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June 10

June 10

June 10 is the 161st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (162nd in leap years), with 204 days remaining.

Events

- 1190 - Third Crusade: Frederick I Barbarossa drowns in the Saleph River while leading an army to Jerusalem.
- 1619 - Battle of Záblatí, a turning point in the Bohemian Revolt of the Thirty Years' War
- 1692 - Salem witch trials: Bridget Bishop is hanged at Gallows Hill near Salem, Massachusetts, for "certaine Detestable Arts called Witchcraft & Sorceries".
- 1719 - Battle of Glen Shiel
- 1793 - The Jardin des Plantes museum opens in Paris (becoming, a year later, the first public zoo).
- 1793 - French Revolution: Following arrests of Girondin leaders the Jacobins gain control of the Committee of Public Safety installing the revolutionary dictatorship.
- 1801 - Tripoli declares war on the United States for refusing tribute.
- 1829 - First Boat Race between Oxford and Cambridge.
- 1846 - Mexican-American War: The California Republic declares independence from Mexico.
- 1854 - The first class of United States Naval Academy students graduate.
- 1864 - American Civil War: Battle of Brice's Crossroads – Confederate troops under Nathan Bedford Forrest defeat a much larger Union force led by General Samuel D. Sturgis in Mississippi.
- 1886 - Eruption of Mount Tarawera in New Zealand, killing 153 people and destroying the famous Pink and White Terraces.
- 1898 - US Marines land on the island of Cuba during the Spanish-American War.
- 1924 - Fascists kidnap and kill Italian socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti in Rome.
- 1925 - Inagural service for the United Church of Canada, a union of Presbyterian, Methodist, and Congregationalist churches held in Toronto arena
- 1935 - Alcoholics Anonymous is founded in Akron, Ohio, United States, by Bill Wilson and Dr. Robert Smith.
- 1940 - World War II: Italy declares war on France and the United Kingdom.
- 1940 - World War II: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt denounces Italy's actions with [ftp://webstorage2.mcpa.virginia.edu/library/nara/fdr/audiovisual/speeches/fdr_1940_0610.mp3 "Stab in the Back"] speech from the graduation ceremonies of the University of Virginia.
- 1940 - World War II: German forces, under General Erwin Rommel, reach the English Channel.
- 1940 - World War II: Canada declares war on Italy.
- 1940 - World War II: Norway Surrenders to German forces.
- 1942 - World War II: Nazis burn the Czech village of Lidice as reprisal for the killing of Reinhard Heydrich.
- 1944 - World War II: 642 men, women and children are killed in the Oradour-sur-Glane Massacre in France.
- 1944 - In baseball, 15-year old Joe Nuxhall of the Cincinnati Reds becomes the youngest player ever in a major-league game.
- 1947 - Saab produces its first automobile.
- 1965 - Vietnam War: Battle of Dong Xoai begins.
- 1967 - Six-Day War ends: Israel and Syria agree to a cease-fire.
- 1967 - Argentina becomes a member of the Berne Convention copyright treaty.
- 1973 - Paul Getty III, grandson of billionaire J. Paul Getty, is kidnapped in Rome, Italy.
- 1977 - James Earl Ray escapes from Brushy Mountain State Prison in Petros, Tennessee, but is recaptured on June 13.
- 1977 - Apple Computer ships its first Apple II personal computer.
- 1978 - Costa Rica becomes a member of the Berne Convention copyright treaty.
- 1980 - The African National Congress in South Africa publishes a call to fight from their imprisoned leader Nelson Mandela.
- 1980 - Percy Wood, president of United Airlines, is injured by an exploding package sent by the Unabomber.
- 1991 - In what was dubbed "The Mother of All Parades," New York City hosts a parade welcoming back troops from Operation Desert Storm.
- 1996 - Peace talks begin in Northern Ireland without Sinn Féin.
- 1997 - Khmer Rouge leader Pol Pot orders the killing of his defense chief Son Sen and 11 of Sen's family members before Pol Pot flees his northern stronghold.
- 1999 - Kosovo War: NATO suspends its air strikes after Slobodan Milošević agrees to withdraw Serbian forces from Kosovo.
- 2003 - The Spirit Rover is launched, beginning NASA's Mars Exploration Rover mission.
- 2001 - Pope John Paul II canonized Saint Rafqa

Births

- 1213 - Fakhruddin 'Iraqi, Persian philosopher and Sufi mystic
- 1632 - Esprit Fléchier, French writer and bishop (d. 1710)
- 1637 - Jacques Marquette, French Jesuit missionary and explorer (d. 1675)
- 1657 - James Cragg the Elder, British politician (d. 1721)
- 1688 - James Francis Edward Stuart, "The Old Pretender" (d. 1766)
- 1706 - John Dollond, English optician (d. 1761)
- 1710 - James Short, Scottish mathematician and optician (d. 1768)
- 1803 - Henry Darcy, French scientist (d. 1858)
- 1810 - Hermann Schlegel, German ornithologist (d. 1884)
- 1819 - Gustave Courbet, French painter (d. 1877)
- 1835 - Rebecca Latimer Felton, U.S. Senator (d. 1930)
- 1861 - Pierre Duhem, French physicist and philosopher of science (d. 1916)
- 1862 - Mrs. Leslie Carter, American actress (d. 1937)
- 1880 - André Derain, French painter and illustrator (d. 1954)
- 1895 - Hattie McDaniel, American actress (d. 1952)
- 1897 - Grand Duchess Tatiana of Russia (d. 1918)
- 1901 - Frederick Loewe, Austrian-born American composer (d. 1988)
- 1907 - Fairfield Porter, American painter (d. 1975)
- 1910 - Howlin' Wolf, American musician (d. 1976)
- 1911 - Terence Rattigan, British playwright (d. 1977)
- 1913 - Tikhon Khrennikov, Russian composer
- 1915 - Saul Bellow, Canadian-born writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2005)
- 1921 - Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
- 1922 - Judy Garland, American actress,singer, and poet (d. 1969)
- 1923 - Robert Maxwell, Czech-born newspaperman (d. 1991)
- 1926 - Lionel Jeffries British actor
- 1927 - Lin Yang-kang, Chinese politician
- 1927 - Ladislao Kubala, Hungarian-Spanish footballer (d. 2002)
- 1928 - Maurice Sendak, American writer, producer, and illustrator
- 1929 - Harald Juhnke, German actor and comedian (d. 2005)
- 1929 - Ian McCahon Sinclair, Australian politician
- 1931 - João Gilberto, Brazilian singer
- 1933 - F. Lee Bailey, American attorney
- 1940 - John Stevens, British drummer (d. 1994)
- 1941 - Jürgen Prochnow, German actor
- 1941 - Mickey Jones, American musician and actor
- 1941 - Shirley Owens, American singer (Shirelles)
- 1942 - Preston Manning, Canadian politician
- 1949 - Ronnie James Dio, American singer
- 1951 - Dan Fouts, American football player
- 1953 - John Edwards, U.S. Senator
- 1957 - Lindsay Hoyle, British politician
- 1957 - Hidetsugu Aneha, Japanese one class authorized architect and builder
- 1959 - Eliot Spitzer, New York Attorney General
- 1962 - Gina Gershon, American actress
- 1962 - Vincent Perez, Swiss actor
- 1963 - Jeanne Tripplehorn, American actress
- 1964 - Jimmy Chamberlin, American musician
- 1965 - Elizabeth Hurley, British actress
- 1968 - Jimmy Shea, American skeleton racer
- 1969 - Ronny Johnsen, Norwegian footballer
- 1971 - Joel Hailey, American singer
- 1971 - Bruno N'Gotty, French footballer
- 1973 - Faith Evans, American singer
- 1975 - Henrik Pedersen, Danish footballer
- 1976 - Freddy Garcia, baseball player
- 1978 - Shane West, American actor
- 1982 - Princess Madeleine of Sweden
- 1982 - Tara Lipinski, American figure skater
- 1982 - Leelee Sobieski, American actress

Deaths

- 323 BC - Alexander the Great (b. 356 BC)
- 1075 - Ernest of Austria (b. 1027)
- 1190 - Frederick Barbarossa, Holy Roman Emperor (drowned) (b. 1122)
- 1424 - Duke Ernest of Austria (b. 1377)
- 1552 - Alexander Barclay, English poet
- 1556 - Martin Agricola, German composer (b. 1486)
- 1580 - Luis de Camões, Portuguese poet
- 1607 - John Popham, English politician
- 1654 - Alessandro Algardi, Italian sculptor (b. 1598)
- 1680 - Johan Göransson Gyllenstierna, Swedish statesman (b. 1635)
- 1735 - Thomas Hearne, English antiquarian (b. 1678)
- 1776 - Leopold Widhalm, Austrian luthier (b. 1722)
- 1791 - Toussaint-Guillaume Picquet de la Motte, French admiral (b. 1720)
- 1831 - Hans Karl Friedrich Anton, count von Diebitsch, Russian field marshal (b. 1785)
- 1836 - André-Marie Ampère, French physicist (b. 1775)
- 1899 - Ernest Chausson, French composer (b. 1855)
- 1901 - Robert Williams Buchanan, British poet, novelist and dramatist (b. 1841)
- 1902 - Jacint Verdaguer, Catalan poet (b. 1845)
- 1909 - Edward Everett Hale, American author (b. 1822)
- 1912 - Anton Aškerc, Slovenian poet (b. 1856)
- 1918 - Arrigo Boito, Italian poet and composer (b. 1842)
- 1923 - Pierre Loti, French sailor and writer (b. 1850)
- 1926 - Antoni Gaudí, Catalan architect (b. 1852)
- 1930 - Adolf Harnack, German theologian (b. 1851)
- 1934 - Frederick Delius, English composer (b. 1862)
- 1937 - Robert Borden, eighth Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1854)
- 1940 - Marcus Garvey, American civil rights activist (b. 1887)
- 1946 - Jack Johnson, American boxer (b. 1878)
- 1947 - Alexander Bethune, Mayor of Vancouver, British Columbia (b. 1852)
- 1949 - Sigrid Undset, Norwegian writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1882)
- 1958 - Angelina Weld Grimke, American journalist and poet (b. 1880)
- 1967 - Spencer Tracy, American actor (b. 1900)
- 1971 - Michael Rennie, English actor (b. 1909)
- 1973 - William Inge, American playwright (b. 1913)
- 1974 - Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester (b. 1900)
- 1976 - Adolph Zukor, Hungarian-born producer (b. 1873)
- 1982 - Rainer Werner Fassbinder, German author and film director (b. 1945)
- 1982 - Addie "Micki" Harris, American singer (Shirelles) (b. 1940)
- 1986 - Merle Miller, American biographer (b. 1919)
- 1988 - Louis L'Amour, American author (b. 1908)
- 1993 - Les Dawson, British comedian (b. 1933 or 34)
- 1996 - George Hees, Canadian politician (b. 1910)
- 1998 - Hammond Innes, English author (b. 1914)
- 2000 - Hafez al-Assad, President of Syria (b. 1930)
- 2000 - Brian Statham, English cricketer (b. 1930)
- 2001 - Princess Leila of Iran (b. 1970)
- 2001 - Mike Mentzer, philosopher, bodybuilder, and author (b. 1951)
- 2002 - John Gotti, American gangster (b. 1940)
- 2003 - Donald Regan, Chief of Staff and U.S. Treasury Secretary (b. 1918)
- 2003 - Bernard Williams, English philosopher (b. 1929)
- 2003 - Dr Phil Williams, Welsh politician and scientist (b. 1939)
- 2004 - Ray Charles, American singer and musician (b. 1930)
- 2005 - Curtis Pitts, American aircraft designer (b. 1915)

Holidays and observances

- Roman Empire – fourth day of the Vestalia in honor of Vesta
- Portugal – National day of Portugal, Camões and the Portuguese Communities

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/10 BBC: On This Day] ---- June 9 - June 11 - May 10 - July 10 – listing of all days ko:6월 10일 ms:10 Jun ja:6月10日 simple:June 10 th:10 มิถุนายน

June 10

June 10 is the 161st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (162nd in leap years), with 204 days remaining.

Events

Births

Deaths

Holidays and observances

- Roman Empire – fourth day of the Vestalia in honor of Vesta
- Portugal – National day of Portugal, Camões and the Portuguese Communities

External links

Leap year

A leap year (or intercalary year) is a year containing an extra day or month in order to keep the calendar year in sync with an astronomical or seasonal year. Seasons and astronomical events do not repeat at an exact number of days, so a calendar which had the same number of days in each year would over time drift with respect to the event it was supposed to track. By occasionally inserting (or intercalating) an additional day or month into the year, the drift can be corrected. Leap years (which keep the calendar in sync with the year) should not be confused with leap seconds (which keep clock time in sync with the day).

Gregorian calendar

The Gregorian calendar, the current standard calendar in most of the world, adds a 29th day to February in all years evenly divisible by 4, except for century years (those ending in -00), which receive the extra day only if they are evenly divisible by 400. Thus 1996 was a leap year whereas 1999 was not, and 1600, 2000 and 2400 are leap years but 1700, 1800, 1900 and 2100 are not. The reasoning behind this rule is as follows:
- The Gregorian calendar is designed to keep the vernal equinox on or close to March 21, so that the date of Easter (celebrated on the Sunday after the 14th day of the Moon that falls on or after 21 March) remains correct with respect to the vernal equinox.
- The vernal equinox year is currently about 365.242375 days long.
- The Gregorian leap year rule gives an average year length of 365.2425 days. This difference of a little over 0.0001 days means that in around 8,000 years, the calendar will be about one day behind where it should be. But in 8,000 years' time the length of the vernal equinox year will have changed by an amount we can't accurately predict (see below). So the Gregorian leap year rule does a good enough job. Image:Gregoriancalendarleap.png

Which day is the leap day?

The Gregorian calendar is a modification of the Julian calendar first used by the Romans. The Roman calendar originated as a lunar calendar (though from the 5th century BC it no longer followed the real moon) and named its days after three of the phases of the moon: the new moon (calends, hence "calendar"), the first quarter (nones) and the full moon (ides). Days were counted down (inclusively) to the next named day, so 24 February was ante diem sextum calendas martii ("the sixth day before the calends of March"). Since 45 BC, February in a leap year had two days called "the sixth day before the calends of March". The extra day was originally the second of these, but since the third century it was the first. Hence the term bissextile day for 24 February in a bissextile year. Where this custom is followed, anniversaries after the inserted day are moved in leap years. For example, the former feast day of Saint Matthias, 24 February in ordinary years, would be 25 February in leap years. This historical nicety is, however, in the process of being discarded: The European Union declared that, starting in 2000, 29 February rather than 24 February would be leap day, and the Roman Catholic Church also now uses 29 February as leap day. The only tangible difference is felt in countries that celebrate feast days.

Julian calendar

The Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by 4. This rule gives an average year length of 365.25 days. The excess of about 0.0076 days with respect to the vernal equinox year means that the vernal equinox moves a day earlier in the calendar every 130 years or so.

Revised Julian Calendar

The Revised Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by 4, except for years divisible by 100 that do not leave a remainder of 200 or 600 when divided by 900. This rule agrees with the rule for the Gregorian calendar until 2799. The first year that dates in the Revised Julian calendar will not agree with the those in the Gregorian calendar will be 2800, because it will be a leap year in the Gregorian calendar but not in the Revised Julian calendar. This rule gives an average year length of 365.242222… days. This is a very good approximation to the mean tropical year, but because the vernal equinox tropical year is slightly longer, the Revised Julian calendar does not do as good a job as the Gregorian calendar of keeping the vernal equinox on or close to 21 March.

Chinese calendar

The Chinese calendar is lunisolar, so a leap year has an extra month, often called an embolismic month after the Greek word for it. In the Chinese calendar the leap month is added according to a complicated rule, which ensures that month 11 is always the month that contains the northern winter solstice. The intercalary month takes the same number as the preceding month; for example, if it follows the second month then it is simply called "leap second month".

Hebrew calendar

The Hebrew calendar is also lunisolar with an embolistic month. In the Hebrew calendar the extra month is called Adar Alef (first Adar) and is added before Adar, which then becomes Adar Sheni (second Adar). According to the Metonic cycle, this is done seven times every nineteen years, specifically, in years, 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19. In addition, the Hebrew calendar has postponement rules that postpone the start of the year by one or two days. The year before the postponement gets one or two extra days, and the year whose start is postponed loses one or two days. These postponement rules reduce the number of different combinations of year length and starting day of the week from 28 to 14, and regulate the location of certain religious holidays in relation to the Sabbath.

Hindu Calendar

In the Hindu calendar, which is a lunisolar calendar, the embolismic month is called adhika maas (extra month). It is the month in which the sun is in the same sign of the stellar zodiac on two consecutive dark moons.

Iranian calendar

The Iranian calendar also has a single intercalated day once in every four years, but every 33 years or so the leap years will be five years apart instead of four years apart. The system used is more accurate and more complicated, and is based on the time of the March equinox as observed from Teheran. The 33-year period is not completely regular; every so often the 33-year cycle will be broken by a cycle of 29 or 37 years.

Long term leap year rules

The accumulated difference between the Gregorian calendar and the vernal equinoctial year amounts to 1 day in about 8,000 years. This suggests that the calendar needs to be improved by another refinement to the leap year rule: perhaps by avoiding leap years in years divisible by 8,000. (The most common such proposal is to avoid leap years in years divisible by 4,000 [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22gregorian+calendar%22+error+%22leap+year%22+4000]. This is based on the difference between the Gregorian calendar and the mean tropical year. Others claim, erroneously, that the Gregorian calendar itself already contains a refinement of this kind [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mleapyr.html].) However, there is little point in planning a calendar so far ahead because over a timescale of tens of thousands of years the number of days in a year will change for a number of reasons, most notably: #Precession of the equinoxes moves the position of the vernal equinox with respect to perihelion and so changes the length of the vernal equinoctial year. #Tidal acceleration from the sun and moon slows the rotation of the earth, making the day longer. In particular, the second component of change depends on such things as post-glacial rebound and sea level rise due to climate change. We can't predict these changes accurately enough to be able to make a calendar that will be accurate to a day in tens of thousands of years.

Marriage proposal

There is a tradition, said to go back to Saint Patrick and Saint Bridget in 5th century Ireland, whereby women may only make marriage proposals in leap years.

Saint Patrick and the leap year

:Saint Patrick, having driven the frogs out of the bogs was walking along the shores of Lough Neagh, when he was accosted by Saint Bridget in tears, and was told that a mutiny had broken out in the nunnery over which she presided, the ladies claiming the right of popping the question. :Saint Patrick said he would concede them the right every seventh year, when Saint Bridget threw her arms round his neck, and exclaimed, "Arrah, Pathrick, jewel, I daurn't go back to the girls wid such a proposal. Make it one year in four." Saint Patrick replied, "Bridget, acushla, squeeze me that way again, an' I'll give ye leap-year, the longest of the lot." Saint Bridget, upon this, popped the question to St Patrick himself, who, of course, could not marry: so he patched up the difficulty as best he could with a kiss and a silk gown. (Source: Evans, Ivor H, Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, Cassell, London, 1988) According to a 1288 law in Scotland, fines were levied if the proposal was refused by the man; compensation ranged from a kiss to a silk gown to soften the blow. Because men felt that put them at too great a risk, the tradition was in some places tightened to restricting female proposals to 29 February.

Birthdays

A person who was born on 29 February may be called a "leapling". In non-leap years they usually celebrate their birthday on 28 February or 1 March. There are many instances in children's literature where a person's claim to be only a quarter of their actual age turns out be based on counting their leap-year birthdays. A similar device is used in the plot of the Gilbert and Sullivan operetta The Pirates of Penzance. Category:Calendars Category:Units of time als:Schaltjahr ko:윤년 ja:閏年 simple:Leap year th:ปีอธิกสุรทิน

Third Crusade

The Third Crusade (1189–1192) was an attempt by European leaders to reconquer the Holy Land from Saladin. It is sometimes referred to as the Kings' Crusade.

Background

After the failure of the Second Crusade, Nur ad-Din had control of Damascus and a unified Syria.

Muslim unification

Eager to expand his power, Nur ad-Din set his sights on the Fatimid dynasty of Egypt. In 1163, Nur ad-Din's most trusted general, Shirkuh set out on a military expedition to the Nile. Accompanying the general was his young nephew, Saladin. With Shirkuh's troops camped outside of Cairo, Egypt's sultan, Shawar called on King Amalric I of Jerusalem for assistance. In response, Amalric sent an army into Egypt and attacked Shirkuh's troops at Bilbeis in 1164. In an attempt to divert Crusader attention from Egypt, Nur ad-Din attacked Antioch, resulting in a massacre of Christian soldiers and the capture of several Crusader leaders, including Raynald of Châtillon, Prince of Antioch. Nur ad-Din sent the scalps of the Christian defenders to Egypt for Shirkuh to proudly display at Bilbeis for Amalric's soldiers to see. This action prompted both Amalric and Shirkuh to lead their armies out of Egypt. In 1167, Nur ad-Din once again sent Shirkuh to conquer the Fatimids in Egypt. Shawar also opted to once again call upon Amalric for the defense of his territory. The combined Egyptian-Christian forces pursued Shirkuh until he retreated to Alexandria. Amalric then breached his alliance with Shawar by turning his forces on Egypt and besieging the city of Bilbeis. Shawar pleaded with his former enemy, Nur ad-Din to save him from Amalric's treachery. Lacking the resources to maintain a prolonged siege of Cairo against the combined forces of Nur ad-Din and Shawar, Amalric retreated. This new alliance gave Nur ad-Din rule over virtually the entire Muslim world, from Syria to Egypt. Muslim

Saladin's conquests

Shawar was executed for his treacherous alliances with the Christian forces, and Shirkuh succeeded him as vizier of Egypt. In 1169, Shirkuh died unexpectedly after only weeks of rule. Shirkuh's successor was his nephew, Saladin. Nur ad-Din died in 1174, leaving the new empire to his 11-year old son, As-Salih. It was decided that the only man competent enough to uphold the jihad against the Crusaders was Saladin, who became sultan of both Egypt and Syria, and the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty. Amalric also died in 1174, leaving Jerusalem to his 13-year old son, Baldwin IV, who forged an agreement with Saladin to allow free trade between Muslim and Christian territories. In 1176, Raynald of Châtillon was released from prison, and began raiding caravans throughout the region. He expanded his piracy to the Dead Sea by sending galleys not only to raid ships, but to assault the city of Mecca itself. These acts enraged the Muslim world, giving Raynald a reputation as the most hated man in the Middle East. Baldwin IV died in 1185 and the kingdom was left to the five-year old Baldwin V, with Raymond III of Tripoli serving as regent. The following year, Baldwin V died suddenly, and Princess Sybilla - sister of Baldwin IV and mother of Baldwin V - crowned herself queen and her husband, Guy of Lusignan, king. It was at this time that Raynald, once again, raided a rich caravan and had its travellers thrown in his prison. Saladin demanded that the prisoners and their cargo be released. The newly crowned King Guy appealed to Raynald to give in to Saladin's demands, but Raynald refused to follow the king's orders.

Fall of the Latin Kingdom

:Full article: Battle of Hattin; Siege of Jerusalem Siege of Jerusalem It was this final act of outrage by Raynald that prompted Saladin to attack the city of Tiberias in 1187. Raymond advised patience, but King Guy, acting on advice from Raynald, marched his army to the Horns of Hattin outside of Tiberias. The Crusader army, thirsty and demoralized, was slaughtered in the ensuing battle. King Guy and Raynald were brought to Saladin's tent, where Guy was offered a goblet of water. Guy took a drink but was forbidden to pass the goblet to Raynald, because the Muslim rule of hospitality states that one who receives food or drink is under the protection of the host. Saladin would not be forced to protect the treacherous Raynald by allowing him to drink. Raynald, who had not had a drop of water in days, grabbed the goblet out of Guy's hands. Upon seeing Raynald's disrespect for Arab custom, Saladin beheaded Raynald for past betrayals. Saladin honored tradition with King Guy; Guy was sent to Damascus and eventually ransomed to his people, one of the few captive crusaders to avoid execution. By the end of the year, Saladin had taken Acre and Jerusalem. Pope Urban III is said to have collapsed and later died upon hearing the news.

Preparations

The new pope, Gregory VIII proclaimed that the capture of Jerusalem was punishment for the sins of Christians across Europe. The cry went up for a new crusade to the Holy Land. Henry II of England and Philip II of France ended their war with each other, and both imposed a "Saladin tithe" on their citizens to finance the venture. In Britain the archbishop of Canterbury made a tour through Wales, convincing 3000 men-at-arms to take up the cross, recorded in the Itinerary of Giraldus Cambrensis. Giraldus Cambrensis]

Barbarossa's crusade

The elderly Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa responded to the call immediately. He took up the Cross at Mainz Cathedral on March 27, 1188 and was the first to set out for the Holy Land in May of 1189. Frederick had raised an army so massive that it could not be transported across the Mediterranean Sea, but instead had to cross Asia Minor on foot. The Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelus made a secret alliance with Saladin to impede Frederick's progress in exchange for his empire's safety. On May 18, 1190, the German army defeated the Turks at Konya. However, on June 10, 1190, Frederick was thrown from his horse in the crossing of the Saleph River and drowned. His son, Frederick VI led the army to Antioch where his body was interred in the Church of St. Peter. In Antioch, most of what remained of the German army died of plague.

Richard's departure

Henry II died on July 6, 1189 following a defeat by his son Richard I and Philip II. Richard inherited the crown and immediately began raising funds for the crusade. In July of 1190, Richard set out from Marseille, France for the island of Sicily. William II of Sicily had died the previous year, and was replaced by Tancred, who placed Joan — William's wife and Richard's sister — in prison. Richard captured the capital city of Messina on October 4, 1190 and Joan was released. Shortly after setting sail from Sicily, Richard's armada was struck by a violent storm. Several ships were lost, including one holding Joan, his new fiancée Berengaria, and a large amount of treasure that had been amassed for the crusade. It was soon discovered that Emperor Isaac Dukas Comnenus of Cyprus had seized the treasure. Richard entered Limassol on May 6, 1191 and met with Isaac, who agreed to return Richard's belongings and send 500 of his soldiers to the Holy Land. Once back at his fortress of Famagusta, Isaac broke his oath of hospitality and began issuing orders for Richard to leave the island. Isaac's arrogance prompted Richard to conquer the island within days.

Battle of Acre

:Full article: Battle of Acre King Guy was released from prison by Saladin in 1189. He attempted to take command of the Christian forces at Tyre, but Conrad of Montferrat held power there after his successful defense of the city from Muslim attacks. Guy turned his attention to the wealthy port of Acre. He amassed an army to besiege the city and received aid from Philip's newly-arrived French army, however it was still not enough to counter Saladin's force. Richard arrived at Acre on June 8, 1191 and immediately began supervising the construction of siege weapons to assault the city. The city was captured on July 12. Richard, Philip, and Leopold V (commanding the remnants of Barbarossa's army) began squabbling over the spoils of their victory. Leopold felt that he deserved equal recognition for his efforts in the battle, but Richard cast down the German standard from the city. Meanwhile, Richard and Philip argued over the rightful heir to the throne of Jerusalem. Richard held that the king was Guy, while Philip argued that Conrad deserved the crown. It was decided that Guy would continue to rule, but that Conrad would receive the crown upon his death. Frustrated with Richard, Philip and Leopold took their armies and left the Holy Land in August. When it became apparent that Saladin was not willing to pay the terms of the treaty at Acre, Richard had more than 3,000 Muslim prisoners executed on August 20 outside of Acre in full view of Saladin's camp.

Battle of Arsuf

:Full article: Battle of Arsuf After the capture of Acre, Richard decided to march to the city of Jaffa, where he could launch an attack on Jerusalem. On September 7, 1191, at Arsuf, 30 miles north of Jaffa, Saladin attacked Richard's army. Saladin attempted to lure Richard's forces out to be easily picked off, but Richard maintained his formation until the Hospitallers rushed in to take Saladin's right flank, while the Templars took the left. Richard won the battle and crushed the myth of Saladin's invincibility.

Crusade's end

Templars.]] Following his victory, Richard took Jaffa and established his new headquarters there. He offered to begin negotiations with Saladin, who sent his brother, Saphadin to meet with Richard. Negotiations failed, and Richard marched to Ascalon. Richard called on Conrad who refused, citing Richard's alliance with King Guy. Conrad was later assassinated in the streets of Tyre, reportedly on instructions from Richard. King Guy was given rule of Cyprus, and Henry II of Champagne became king of Jerusalem. In July of 1192, Saladin suddenly attacked and captured Jaffa, but the city was re-captured by Richard and a much smaller force on July 31. A final battle was fought on August 5 in which Richard once again emerged triumphant. On September 2, 1192, Richard and Saladin finalized a treaty by which Jerusalem would remain under Muslim control, but which also allowed unarmed Christian pilgrims to visit the city. Richard departed the Holy Land on October 9.

Aftermath

Richard was captured by Duke Leopold, whose pride had been wounded when Richard tore his standard from the walls of Acre. It took a ransom of 150,000 marks for Richard to be released. Richard returned to England in 1194 and died of an arrow wound in 1199 at the age of 42. Shortly after Richard's departure, Saladin died, leaving behind only one piece of gold and 47 pieces of silver; he had given the rest away to his poor subjects. The failure of the Third Crusade would lead to the call for a Fourth Crusade six years later. Accounts of events surrounding the Third Crusade were written by Ambrose the poet and Giraldus Cambrensis.

Sources

- Reston, James Jr. Warriors of God: Richard the Lionheart and Saladin in the Third Crusade. Anchor, 2001.
- Williams, Paul L. The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Crusades. Alpha, 2002.

External links

- [http://www.shadowedrealm.com/articles/exclusive/article.php?id=17 Richard and Saladin: Warriors of the Third Crusade] Category:Crusades Category:12th century ja:第3回十字軍

Saleph River

The Göksu (Geuk Su, Goksu Nehri, Saleph, Calycadnus) is a river in Cilicia (Turkey). Both its sources arise in the Taurus Mountains, the northern in the Geyik Mountains, the southern in the Haydar Mountains. They join south of Mut. The river is 260 km long and empties into the Mediterranean Sea between Tasucu and Silifke. The delta of the Göksu, including Akgöl Lake and Paradeniz Lagoon, is one of the most important breeding areas in the Near East; over 300 bird species have been observed. Among others, flamingos, herons, bee-eaters, kingfishers, gulls, nightingales and warblers breed here. The endangered Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta) lays eggs here. Emperor Frederick Barbarossa drowned in the Göksu in 1190, on the Third Crusade. Category:Rivers of Turkey

Jerusalem

Jerusalem (; Hebrew: ; Yerushalayim; Arabic: al-Quds; official Israeli Arabic: أُورْشَلِيم Urshalim; see also names of Jerusalem) is an ancient Middle Eastern city of key importance to the religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The State of Israel has its capital at Jerusalem. With a population of 704,900 (as of December 31, 2004 [http://www.cbs.gov.il/population/new_2004/tab_3.pdf]), it is a richly heterogeneous city, representing a wide range of national, religious, and socioeconomic groups. The section called the "Old City" is surrounded by walls and consists of four quarters: Jewish, Christian, Armenian, and Muslim. The status of the city is hotly disputed. The 1949 cease-fire line between Israel and Jordan, also known as the Green Line, cuts through the city. Since its victory in the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel has controlled the entire city and claims sovereignty over it. According to an Israeli law from January 1950 Jerusalem is the capital of Israel. A Basic Law of Israel enacted in 1980 (the Jerusalem Law) affirmed that Jerusalem is the capital of Israel, and is the center of Jerusalem District; indeed, since 1950, it serves as the country's seat of government and its capital. The UN Security Council Resolution 478 condemned the Jerusalem Law as "a violation of international law" and most countries prefer to keep their embassies in Tel Aviv.

Name

See also names of Jerusalem. The origin of the name of the city is uncertain. It is possible to understand the name (Hebrew Yerushalayim) as either "Heritage of Salem" or "Heritage of Peace" - a contraction of "heritage" (yerusha) and Salem (Shalem literally "whole" or "in harmony") or "peace" (shalom). (See the Biblical commentator the Ramban for explanation.) "Shalem" is the original name used in Genesis 14:18 for the city. Similarly the Amarna Letters call the city Uru Salim in Akkadian, a cognate of the Hebrew Ir Shalem ("city of Salem"). Some consider a connection between the name and Shalim -- the deity personifying dusk known from Ugaritic myths and offering lists. The ending -ayim or -im has the appearance of the Hebrew dual or plural suffix respectively. It has been argued that it is a dual form representing the fact that the city lies on two hills however the treatment of the ending as a suffix makes the rest of the name incomprehensible in Hebrew. A Midrashic interpretation comes from Genesis Rabba, which explains that Abraham came to "Shalem" after rescuing Lot. Upon arrival, he asked the king and high priest Melchizedek to bless him, and Melchizedek did so in the name of the Supreme God (indicating that he, like Abraham, was a monotheist). According to exegetes, God immortalizes this encounter between Melchizedek and Abraham by renaming the city in honor of them: the name "Yeru" (derived from "Yireh", the name Abraham gives to Mount Moriah after unbinding Isaac, and explained in Genesis as meaning that God will be revealed there) is placed in front of "Shalem". The plural ending implies the community of all believers in the One God who testify to the city's holiness.

History

Antiquity (prehistory - 6 CE)

Isaac's time]] This city has known many wars, and various periods of occupation. According to one Jewish tradition, it was founded by Abraham's forefathers Shem and Eber. According to Genesis 14:18, "Salem" was ruled by Melchizedek, a priest of God -- in some traditions, identical with Shem. Later it was controlled by the Jebusites. After this it came under Israelite control. The Bible records that King David defeated the Jebusites in war and captured the city without destroying it. David then expanded the city to the south, and declared it the capital city of the united Kingdom of Israel. Later, according to the Bible, the First Jewish Temple was built in Jerusalem by King Solomon. The Temple became a major cultural center in the region, eventually overcoming other ritual centers such as Shilo and Bethel. Near the end of the reign of King Solomon, the northern ten tribes split off to form the Kingdom of Israel with its capital at Samaria. Jerusalem then became the capital of the southern kingdom, the Kingdom of Judah. By the end of the "First Temple Period," Jerusalem was the sole acting religious shrine in the kingdom and a center of regular pilgrimage. Although recent archaeological finds may push the date yet earlier (see Tel Dan Stele), clear historical records begin to corroborate some of the Biblical history from around the 9th century BCE, the kings of Judah become historically identifiable, and the significance the Temple had in Jewish religious life is clear. Jerusalem was the capital of the Kingdom of Judah for some 400 years. It had survived (or, as some historians claim, averted) an Assyrian siege in 701 BCE by Sennacherib -- unlike Samaria, the capital of the northern Kingdom of Israel, that had fallen some twenty years previously. However, the city was overcome by the Babylonians in 597 BCE, who then took the young king Jehoiachin into Babylonian captivity, together with most of the aristocracy. The country rebelled again under Zedekiah, prompting the city's repeated conquest and destruction by Nebuchadnezzar in 587/586 BCE. The temple was burnt, and the city's walls were ruined, thus rendering what remained of the city unprotected. After several decades of captivity and the Persian conquest of Babylonia, Cyrus II of Persia allowed the Jews to return to Judah and rebuild the city's walls and the Temple. It continued to be the capital of Judah and center of Jewish worship, as a province under the Persians, Greek and Romans, with a relatively short period of independence under the Hasmonean Kingdom. The Temple complex was upgraded and the Temple itself rebuilt under Herod the Great, a Jewish client-king under Roman rule, around 19 BCE. That structure is known as the Second Temple, and was the most important of the many improvements Herod made to the city. After Herod's death, the province and city came under direct Roman rule in 6 CE.

Roman rule (6 CE - 638)

Second Temple: "Shekel Israel, year 3". Reverse: "Jerusalem the Holy"]] Reverse Jerusalem became the birthplace of Christianity in the first century CE. According to the Bible it is the location of both the Crucifixion and Resurrection of Jesus Christ. After a brief period of Roman rule, the city was ruined when a civil war, accompanied by the Great Jewish Revolt against Rome in Judea, led to the city's sack yet again, at the hands of Titus in 70 CE. The Second Temple was burnt and all that remained was a portion of an external (retaining) wall that became known as the Western Wall. After the end of this first revolt, Jews continued to live in Jerusalem in significant numbers, and were allowed to practice their religion. In the second century, the Roman Emperor Hadrian began to rebuild Jerusalem as a pagan city while restricting some Jewish practices. Angry at this affront, the Judeans again revolted, led by Simon Bar Kokhba. Hadrian responded with overwhelming force, putting down the revolution, killing as many as a half million Jews, and resettling the city as a pagan polis under the name Aelia Capitolina. Jews were forbidden to enter the city but for a single day of the year, Tisha B'Av, (the Ninth of Av, see Hebrew calendar), when they could weep for the destruction of their city at the Temple's only remaining wall. For the next 150 years, the city remained a relatively unimportant Roman town. The Byzantine Emperor Constantine, however, rebuilt Jerusalem as a Christian center of worship, building the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in 335. Jews were still banned from the city, except during a brief period of Persian rule from 614-629.

Arab Caliphates, Christian Crusaders, and early Ottoman rule (638-1800s)

Church of the Holy Sepulcher, according to Arab geographers such as al-Muqaddasi.]] Although the Qur'an does not mention the name "Jerusalem", the hadith specify that it was from Jerusalem that Muhammad ascended to heaven in the Night Journey, or Isra and Miraj. The city was one of the Arab Caliphate's first conquests in 638 CE; according to Arab historians of the time, the Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab personally went to the city to receive its submission, cleaning out and praying at the Temple Mount in the process. Sixty years later, the Dome of the Rock was built, a structure in which there lies the stone where Muhammad is said to have tethered his mount Buraq during the Isra. This is also reputed to be the place where Abraham went to sacrifice his son (Isaac in the Jewish tradition, Ishmael in the Muslim one.) Note that the octagonal and gold-sheeted Dome is not the same thing as the Al-Aqsa Mosque beside it, which was built more than three centuries later. Umar ibn al-Khattab also allowed the Jews entry into the city and full freedom to live and worship after 400 hundred years. Jews were allowed to move back into their homes. Al-Aqsa Mosque Under the early centuries of Muslim rule, especially during the Umayyad (650-750) and Abbasid (750-969) dynasties, the city prospered; the geographers Ibn Hawqal and al-Istakhri (10th century) describe it as "the most fertile province of Palestine", while its native son the geographer al-Muqaddasi (born 946) devoted many pages to its praises in his most famous work, The Best Divisions in the Knowledge of the Climes. The early Arab period was also one of religious tolerance. However, in the early 11th century, the Egyptian Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered the destruction of all churches and synagogues in Jerusalem, a policy reversed by his successors. Reports of this were one cause of the First Crusade, which marched off from Europe to the area, and, on July 15, 1099, Christian soldiers took Jerusalem after a difficult one month siege. They then proceeded to slaughter most of the city's Muslim and Jewish inhabitants. Raymond d'Aguiliers, chaplain to Raymond de Saint-Gilles, Count of Toulouse, wrote: :Piles of heads, hands, and feet were to be seen in the streets of the city. It was necessary to pick one's way over the bodies of men and horses. But these were small matters compared to what happened at the Temple of Solomon, a place where religious ceremonies were ordinarily chanted. What happened there? If I tell the truth, it will exceed your powers of belief. So let it suffice to say this much, at least, that in the Temple and porch of Solomon, men rode in blood up to their knees and bridle-reins. Indeed, it was a just and splendid judgment of God that this place should be filled with the blood of unbelievers, since it had suffered so long from their blasphemies. The city was filled with corpses and blood. (Edward Peters, The First Crusade: The chronicle of Fulcher of Chartres and other source materials, p. 214) Jerusalem became the capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, a feudal state, of which the King of Jerusalem was the chief. The Kingdom of Jerusalem lasted until 1291; however, Jerusalem itself was recaptured by Saladin in 1187, who permitted worship of all religions (see Siege of Jerusalem (1187). In 1173 Benjamin of Tudela visited Jerusalem. He described it as a small city full of Jacobites, Armenians, Greeks, and Georgians. Two hundred Jews dwelt in a corner of the city under the Tower of David. In 1219 the walls of the city were taken down by order of the Sultan of Damascus; in 1229, by treaty with Egypt, Jerusalem came into the hands of Frederick II of Germany. In 1239 he began to rebuild the walls; but they were again demolished by Da'ud, the emir of Kerak. Kerak In 1243 Jerusalem came again into the power of the Christians, and the walls were repaired. The Kharezmian Tatars took the city in 1244; and they in turn were driven out by the Egyptians in 1247. In 1260 the Tatars under Hulaku Khan overran the whole land, and the Jews that were in Jerusalem had to flee to the neighboring villages. Hulaku Khan In 1244, Sultan Malik al-Muattam razed the city walls, rendering it agai