a prophet of the Bible called Abraham, also believed to be the inventor of the Chaldean Alphabet. Claudius Ptolemy, the Second Century A.D. judicial astrologer who is considered the father of western astrology, declared that prediction of events was only possible through the union of two factors: first, correct mathematical calculations of the positions and motions of the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars. Second, a prophetic spirit derived from God by which their configurations can be correctly interpreted by certain inspired human beings known as judicial astrologers. Many judicial astrologers practiced as teachers, medicial doctors and strategists and were known for their strict astrological principles and ability to forecast the future. Today, judicial astrologers are rare due to the false popularization of sun-sign astrology; however, those who do practice judicial astrology are known to be very accurate forecasters and astute observers of celestial movements relative to the Earth. It is said that nothing forecast by a judicial astrologer should ever be taken lightly due to the seriousness of practice and qualifications to become a judicial astrologer. The calculations performed in applied Astrology involve complex arithmetic that include Algebra, Geometry and Trigonometry - mathematical techniques invented by judicial astrologers. Astrologers calculate the positions of the planets and stars relative to the Earth and serve to locate the apparent location of heavenly bodies on desired dates and times based on tables of planets - also known as an scientific ephemeris. The opinion of the conventional materialistic scientific community is that astrology is superstition, with no actual predictive ability; yet, conventional scientists cannot account for the numerous accurate forecasts of astrologers throughout the centuries using the principles of judicial astrology. The core principles of astrology reflect a general principle, which was accepted in the ancient world, that events in the heavens have analogies on Earth. In places, such as ancient China and Babylon, the apparently untoward movement of a comet across the otherwise orderly movement of the heavens was taken as a portent of disaster. Such ancient beliefs are epitomized in the Hermetic maxim: As Above, So Below. The famous astronomer/astrologer Tycho Brahe also used a similar phrase to justify his studies in astrology: Suspiciendo despicio — "By looking up I see downward."

Description

In past centuries astrology often relied on close observation of astronomical objects, and the charting of their movements, and might be considered a protoscience in this regard. In modern times astrologers have tended to rely on data drawn up by astronomers and set out in a set of tables called an ephemeris, which shows the changing positions of the heavenly bodies through time. It is the interpretation of these science based tables that makes astrology a target for the label pseudoscience. Central to all astrology is the horoscope. This is a diagrammatic representation in two dimensions of the celestial bodies' apparent positions in the heavens from the vantage of a location on Earth at a given time and place. The horoscope of an individual's birth is called a natal chart (other names for this diagram in English include natus, nativity, astrological chart, astro-chart, celestial map, birth chart, sky-map, cosmogram, vitasphere, soulprint, radical chart, radix, or simply chart). The path of the sun across the heavens as seen from Earth during a full year is called the ecliptic by astronomers. This, and the nearby band of sky followed by the visible planets is called the zodiac by astrologers. A few Western and all Jyotish (Hindu) astrologers use the sidereal zodiac, which uses the true astronomical positions of the stars and constellations which lie on the ecliptic. The majority of Western astrologers base their work on the tropical zodiac, which aligns with the seasons but not with the actual positions of the stars. To determine the astrological signs in which the Sun, Moon, and the other celestial bodies fall on any given day, hour, minute, or second, it is necessary to consult an ephemeris or use an astrological computer program which will have a built-in ephemeris. Computer programs make it easy to calculate the horoscope so that the modern astrologer can spend more time interpreting the chart rather than calculating it. The consequence is that it is now possible for some to practice astrology with little understanding of celestial mechanics. Interpretation of a horoscope/natal chart is governed by: :
- astrological aspects: the positions of the major planetary bodies relative to each other, :
- their positions relative to the astrological signs of one of the zodiac sytems, :
- their position in one of the systems of astrological houses, :
- their positions relative to the horizon line (namely the ascendant/descendant axes, zenith/midheaven and nadir/immum coeli axes), :
- the position of deduced astronomical entities, namely the Moon's nodes. Significant traditions of astrology include but are not limited to: :
- Western astrology (using the tropical zodiac), :
- Chinese astrology, :
- Jyotish (Vedic astrology, :
- Western sidereal astrology), (using the sidereal zodiac). :
- Mesoamerican astrology, :
- Tibetan astrology, and :
- Kabbalistic astrology. Some of these can also be subdivided into specific branches, such as :
- natal astrology (the study of a person's birth, or natal chart), :
- horary astrology (a chart drawn up to answer a specific question), and :
- electional astrology (a chart drawn up ahead of time to determine the best moment to begin an enterprise or undertaking). :
- medical astrology (using the client's natal chart and/or a horary chart to diagnose and treat various illnesses) Other areas of specialized astrological study are :
- Mundane astrology that sees correlations between geological phenomena (such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, etc.) and astronomical phenomena. :
- Political astrology , is the ancient branch of astrology dealing with politics, and government. :
- Meteorological astrology uses methods which are supposed to be able to predict the weather.

History of astrology

The study of Western astrology and the belief in it, as part of astronomy, is found in a developed form among the ancient Babylonians; and directly or indirectly through the Babylonians, it spread to other nations. It came to Greece about the middle of the 4th century BC, and reached Rome before the opening of the Christian era. For a detailed description, including astrology in other cultures, see the main article.

The validity of astrology

Astrology is a very controversial subject. The case for and the case against astrology's objective validity are discussed more fully at Validity of astrology. Some astrologers argue that astrology works by a mechanism that is (yet) unknown to science and that it is validated by their personal experience when applied in real life cases. They argue that it does not make the hard predictions that science would require but informs the user of subtleties to decisions that would otherwise be missed. Skeptics see astrology as repeatedly failing to demonstrate its effectiveness in controlled studies and see those who continue to use and believe in it as gullible and deluded, or even as charlatans. charlatan]]

Effects on world culture

Astrology has had a profound influence over the past few thousand years on Western and Eastern cultures, along with the English language. Influenza was so named because doctors once believed it to be caused by unfavorable planetary and stellar influences. The word "disaster" comes from the Latin "dis-aster" meaning "bad star". Also, the adjectives "lunatic" (Moon), "mercurial" (Mercury), "martial" (Mars), "jovial" (Jupiter/Jove), and "saturnine" (Saturn) are all old words used to describe personal qualities said to resemble or be highly influenced by the astrological characteristics of the planet, some of which are derived from the attributes of the ancient Roman gods they are named after.

Astrology as a descriptive language for the mind

Many writers, notably William Shakespeare [http://www.chartplanet.com/html/shakespeare.html], used astrological symbolism to add subtlety to the description of their characters' motivation. An understanding of astrological principles is needed to fully appreciate such literature, along with the work of many other writers and poets of this and many other eras. Some modern thinkers, notably Carl Jung, have acknowledged its descriptive powers of the mind without necessarily subscribing to its predictive claims.

Astrology and the classical elements

Astrology has used the concept of classical elements from antiquity up until the present. Most modern astrologers use the four classical elements extensively, and indeed it is still viewed as a critical part of interpreting the astrological chart.

Astrology and alchemy

Alchemy in the Western World and other locations where it was widely practiced was (and in many cases still is) closely allied and intertwined with traditional Babylonian-Greek style astrology; in numerous ways they were built to complement each other in the search for hidden knowledge. Traditionally, each of the seven planets in the solar system as known to the ancients was associated with, held dominion over, and ruled a certain metal. A separate article also exists on astrology and numerology.

The seven liberal arts and astrology

In medieval Europe, a university education was divided into seven distinct areas, each represented by a particular planet and known as the Seven Liberal Arts. They were seen as operating in ascending order, beginning with Grammar which was assigned to the quickest moving celestial body (the Moon) and culminating in Astronomia which was thought to be astrologically ruled by Saturn, the slowest moving and furthest out planet known at the time. After this sequence wisdom was supposed to have been achieved by the medieval university student. Dante Alighieri used the following associations of the seven liberal arts to the seven traditional astrological planets in the Divine Comedy and Convivio.
- Astronomia — Saturn
- Geometry — Jupiter
- Arithmetic — Mars
- Music — Sun
- Rhetoric — Venus
- Dialectic — Mercury
- Grammar — Moon

Astrology and the Days of the Week

Each day of the week was created in honor of one of the seven celestial bodies (the Sun, Moon, and five known planets); and in ancient astrology, each day of the week was said to be influenced by the traits of the celestial body it was named after. The system was symmetrical and free of complication until the discovery of Uranus in 1781. The English names, other than the obvious Sunday and Monday ("Moonday"), are taken from the Teutonic deities that were correlated with the Roman deities that were associated with the planets that the days were named after. The days of the week and celestial bodies they are named after are:
- Sunday — Sun
- Monday — Moon
- Tuesday — Mars
- Wednesday — Mercury
- Thursday — Jupiter
- Friday — Venus
- Saturday — Saturn You can learn more about planetary linguistics on [http://www.nineplanets.org/days.html this site].

External links

;History
- [http://www.skyscript.co.uk/ Skyscript — Classical Astrology] - A modern yet faithful look at Classical astrology.
- [http://www.esoteric.msu.edu/VolumeIV/astrology.htm Astrology: Between Religion and the Empirical] - A serious academic treatise on astrology by Dr. Gustav-Adolf Schoener and translated by Shane Denson.
- [http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/astr-hel.htm Hellenistic Astrology] - An Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry outlining the development of Hellenistic astrology and its interaction with philosophical schools.
- [http://www.world-of-dawkins.com/Dawkins/Work/Articles/1995-12romance_in_stars.htm The real romance in the stars] - A critical view of astrology by Richard Dawkins.
- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA
- /Astrologia.html Astrologia] - Article in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities
- [http://www.mountainman.com.au/astrology_01.htm The Scientific Basis of Astrology, Dr Percy Seymour] - Book Review.
- [http://www.templeofsolomon.org/pageone.htg/pageone.htm The Astrological Star Of Bethlehem] - How the Magi (astrologers) knew of the birth of Christ
- [http://the_mystic_light.tripod.com/mph_astrology.htm The Devolution and Evolution of Astrology] - Article by American mystic Manly Palmer Hall ;Schools
- [http://www.kepler.edu Kepler College of Astrological Arts and Sciences] - Based in Seattle, USA, Kepler College is the only college in the western hemisphere authorized to issue A.A., B.A., and M.A degrees in Astrological Studies.
- [http://www.bathspa.ac.uk/sophia/ The Sophia Centre] Based near Bath, England, the Centre is a department of School of Historical and Cultural Studies at Bath Spa University College. Funded by the Sophia Trust, the Centre teaches an innovative MA in Cultural Astronomy and Astrology and supervises postgraduate research.
- [http://www.astrology.org.uk/ Faculty of Astrological Studies] - Founded on 7th June 1948 in London, England at 19.50 BST; its Diploma, the D.F.Astrol.S., is among the most highly valued and recognised international qualifications. ;Validity
- [http://www.astrofaces.com Astrofaces Research Project] The Astrofaces project seeks to verify astrology with photographs grouped by the sun, moon and ascendant signs. Do people who share the three most prominent factors in the chart resemble each other?
- [http://www.astrology-and-science.com/ Astrology and Science] - A series of articles in which believers and skeptics debate the merits of astrology.
- [http://www.skepsis.nl/astrot.html The Astrotest] - An account of a test of the predictive power of astrology, with references to some other experiments.
- [http://www.discord.org/~lippard/kammann.html The True Disbelievers] by Richard Kamann and Marcello Truzzi is a report of alleged internal events at CSICOP regarding their own claimed confirmation of M. Gauquelin's 'Mars Effect'
- [http://skepdic.com/astrolgy.html The Skeptic's Dictionary on astrology] and [http://skepdic.com/mars.html the Mars effect]
- [http://www.lightlink.com/vic/astrol.html An Astrophysicist's Sympathetic and Critical View of Astrology] - by Victor Mansfield.
- [http://www.butterfliesandwheels.com/articleprint.php?num=59 Proof of Astrology?] - A critical look at Percy Seymour's books.
- [http://cura.free.fr/decem/09seym.html The Magus of Magnetism: How Planetary Motion Orchestrates Solar Activity and Geomagnetism] - An interview with Percy Seymour by Bronwyn Elko.
- [http://www.badastronomy.com/bad/misc/astrology.html Bad Astronomy: Misconceptions: Astrology] - an "attempt to show that astrology has no basis in reality whatsoever", by Philip Plait ;Comparision with other thought systems
- [http://www.spirithome.com/parastro.html Astrology, the Zodiac, Horoscopes and Planetary Alignment].
- [http://atheism.about.com/library/FAQs/skepticism/blfaq_astro_sci_pseudo.htm Is Astrology A Pseudoscience?]
- [http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Dean.pdf Academic Journal of Consciousness Studies: Is Astrology Relevant to Consciousness and Psi?]
- [http://www.astro.utoronto.ca/~bclarke/AST199M/Astrology.htm The Historical Foundations of Astrology]
- [http://www.khaldea.com/rudhyar/index.shtml Dane Rudhyar Archival Project -- Wholeness, Music, Astrology, Theosophy, Art, etc.]
- [http://www.robertezoller.com/ Robert Zoller -- Medieval Astrology]
- [http://www.noeltyl.com/menu.shtml Noel Tyl -- Contemporary Astrology]
- [http://www2.bitstream.net/~bunlion/bpi/AstrRoot.html Current Trends in Astrology]
- [http://finblake.home.mindspring.com/UranBeacon.htm A Comprehensive Uranian Astrology Website]
- [http://www.sabian.org/ssorigin.htm Sabian Symbols (originated by Marc Edmund Jones and Elsie Wheeler)]
- [http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/astdiv/2.html Astrology in Ancient History] ;Tools
- [http://alabe.com/freechart/ Astrolabe Software] - Calculate your personal natal chart or any astrological chart for free using this simple online calculation form.
- [http://www.astrologyweekly.com/dictionary/ A Comprehensive Astrological Dictionary] -- Use this to look up many common astrological terms, both in ancient and modern astrology.
- [http://www.astrolog.org/astrolog.htm Astrolog 5.40] - Home of the freeware astrology program Astrolog 5.40.
- [http://uk.geocities.com/astrolog32/ Astrolog32] - Home of the freeware astrology program Astrolog32.
- [http://www.halloran.com/astwin23.htm Astrology for Windows Public domain astrology software].
- [http://www.khaldea.com/ephemcenter.shtml The Original 3,000 Year High-Precision Daily Astrological Online Ephemeris from Khaldea.com] -- 600BC to 2400AD -- Calculated for Midnight GMT; also with an Aspectarian included for years 1900 to 2005
- [http://skyscript.co.uk/aspects.html Classical Use of the Astrological Aspects] - Learn all about the astrological aspects at this site.
- [http://www.astrowin.org/ Astrowin - Free Astrology Calculation Programs] - Astro123, AstroWin, MatchMkr, and more.
- [http://chronosxp.sourceforge.net ChronosXP] - Free Planetary Hours software for Windows
- [http://www.robhand.com/ Classical Astrology Archives]
- [http://free-horoscopes.typepad.com Astrology software] - Programs for making [http://free-horoscopes.typepad.com horoscopes].
- [http://ephemeral.info/too/ ephemeral.info Tools] - Many free web-based tools for looking up information about various celestial objects.
- [http://www.rosicrucianfellowship.org/software.htm RFIntrep, RFAstro, RF ACSS & RF PHour] free software & online free [http://www.rosicrucian.com/asthtme1.htm Rosicrucian Astrology book library]
- [http://www.bodysoulspiritexpo.com/enewsplus/enewsarc.php3?action=category&id=4 Astrological Articles Open Postings] Open Community Knowledge Base for astrologers to submit articles on astrological related subjects. ;Western astrology natal reports
- [http://www.astro.com/ http://www.astro.com/] -- Astrodienst (available in 8 languages)
- [http://astrology.newkerala.com/ http://astrology.newkerala.com/]
- [http://www.widgetsworld.co.uk/ http://www.widgetsworld.co.uk/]
- [http://www.astrologie-info.com/indexe.cgi http://www.astrologie-info.com/] -- Astrology Info: Natal chart in graphic/text mode and Interactive Moon calendar ;Natal reports for other systems
- [http://www.lunarcal.org/ http://www.lunarcal.org]
- [http://www.suzannewhite.com/newastrology/index.shtml http://www.suzannewhite.com]
- [http://www.onereed.com/ http://www.onereed.com/]
- [http://www.astrodreamadvisor.com/free_mayan_readings.html# http://www.astrodreamadvisor.com]
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Cancer

Cancer is a class of diseases characterized by uncontrolled cell division and the ability of these cells to invade other tissues, either by direct growth into adjacent tissue (invasion) or by migration of cells to distant sites (metastasis). This unregulated growth is caused by damage to DNA, resulting in mutations to vital genes that control cell division, among other functions. One or more of these mutations, which can be inherited or acquired, can lead to uncontrolled cell division and tumor formation. Tumor ("swelling" in Latin) refers to any abnormal mass of tissue, but may be either malignant (cancerous) or benign (noncancerous). Only malignant tumors are capable of invading other tissues or metastasizing. Cancer can cause many different symptoms, depending on the site and character of the malignancy and whether there is metastasis. A definitive diagnosis usually requires the microscopic examination of tissue obtained by biopsy. Once diagnosed, cancer is usually treated with surgery, chemotherapy and/or radiation. If untreated, most cancers eventually cause death; cancer is one of the leading causes of death in developed countries. Most cancers can be treated and many cured, especially if treatment begins early. Many forms of cancer are associated with environmental factors, which may be avoidable. Cigarette smoking leads to more cancers than any other environmental factor.

Diagnosing cancer

Most cancers are initially recognized either because signs or symptoms appear or through screening. Neither of these lead to a definitive diagnosis, which usually requires a biopsy. Some cancers are discovered accidentally during medical evaluation of an unrelated problem.

Signs and symptoms

Roughly, cancer symptoms can be divided into three groups:
- Local symptoms: unusual lumps or swelling (tumor), hemorrhage (bleeding), pain and/or ulceration. Compression of surrounding tissues may cause symptoms such as jaundice.
- Symptoms of metastasis (spreading): enlarged lymph nodes, cough and hemoptysis, hepatomegaly (enlarged liver), bone pain, fracture of affected bones and neurological symptoms. Although advanced cancer may cause pain, it is often not the first symptom.
- Systemic symptoms: weight loss, poor appetite and cachexia (wasting), excessive sweating (night sweats), anemia and specific paraneoplastic phenomena, i.e. specific conditions that are due to an active cancer, such as thrombosis or hormonal changes. Every single item in the above list can be caused by a variety of conditions (a list of which is referred to as the differential diagnosis). Cancer may be a common or uncommon cause of each item.

Biopsy

A cancer may be suspected for a variety of reasons, but the definitive diagnosis of most malignancies must be confirmed by microscopic examination of the cancerous cells by a pathologist. The procedure of obtaining cells and/or pieces of tissue, and their examination, is referred to as a biopsy. The tissue diagnosis indicates the type of cell that is proliferating, its severity (degree of dysplasia), and its extent and size. Cytogenetics and immunohistochemistry may provide information about future behavior of the cancer (prognosis) and best treatment. All cancers can be cured if entirely removed, and sometimes this can be accomplished by the biopsy procedure. When the whole mass of abnormal tissue (the "lesion") is removed, the borders of the sample are examined closely to see if all malignant tissue has truly been excised. If the cancer has spread to other sites in the body (metastasis), complete surgical excision is impossible. The nature of the biopsy depends on the organ that is sampled. Many biopsies (such as those of the skin, breast or liver) can happen on an outpatient basis. Biopsies of other organs are performed under anesthesia and require surgery.

Screening

Cancer screening is an attempt to detect unsuspected cancers in the population. Screening tests suitable for large numbers of healthy people must be relatively affordable, safe, noninvasive procedures with acceptably low rates of false positive results. If signs of cancer are detected, more definitive and invasive followup tests are performed to confirm the diagnosis. Screening for cancer can lead to earlier diagnosis. Early diagnosis may lead to extended life. A number of different screening tests have been developed. Breast cancer screening can be done by breast self-examination. Screening by regular mammograms detects tumors even earlier than self-examination, and many countries use it to systematically screen all middle-aged women. Colorectal cancer can be detected through fecal occult blood testing and colonoscopy, which reduces both colon cancer incidence and mortality, presumably through the detection and removal of premalignant polyps. Similarly, cervical cytology testing (using the Pap smear) leads to the identification and excision of precancerous lesions. Over time, such testing has been followed by a dramatic reduction of cervical cancer incidence and mortality. Testicular self-examination is recommended for men beginning at the age of 15 years to detect testicular cancer. Prostate cancer can be screened for by a digital rectal exam along with prostate specific antigen (PSA) blood testing. Screening for cancer is controversial in cases when it is not yet known if the test actually saves lives. The controversy arises when it is not clear if the benefits of screening outweigh the risks of follow-up diagnostic tests and cancer treatments. For example: when screening for prostate cancer, the PSA test may detect small cancers that would never become life threatening, but once detected will lead to treatment. This situation, called overdiagnosis, puts men at risk for complications from unnecessary treatment such as surgery or radiation. Followup procedures used to diagnose prostate cancer (prostate biopsy) may cause side effects, including bleeding and infection. Prostate cancer treatment may cause incontinence (inability to control urine flow) and erectile dysfunction (erections inadequate for intercourse). Similarly, for breast cancer, there have recently been criticisms that breast screening programs in some countries cause more problems than they solve. This is because screening of women in the general population will result in a large number of women with false positive results which require extensive follow-up investigations to exclude cancer, leading to having a high number-to-treat (or number-to-screen) to prevent or catch a single case of breast cancer early. Cervical cancer screening via the Pap smear has the best cost-benefit profile of all the forms of cancer screening from a public health perspective as, being a cancer, it has clear risk factors (sexual contact), and the natural progression of cervical cancer is that it normally spreads slowly over a number of years therefore giving more time for the screening program to catch it early. Moreover, the test itself is easy to perform and relatively cheap. For these reasons, it is important that the benefits and risks of diagnostic procedures and treatment be taken into account when considering whether to undertake cancer screening. Use of medical imaging to search for cancer in people without clear symptoms is similarly marred with problems. There is a significant risk of detection of what has been recently called an incidentaloma - a benign lesion that may be interpreted as a malignancy and be subjected to potentially dangerous investigations.

Types of cancer

Cancer cells within a tumor are the descendants of a single cell, even after it has metastasized. Hence, a cancer can be classified by the type of cell in which it originates and by the location of the cell. Carcinomas originate in epithelial cells (e.g. the dige

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