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June 13

June 13

June 13 is the 164th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (165th in leap years), with 201 days remaining.

Events

- 1625 - King Charles I is married to the French princess Henrietta Maria de Bourbon
- 1774 - Rhode Island becomes the first of Britain's North American colonies to ban the importation of slaves.
- 1777 - American Revolutionary War: Marquis de Lafayette lands near Charleston, South Carolina, in order to help the Continental Congress to train its army.
- 1798 - Mission San Luis Rey de Francia is founded.
- 1805 - Lewis and Clark Expedition: Scouting ahead of the expedition, Meriwether Lewis and four companions sight the Great Falls of the Missouri River.
- 1871 - In Labrador, a hurricane kills 300 people.
- 1881 - The USS Jeannette is crushed in an Arctic Ocean ice pack.
- 1886 - A fire devastates much of Vancouver, British Columbia.
- 1898 - Yukon Territory is formed, with Dawson chosen as its capital.
- 1917 - Germany bombs London
- 1920 - The United States Postal Service rules that children may not be sent via parcel post.
- 1927 - A ticker-tape parade is held for aviator Charles Lindbergh down 5th Avenue in New York City.
- 1934 - Adolf Hitler and Mussolini meet in Venice, Italy; Mussolini later describes the German dictator as "a silly little monkey".
- 1935 - In one of the biggest upsets in championship boxing, the 10 to 1 underdog James J. Braddock defeated Max Baer in Long Island City, New York, and became the heavyweight champion of the world.
- 1942 - The United States opens its Office of War Information, a center for production of propaganda.
- 1944 - World War II: Germany launches a V1 Flying Bomb attack on England. Only four of the eleven bombs actually hit their targets.
- 1952 - Catalina affair, a Swedish Douglas DC-3 was shot down by a Soviet MiG-15 fighter.
- 1953 - Hungarian Prime Minister Mátyás Rákosi is replaced by Imre Nagy
- 1966 - The United States Supreme Court rules in Miranda v. Arizona that the police must inform suspects of their rights before questioning them.
- 1967 - Solicitor General Thurgood Marshall is nominated as the first African American justice of the United States Supreme Court.
- 1970 - "The Long and Winding Road" becomes the Beatles' last Number 1 song.
- 1971 - Vietnam War: The New York Times begins to publish the Pentagon Papers. [http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/48.htm]
- 1977 - Convicted Martin Luther King assassin James Earl Ray is recaptured after escaping from prison three days before.
- 1981 - At the Trooping the Colour ceremony in London, a teenager fires six blank shots at Queen Elizabeth II .
- 1982 - Fahd becomes King of Saudi Arabia upon the death of his brother, Khalid.
- 1983 - Pioneer 10 becomes the first manmade object to leave the solar system.
- 1992 - The Orlando Predators of the Arena Football League logged the first (and, to date, only) shutout in league history, defeating the San Antonio Force, 50-0.
- 1995 - French president Jacques Chirac announces the resumption of nuclear tests in French Polynesia.
- 1996 - An 81-day standoff between the Freemen and FBI agents ends with their surrender in Montana.
- 1997 - A jury sentences Timothy McVeigh to the death penalty for his part in the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing.
- 2000 - President Kim Dae-jung of South Korea meets Kim Jong-il, ruler of North Korea, for the beginning of the first ever inter-Korea summit, in the northern capital of Pyongyang.
- 2004 - A 4 kg meteorite hits the house of Phil and Brenda Archer in Ellerslie, New Zealand, destroying the roof and a couch.
- 2005 - Michael Jackson found not guilty on all 10 counts during his child molestation trial.

Births

- 823 - Charles the Bald, Holy Roman Emperor and King of the West Franks (d. 877)
- 1649 - Adrien Baillet, French scholar and critic (d. 1706)
- 1752 - Fanny Burney, english novelist and diarist (d. 1840)
- 1773 - Thomas Young, English scientist (d. 1829)
- 1775 - Antoni Radziwiłł, Polish politician (d. 1833)
- 1786 - Winfield Scott, U.S. general (d. 1866)
- 1831 - James Clerk Maxwell, Scottish physicist (d. 1879)
- 1865 - William Butler Yeats, Irish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1939)
- 1870 - Jules Bordet, Belgian immunologist and microbiologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1961)
- 1876 - William Sealey Gosset, English chemist and statistician (d. 1937)
- 1884 - Gerald Gardner, British occultist (d. 1964)
- 1887 - Bruno Frank, German author (d. 1945)
- 1888 - Fernando Pessoa, Portuguese poet (d. 1935)
- 1892 - Basil Rathbone, English actor (d. 1967)
- 1893 - Dorothy L. Sayers, English author (d. 1957)
- 1897 - Paavo Nurmi, Finnish runner (d. 1973)
- 1899 - Carlos Chávez, Mexican composer (d. 1978)
- 1901 - Tage Erlander, Prime Minister of Sweden (d. 1985)
- 1903 - Harold 'Red' Grange, American football player (d. 1991)
- 1906 - Bruno de Finetti, Italian mathematician and statistician (d. 1985)
- 1910 - Mary Whitehouse, British campaigner (d. 2001)
- 1910 - Mary Wickes, American actress (d. 1995)
- 1911 - Luis Alvarez, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1988)
- 1915 - Don Budge, American tennis player (d. 2000)
- 1926 - Paul Lynde, American actor (d. 1982)
- 1928 - John Forbes Nash, American mathematician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Economics
- 1929 - Alan Civil, English French horn player (d. 1989)
- 1933 - Tom King, British politician
- 1935 - Christo, Bugarian artist
- 1941 - Esther Ofarim, Israeli singer
- 1943 - Malcolm McDowell, English actor
- 1945 - Whitley Strieber, American author
- 1951 - Richard Thomas, American actor
- 1953 - Tim Allen, American comedian and actor
- 1959 - Steve Georganas, Australian politician
- 1961 - Anders Järryd, Swedish tennis player
- 1962 - Ally Sheedy, American actress
- 1963 - Bettina Bunge, German tennis player
- 1964 - Kathy Burke, English actress and comedian
- 1966 - Grigori Perelman, Russian mathematician
- 1968 - David Gray, British singer and songwriter
- 1968 - Denise Pearson, British singer and songwriter (Five Star)
- 1970 - Chris Cairns, New Zealand cricketer
- 1970 - Rivers Cuomo, American singer and musician (Weezer)
- 1970 - Mikael Ljungberg, Swedish wrestler (d. 2004)
- 1973 - Sam Adams, American football player
- 1973 - Leeann Tweeden, American model and television personality
- 1974 - Steve-O, English television personality
- 1978 - Ethan Embry, American actor
- 1979 - Nila Håkedal, Norwegian beach volleyball player
- 1980 - Darius Vassell, English footballer
- 1982 - Kenenisa Bekele, Ethiopian athlete
- 1986 - Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen, American actresses

Deaths

- 1036 - Ali az-Zahir, caliph (b. 1005)
- 1231 - Anthony of Padua, Portuguese saint (b. 1195)
- 1636 - George Gordon, 1st Marquess of Huntly, Scottish politician (b. 1562)
- 1645 - Miyamoto Musashi, Japanese swordsman
- 1665 - Egbert Bartholomeusz Kortenaer, Dutch admiral (b. 1604)
- 1784 - Henry Middleton, American president of the Continental Congress (b. 1717)
- 1881 - Josef Skoda, Czech physician (b. 1805)
- 1886 - King Ludwig II of Bavaria (b. 1845)
- 1918 - Tsar Mikhail Alexandrovitch Romanov (b. 1878)
- 1931 - Shibasaburo Kitasato, Japanese physician (b. 1851)
- 1951 - Ben Chifley, Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1885)
- 1965 - Martin Buber, Austrian philosopher (b. 1878)
- 1972 - Clyde McPhatter, American musician (b. 1932)
- 1972 - Georg von Békésy, Hungarian biophysicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1899)
- 1979 - Darla Hood, American actress (b. 1931)
- 1980 - Walter Rodney, Guyanese historian and political figure (b. 1942)
- 1982 - King Khalid of Saudi Arabia (b. 1912)
- 1986 - Benny Goodman, American musician (b. 1909)
- 1987 - Geraldine Page, American actress (b. 1924)
- 1993 - Deke Slayton, astronaut (b. 1924)
- 1998 - Birger Ruud, Norwegian athelete (b. 1911)
- 2004 - Dick Durrance, American skier (b. 1914)
- 2004 - Ralph Wiley, American writer (b. 1952)
- 2005 - Jonathan Adams, English actor (b. 1931)
- 2005 - Álvaro Cunhal, Portuguese politician and writer (b. 1913)
- 2005 - Lane Smith, American actor (b. 1936)

Holidays and observances

- Feast of St Anthony of Padua
- Roman Empire – Quinquatrus Minusculae held in honor of Minerva
- Roman Empire – seventh day of the Vestalia in honor of Vesta
- USA – World Children's Day
- Queen's Birthday in Australia (second Monday of June: 2005)

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/13 BBC: On This Day] ---- June 12 - June 14 - May 13 - July 13 – listing of all days ko:6월 13일 ms:13 Jun ja:6月13日 simple:June 13 th:13 มิถุนายน

June 13

June 13 is the 164th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (165th in leap years), with 201 days remaining.

Events

Births

Deaths

Holidays and observances

External links

Leap years

A leap year (or intercalary year) is a year containing an extra day or month in order to keep the calendar year in sync with an astronomical or seasonal year. Seasons and astronomical events do not repeat at an exact number of days, so a calendar which had the same number of days in each year would over time drift with respect to the event it was supposed to track. By occasionally inserting (or intercalating) an additional day or month into the year, the drift can be corrected. Leap years (which keep the calendar in sync with the year) should not be confused with leap seconds (which keep clock time in sync with the day).

Gregorian calendar

The Gregorian calendar, the current standard calendar in most of the world, adds a 29th day to February in all years evenly divisible by 4, except for century years (those ending in -00), which receive the extra day only if they are evenly divisible by 400. Thus 1996 was a leap year whereas 1999 was not, and 1600, 2000 and 2400 are leap years but 1700, 1800, 1900 and 2100 are not. The reasoning behind this rule is as follows:
- The Gregorian calendar is designed to keep the vernal equinox on or close to March 21, so that the date of Easter (celebrated on the Sunday after the 14th day of the Moon that falls on or after 21 March) remains correct with respect to the vernal equinox.
- The vernal equinox year is currently about 365.242375 days long.
- The Gregorian leap year rule gives an average year length of 365.2425 days. This difference of a little over 0.0001 days means that in around 8,000 years, the calendar will be about one day behind where it should be. But in 8,000 years' time the length of the vernal equinox year will have changed by an amount we can't accurately predict (see below). So the Gregorian leap year rule does a good enough job. Image:Gregoriancalendarleap.png

Which day is the leap day?

The Gregorian calendar is a modification of the Julian calendar first used by the Romans. The Roman calendar originated as a lunar calendar (though from the 5th century BC it no longer followed the real moon) and named its days after three of the phases of the moon: the new moon (calends, hence "calendar"), the first quarter (nones) and the full moon (ides). Days were counted down (inclusively) to the next named day, so 24 February was ante diem sextum calendas martii ("the sixth day before the calends of March"). Since 45 BC, February in a leap year had two days called "the sixth day before the calends of March". The extra day was originally the second of these, but since the third century it was the first. Hence the term bissextile day for 24 February in a bissextile year. Where this custom is followed, anniversaries after the inserted day are moved in leap years. For example, the former feast day of Saint Matthias, 24 February in ordinary years, would be 25 February in leap years. This historical nicety is, however, in the process of being discarded: The European Union declared that, starting in 2000, 29 February rather than 24 February would be leap day, and the Roman Catholic Church also now uses 29 February as leap day. The only tangible difference is felt in countries that celebrate feast days.

Julian calendar

The Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by 4. This rule gives an average year length of 365.25 days. The excess of about 0.0076 days with respect to the vernal equinox year means that the vernal equinox moves a day earlier in the calendar every 130 years or so.

Revised Julian Calendar

The Revised Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by 4, except for years divisible by 100 that do not leave a remainder of 200 or 600 when divided by 900. This rule agrees with the rule for the Gregorian calendar until 2799. The first year that dates in the Revised Julian calendar will not agree with the those in the Gregorian calendar will be 2800, because it will be a leap year in the Gregorian calendar but not in the Revised Julian calendar. This rule gives an average year length of 365.242222… days. This is a very good approximation to the mean tropical year, but because the vernal equinox tropical year is slightly longer, the Revised Julian calendar does not do as good a job as the Gregorian calendar of keeping the vernal equinox on or close to 21 March.

Chinese calendar

The Chinese calendar is lunisolar, so a leap year has an extra month, often called an embolismic month after the Greek word for it. In the Chinese calendar the leap month is added according to a complicated rule, which ensures that month 11 is always the month that contains the northern winter solstice. The intercalary month takes the same number as the preceding month; for example, if it follows the second month then it is simply called "leap second month".

Hebrew calendar

The Hebrew calendar is also lunisolar with an embolistic month. In the Hebrew calendar the extra month is called Adar Alef (first Adar) and is added before Adar, which then becomes Adar Sheni (second Adar). According to the Metonic cycle, this is done seven times every nineteen years, specifically, in years, 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19. In addition, the Hebrew calendar has postponement rules that postpone the start of the year by one or two days. The year before the postponement gets one or two extra days, and the year whose start is postponed loses one or two days. These postponement rules reduce the number of different combinations of year length and starting day of the week from 28 to 14, and regulate the location of certain religious holidays in relation to the Sabbath.

Hindu Calendar

In the Hindu calendar, which is a lunisolar calendar, the embolismic month is called adhika maas (extra month). It is the month in which the sun is in the same sign of the stellar zodiac on two consecutive dark moons.

Iranian calendar

The Iranian calendar also has a single intercalated day once in every four years, but every 33 years or so the leap years will be five years apart instead of four years apart. The system used is more accurate and more complicated, and is based on the time of the March equinox as observed from Teheran. The 33-year period is not completely regular; every so often the 33-year cycle will be broken by a cycle of 29 or 37 years.

Long term leap year rules

The accumulated difference between the Gregorian calendar and the vernal equinoctial year amounts to 1 day in about 8,000 years. This suggests that the calendar needs to be improved by another refinement to the leap year rule: perhaps by avoiding leap years in years divisible by 8,000. (The most common such proposal is to avoid leap years in years divisible by 4,000 [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22gregorian+calendar%22+error+%22leap+year%22+4000]. This is based on the difference between the Gregorian calendar and the mean tropical year. Others claim, erroneously, that the Gregorian calendar itself already contains a refinement of this kind [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mleapyr.html].) However, there is little point in planning a calendar so far ahead because over a timescale of tens of thousands of years the number of days in a year will change for a number of reasons, most notably: #Precession of the equinoxes moves the position of the vernal equinox with respect to perihelion and so changes the length of the vernal equinoctial year. #Tidal acceleration from the sun and moon slows the rotation of the earth, making the day longer. In particular, the second component of change depends on such things as post-glacial rebound and sea level rise due to climate change. We can't predict these changes accurately enough to be able to make a calendar that will be accurate to a day in tens of thousands of years.

Marriage proposal

There is a tradition, said to go back to Saint Patrick and Saint Bridget in 5th century Ireland, whereby women may only make marriage proposals in leap years.

Saint Patrick and the leap year

:Saint Patrick, having driven the frogs out of the bogs was walking along the shores of Lough Neagh, when he was accosted by Saint Bridget in tears, and was told that a mutiny had broken out in the nunnery over which she presided, the ladies claiming the right of popping the question. :Saint Patrick said he would concede them the right every seventh year, when Saint Bridget threw her arms round his neck, and exclaimed, "Arrah, Pathrick, jewel, I daurn't go back to the girls wid such a proposal. Make it one year in four." Saint Patrick replied, "Bridget, acushla, squeeze me that way again, an' I'll give ye leap-year, the longest of the lot." Saint Bridget, upon this, popped the question to St Patrick himself, who, of course, could not marry: so he patched up the difficulty as best he could with a kiss and a silk gown. (Source: Evans, Ivor H, Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, Cassell, London, 1988) According to a 1288 law in Scotland, fines were levied if the proposal was refused by the man; compensation ranged from a kiss to a silk gown to soften the blow. Because men felt that put them at too great a risk, the tradition was in some places tightened to restricting female proposals to 29 February.

Birthdays

A person who was born on 29 February may be called a "leapling". In non-leap years they usually celebrate their birthday on 28 February or 1 March. There are many instances in children's literature where a person's claim to be only a quarter of their actual age turns out be based on counting their leap-year birthdays. A similar device is used in the plot of the Gilbert and Sullivan operetta The Pirates of Penzance. Category:Calendars Category:Units of time als:Schaltjahr ko:윤년 ja:閏年 simple:Leap year th:ปีอธิกสุรทิน

1625

Events

- March 27 - Prince Charles Stuart becomes King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland.
- June 13 - Marriage of Charles I of England and Henrietta Maria, Princess of France and Navarra.
- June 15 - Breda surrenders to the Spanish troops of general Ambrogio de Spinola
- The English Parliament refuses to vote Charles I the right to collect customs duties for his entire reign, restricting him to one year instead.
- William Oughtred invents the slide rule.
- James Ussher becomes Archbishop of Armagh.
- New Netherlands director Wilhem Verhulst commissions the construction of Fort Amsterdam on the southern tip of Manhattan.

Births

- June 8 - Giovanni Domenico Cassini, Italian astronomer and engineer (d. 1712)
- July 10 - Jean Herauld Gourville, French adventurer (d. 1703)
- August 13 - Rasmus Bartholin, Danish physician and scientist (d. 1698)
- August 14 - François de Harlay de Champvallon, Archbishop of Paris (d. 1695)
- August 20 - Thomas Corneille, French dramatist (d. 1709)
- September 24 - Johan de Witt, Dutch politican (d. 1672)
- October 4 - Jacqueline Pascal, French child prodigy and sister of Blaise Pascal (d. 1661)
- November 30 - Jean Domat, French jurist (d. 1696)
- December 14 - Barthélemy d'Herbelot de Molainville, French orientalist (d. 1695) See also :Category:1625 births.

Deaths

- January 7 - Ruggiero Giovannelli, Italian composer
- March 7 - Johann Bayer, German astronomer (b. 1572)
- March 25 - Giambattista Marini, Italian poet (b. 1569)
- March 27 - King James I of England and Ireland/James VI of Scotland (b. 1566)
- March 29 - Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas, Spanish historian (b. 1549)
- April 23 - Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange (b. 1567)
- April 27 - Mori Terumoto, Japanese warrior (b. 1553)
- June 1 - Honoré d'Urfé, French writer (b. 1568)
- June 5 - Orlando Gibbons, English composer and organist (b. 1583)
- August - John Fletcher, English writer (b. 1579)
- September 20 - Heinrich Meibom, German historian and poet (b. 1555)
- September 26 - Thomas Dempster, Scottish historian (d. 1579)
- October 22 - Kikkawa Hiroie, Japanese politician (b. 1561)
- December 9 - Ubbo Emmius, Dutch historian and geographer (b. 1547)
- Robert Cushman, Plymouth Colony settler See also :Category:1625 deaths. Category:1625 ko:1625년 ms:1625

Charles I of England

Charles I (19 November 1600–30 January 1649) was King of Scotland, England and Ireland from 27 March 1625, until his execution. He famously engaged in a struggle for power with Parliament; he was an advocate of the divine right of kings. Many in England therefore feared that he was attempting to gain absolute power. There was widespread opposition to many of his actions, especially the levying of taxes without Parliament's consent. This is one of the many manifestations of popular discontent with an absolute monarchy. Charles believed in a sacramental version of the Church of England, called High Anglicanism, with a theology based upon Arminianism, a belief shared by his main political advisor, Archbishop William Laud. Laud was appointed by Charles as the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1633 and started a series of reforms in the Church to make it more ceremonial, starting with the replacement of the wooden communion tables with stone altars. This was actively hostile to the Reformist tendencies of many of his English and Scottish subjects. His policy was obnoxious to Calvinist theology, and insisted that the Church of England's liturgy be celebrated with all of the ceremony and vestments called for by the Book of Common Prayer. Many of his subjects thought these policies brought the Church of England too close to Roman Catholicism. The last years of Charles's reign were marked by the English Civil War; he was opposed by the forces of Parliament (which challenged his attempts to augment his own power) and by Puritans (who were hostile to his religious policies). The war ended in defeat for Charles, who was subsequently tried, convicted and executed for high treason. The monarchy was overthrown, and a republic was established. As time passed this regime became increasingly dependent upon the army and became in effect a military dictatorship. Various political as well as socio-economic factors led to its collapse. Charles's son, Charles II, returned to restore the monarchy in 1660.

Early life

Charles, the second son of James VI, King of Scots and Anne of Denmark, was born at Dunfermline Palace on 19 November 1600. He was an underdeveloped child (he is listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the nation's shortest King) who was unable to walk or talk at the age of three. When Elizabeth I died in March 1603 and James VI became King of England as James I, Charles was originally left in Scotland in the care of nurses and servants because it was feared that the journey would damage his fragile health. He did make the journey in July 1604 and was subsequently placed under the charge of Lady Carey, who taught him how to walk and talk. As an adult he was 5 feet 4 inches (162 cm) tall. Charles was not as well-regarded as his elder brother, Henry, Prince of Wales. Charles himself adored Henry and tried to emulate him. In 1605, as was then customary in the case of the Sovereign's second son, he was created Duke of York in England. Two years before, in 1603, he was created Duke of Albany in Scotland. When his elder brother died of typhoid in 1612, Charles became heir apparent and was subsequently created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester in November 1616. His sister Elizabeth married in 1613, making Charles virtually an only child. The new Prince of Wales was greatly influenced by his father's favourite courtier, George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, who took him on an expedition to Spain in 1623 to look for a suitable bride, and settled on the daughter of the Spanish King Philip III, Infanta Maria of Spain. No marriage occurred, however, as the Spanish demanded the Prince of Wales's conversion to Roman Catholicism. Upon their return in October, both the Prince of Wales and the Duke of Buckingham demanded that James I declare war on Spain. With the encouragement of his Protestant advisors, James summoned Parliament to request subsidies for his war effort. James also requested that Parliament sanction the marriage between the Prince of Wales and Henrietta Maria of France, whom Charles met in Paris whilst en route to Spain. It was a good match since she was the daughter of the former French King Henry IV and the sister of the then current King Louis XIII. Parliament agreed to the marriage, but was extremely critical of the prior attempt to arrange a marital alliance with Spain. James was growing senile and as a result was finding it extremely difficult to control Parliament—the same problem would later haunt Charles during his reign. During the last year of his reign, actual power was held not by him but by his eldest son and the Duke of Buckingham.

Early reign

Charles ascended the throne in March 1625 and on 1 May that year he was married to Henrietta Maria, nine years his junior, by proxy. His first Parliament, which he opened in May, was opposed to his marriage to Henrietta Maria, a Roman Catholic, because it feared that Charles would lift restrictions on Roman Catholics and undermine the official establishment of Protestantism. Although he agreed with Parliament that he would not relax restrictions relating to recusants, he promised to do exactly that in a secret marriage treaty with Henrietta Maria's brother, the King of France. The couple was married on 13 June 1625, in Canterbury. Charles was crowned on 2 February 1626 at Westminster Abbey, but without his wife at his side due to the controversy. They had nine children with three sons and three daughters surviving infancy. Distrust of Charles's religious policies was increased by the controversy surrounding the ecclesiastic Richard Montagu. In a pamphlet, Montagu argued against the teachings of John Calvin, immediately bringing himself into disrepute amongst the Puritans. A Puritan member of the House of Commons, John Pym, attacked Montagu's pamphlet during debate, prompting Montagu to request the aid of Charles I in a pamphlet entitled "Appello Caesarem" ("I appeal to Caesar", a reference to an appeal against Jewish persecution made by Saint Paul the Apostle). Charles I offered the cleric his protection, leading many Puritans to take a hostile view towards him. Saint Paul the Apostle Charles's primary concern during his early reign was foreign policy. Frederick V, Elector Palatine, his sister Elizabeth's husband, had lost his hereditary lands in the Palatinate to the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II, leading to the Thirty Years' War, originally only a war to keep the Catholic Habsburgs hegemonic as the elected Kings of Bohemia, though which spiralled out of control into a civil and confessional war between Protestants and Catholics in Europe. Charles was committed to help his brother-in-law regain the Palatinate by waging a war with the Catholic Spanish King Philip IV, whom he hoped he could force to intercede with the Emperor on his behalf. Parliament preferred an inexpensive naval attack on Spanish colonies in the New World, hoping that the capture of the Spanish treasure fleets could finance the war. Charles, however, preferred more aggressive (and more expensive) action on the Continent. Parliament only voted to grant a subsidy of £140,000; an insufficient sum for Charles. Moreover, the House of Commons agreed to allow the King to collect tonnage and poundage (two varieties of customs duties), but only for a period of one year, although previous Sovereigns since 1414 had been granted the right for life. In this manner, the House of Commons hoped to keep a check on Charles's power by forcing him to seek the renewal of the grant each year. Charles's allies in the House of Lords, led by the Duke of Buckingham, refused to pass the bill. Although no Parliamentary authority for the levy of tonnage and poundage could be obtained, Charles continued to collect the duties anyway.

Buckingham's leadership

Charles's first Parliament was dissolved in August 1625. Charles pressed for war with Spain, but the naval attack on Cadiz was appallingly executed, and discredited Charles. Once again in need of money, Charles summoned his second Parliament in February 1626. To keep his foes out of Parliament, Charles appointed them sheriffs; as officers of the Crown, they were immediately disqualified from service in the House of Commons. As far as the upper House was concerned, Charles refused to grant a writ of summons—without which no person could be admitted to the House of Lords—to John Digby, 1st Earl of Bristol. He also imprisoned Henry Howard, 25th Earl of Arundel, whom he charged with a misdemeanour. The House of Lords, upon learning of the plight of these two Earls, declared that there was no precedent for denying a peer his writ or for imprisoning a peer for a mere misdemeanour. Charles' attempts to deprive members of the Parliament of their office and liberty without affording them due process of the law infuriated many members of that body, as did the collection of taxes without their consent. The Duke of Buckingham, meanwhile, was blamed for the disaster at Cadiz. The House of Commons tried to impeach him for high treason, and threatened to delay all votes on taxation until after the House of Lords found him guilty. The protests of the House of Lords had forced Charles I to release Bristol and Arundel, and with these two peers in attendance, a parliamentary majority against the Duke of Buckingham seemed likely. In retaliation and as a sign of defiance against the Parliament, in June 1626, Charles ordered the dissolution of Parliament. In the next year, the Duke of Buckingham led an expedition to aid the Huguenots—French Protestants who were persecuted by their King—at La Rochelle, but failed abysmally, increasing his own unpopularity. Moreover, England came to be at war with France, whilst still continuing its earlier war against Spain. Charles's treasury, meanwhile, continued to dwindle. To reduce expenditure related to the military, Charles ordered several Englishmen to billet, or board and lodge, his soldiers. He also demanded that his subjects grant him "loans," which he had no intention of repaying. Charles's scheme was declared illegal by the courts in 1627; in response, he removed and imprisoned the Lord Chief Justice, Sir Ranulph Crewe, and appointed Sir Nicholas Hyde in his place. He encouraged the Anglican clergy, all of whom were on his payroll, to deliver sermons encouraging such loans, and also encouraging obedience to all royal commands. When George Abbot, the Archbishop of Canterbury, refused to officially sanction one such sermon, he was stripped of his powers, although he was not formally removed from office. The Archbishop's functions were instead transferred to a commission of bishops, led by William Laud, the Bishop of Bath and Wells (afterwards Bishop of London). Those who still refused to contribute to Charles's treasury were imprisoned by Charles through "royal prerogatives," royal orders previously resisted by the common law courts and by most jurists of that time, although not explicitly charged with any crimes. In the notorious case known as the "Five Knights' Case" or "Darnel's Case," the new Lord Chief Justice, Sir Nicholas Hyde, held that it was permissible for the King to order the detention of individuals without charging them and without offering them the opportunity to post bail. Charles's wars with France had been crippling to his exchequer. Finding himself in dire need of funds to continue the war, Charles summoned the third Parliament of his reign in March 1628. Immediately, instead of addressing Charles's financial problems, the House of Commons proceeded to consider the abuse of power in the preceding years. It passed the Petition of Right, in which it sought to redress forced loans, arbitrary arrests, imprisonment without due process of law, billetting and taxation without parliamentary consent. Though initially opposed to the petition, Charles granted his Assent to it in June, after ensuring that his judges would not interpret it in a manner contrary to his wishes. At length, Parliament agreed to grant Charles the subsidies he desired, and was subsequently prorogued. The Duke of Buckingham, in the meantime, planned another attack on La Rochelle in France, but a naval officer, John Felton, assassinated him on 23 August. Charles and his courtiers sought to have Felton tortured on the rack, but were foiled by an opinion of an unanimous panel of judges. Instead, Felton was hanged for the offense.

The Personal Rule

In January 1629, Charles opened the second session of the Parliament which had been prorogued in June 1628. He hoped that, with the Duke of Buckingham gone, Parliament would finally cooperate with him and grant him further subsidies. Instead, members of the House of Commons began to voice their opposition to the levying of tonnage and poundage without parliamentary consent. When he requested a parliamentary adjournment in March, members held the Speaker down in his chair whilst three resolutions against Charles were read aloud. The last of these resolutions declared that anyone who paid tonnage or poundage not authorised by Parliament would "be reputed a betrayer of the liberties of England, and an enemy to the same". Though the resolution was not formally passed, many members declared their approval. Afterwards, when the Commons passed further measures obnoxious to the King, Charles commanded the dissolution of Parliament. Charles resolved not to be forced to rely on Parliament for further monetary aid. Immediately, he made peace with France and Spain. The following eleven years, during which Charles ruled without a Parliament, has been known as the Eleven Years Tyranny. Historians who do not wish to take sides simply refer to this period as the Personal Rule. Charles's attempt to rule without Parliament was not unlawful under the precedents at that time: it constituted a valid exercise of the royal prerogative, although it must be noted that what considered lawful in previous times may as well be tyrannical in contemporary eyes. Such was the case of Charles's Tyranny: though in former ages his rule would indeed be considered just and right by most Englishmen, towards the middle of the seventeenth century it was held by most of his subjects an exercise of absolute power. Indeed, the American colonialists would repeat the same charges of tyranny (lodging and quartering of troops in civilian properties; taxation without representation; deprevation of the common law right to jury trial; denial of judicial life-tenure; and the use of various tortures, etc.) against the British Crown a century later in the American Revolution. Personal Rule In the meantime Charles still had to acquire funds in order to maintain his treasury. Relying on an all but forgotten feudal statute passed in 1278, requiring anyone who earned £40 or more each year to present himself at the King's coronation so that he may join the royal army as a knight, Charles fined all individuals who failed to attend his coronation in 1626. Even more unpopularly, he reintroduced the obsolete feudal tax known as ship money. A writ issued in 1634 ordered the collection of ship money in peacetime, notwithstanding statutes of Edward I and Edward III that had prohibited the levying of such a tax except during wars. This first writ of 1634, however, did not encourage much opposition on legal grounds, but a second writ of 1635 did. Charles's third writ demanding ship money, issued in 1636, made it clear that the ancient prohibition on collecting ship money during peacetime had been swept away. Many attempted to resist payment, but Charles's judges, whose tenure depended on his "good pleasure," declared that the tax was within the King's prerogative. At the same time, religious reform was conducted under William Laud, who became Archbishop of Canterbury in 1633. Laud attempted to ensure religious uniformity by dismissing non-conformist clergyman and closing Puritan organisations, thereby violating the average man's freedom of conscience. In order to punish those who refused to conform to the religious norms established by the Church of England he used the two most feared and most arbitrary courts in the land, the Court of High Commission and the Court of Star Chamber. The former could compel individuals to provide self-incriminating testimony, whilst the latter could inflict any punishment whatsoever (including torture), with the sole exception of death. It should be noted here that the lawlessness of the Court of Star Chamber under Charles I far exceeded that under any of his predecessors. Under Charles' reign, defendants were regularly hauled before the Court without indictment, due process of the law, right to confront witnesses, and their testimonies were routinely extracted by the King and his courtiers through extensive torture. The first years of the Eleven Year Tyranny were marked by peace (guaranteed by what was essentially a police state) in England. Several individuals opposed Charles's taxes and Laud's policies, but remained under control. When, however, Charles attempted to impose his religious policies in Scotland he faced numerous difficulties. The King ordered the use of a new Prayer Book modeled on the English Book of Common Prayer, which, although supported by the Scottish Bishops, was resisted by many Presbyterian Scots, who saw the new Prayer Book as a vehicle for introducing Anglicanism to Scotland. When the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland abolished Episcopalian government (that is, governance of the Church by Bishops) in 1638, replacing it with Presbyterian government (that is, governance by Elders and Deacons), Charles sought to put down what he saw as a rebellion against his authority. In 1639, when the First Bishops' War broke out. He sought to collect taxes from his subjects, who refused to yield any further. Charles's war ended in an humiliating truce in June of the same year. In the Pacification of Berwick, Charles agreed to grant his Scottish subjects civil and ecclesiastical freedoms.

Short and Long Parliaments

Disputes regarding the interpretation of the peace treaty between Charles and the Church of Scotland led to further conflict. To subdue the Scots, Charles needed more money; therefore, he took the fateful step of recalling Parliament in April 1640. Although Charles offered to repeal ship money, the House of Commons proved unmoveable. It demanded the discussion of various abuses of power during the Personal Rule. As Parliament stood fast, it was dissolved in May 1640, less than a month after it assembled; thus, the Parliament became known as the "Short Parliament". In the meantime, Charles attempted to defeat the Scots, but failed miserably. The humiliating Treaty of Ripon, signed after the end of the Second Bishops' War in October 1640, required the King to pay the expenses of the Scottish army he had just fought. Charles took the unusual step of summoning the magnum concilium, the ancient council of all the Peers of the Realm, who were considered the King's hereditary counsellors. The magnum concilium had not been summoned in centuries, and it has not been summoned since Charles's reign. On the advice of the peers, Charles summoned another Parliament, which, in contrast with its predecessor, became known as the Long Parliament. The Long Parliament assembled in November 1640 under the leadership of John Pym, and proved just as difficult to negotiate with as the Short Parliament. It undertook measures which both threatened Charles's political position and caused him some personal grief. The members of the House of Commons thought of themselves as conservatives defending the King, the Church and parliamentary government against innovations in religion and the tyranny of Charles's cronies, but their actions made Charles view many of them as dangerous rebels trying to undermine traditional government. For example, Charles was unable to resist demands for the execution of his advisor Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford. To prevent the King from dissolving it at will, Parliament passed the Triennial Act, to which the Royal Assent was granted in February 1641. The Act required that Parliament was to be summoned at least once every three years, and that when the King failed to issue proper summons, the members could assemble on their own. In May, he assented to an even more far-reaching Act, which provided that Parliament could not be dissolved without its own consent. Charles was forced into one concession after another. He agreed to bills of attainder authorising the executions of Thomas Wentworth and William Laud. Ship money, fines in destraint of knighthood and forced loans were declared unlawful, and the hated Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission were abolished. Although he made several important concessions, Charles improved his own military position by securing the favour of the Scots. He finally agreed to the official establishment of Presbyterianism; in return, he was able to enlist considerable anti-parliamentary support. High Commission In November 1641, the House of Commons passed the Grand Remonstrance, denouncing all the abuses of power Charles had committed since the beginning of his reign. The tension was heightened when the Irish rebelled against Protestant English rule and rumours of Charles' complicity reached Parliament. An army was required to put down the rebellion but many members of the House of Commons feared that Charles might later use it against Parliament itself. The Militia Bill was intended to wrest control of the army from the King, but Charles refused to give up such an important part of his royal prerogative. The House of Commons then threatened to impeach Charles's Catholic Queen, Henrietta Maria, finally leading the King to take desperate action. His wife persuaded him to arrest the five members of the House of Commons who led the anti-Stuart faction on charges of high treason, but, when the King had made his decision, she made the mistake of informing a friend who in turn alerted Parliament. Charles entered the House of Commons with an armed force on 4 January 1642, but found that his opponents had already escaped. By violating Parliament with an armed force, Charles made the breach permanent. Many in Parliament thought Charles's actions outrageous, but others had similar sentiments about the actions of Parliament itself. Several members of the House of Commons left to join the royalist party, leaving the King's opponents with a majority. It was no longer safe for Charles to be in London, and he went north to raise an army against Parliament; the Queen, at the same time, went abroad to raise money to pay for it.

Civil war

The English Civil War had not yet started, but both sides began to arm. After futile negotiations, Charles raised the royal standard (an anachronistic mediæval gesture) in Nottingham on 22 August 1642. He then set up his court at Oxford, whence his government controlled roughly the north and west of England, Parliament remaining in control of London and the south and east. Charles raised an army using the archaic method of the Commission of Array. The Civil War started on 25 October 1642 with the inconclusive Battle of Edgehill and continued indecisively through 1643 and 1644, until the Battle of Naseby tipped the military balance decisively in favor of Parliament. There followed a great number of defeats for the Royalists, and then the Siege of Oxford, from which Charles escaped in April 1646. He put himself into the hands of the Scottish Presbyterian army at Newark, and was taken to nearby Southwell while his "hosts" decided what to do with him. The Presbyterians finally arrived at an agreement with Parliament and delivered Charles to them in 1647. He was imprisoned at Holdenby House in Northamptonshire, until cornet George Joyce took him by force to Newmarket in the name of the New Model Army. At this time, mutual suspicion had developed between the New Model Army and Parliament, and Charles was eager to exploit it. He was then transferred first to Oatlands and then to Hampton Court, where more involved but fruitless negotiations went on. He was persuaded that it would be in his best interests to escape—perhaps abroad, perhaps to France, or perhaps to the custody of Robert Hammond, Parliamentary Governor of the Isle of Wight. He decided on the last course, believing Hammond to be sympathetic, and fled on 11 November. Hammond, however, was opposed to Charles, whom he confined in Carisbrooke Castle. From Carisbrooke, Charles continued to try to bargain with the various parties, eventually coming to terms with the Scottish Presbyterians that he would allow the establishment of Presbyterianism in England as well as Scotland for a trial period. The Royalists rose in July 1648, and the Scots invaded, beginning the so-called "Second Civil War". The Scottish armies, however, were defeated within months, their final loss coming in August at the Battle of Preston.

Trial and execution

Charles was moved to Hurst Castle at the end of 1648, and thereafter to Windsor Castle. In January 1649, the House of Commons—without the assent of either the Sovereign or the House of Lords—passed an Act of Parliament creating a court for Charles's trial. The idea was a novel one; previous monarchs had been deposed, but had never been brought to trial as monarchs. The High Court of Justice established by the Act consisted of 135 Commissioners (all firm Parliamentarians); the prosecution was led by Solicitor General John Cook. The King's trial (on charges of high treason and "other high crimes") began on 2 January, but Charles refused to enter a plea, claiming that no court had jurisdiction over a monarch. He believed that his own authority to rule had been given to him by God when he was crowned and anointed, and that the power wielded by those trying him was simply that which grew out of a barrel of gunpowder. Under the Act of Parliament establishing the Court such a refusal entailed automatic conviction. Fifty-nine of the Commissioners signed Charles's death warrant, on 29 January 1649. After the ruling, he was led from St. James's Palace, where he was confined, to the Palace of Whitehall, where an execution scaffold had been erected in front of the Banqueting House. Banqueting House When Charles was beheaded on 30 January 1649, a moan was heard from the assembled crowd, some of whom then dipped their handkerchiefs in his blood, thus starting the cult of the "Martyr" King. There is some historical debate over the identity of the man who beheaded the King, who was masked at the scene. It is known that the Commissioners approached Richard Brandon, the common Hangman of London, but that he refused, and contemporary sources do not generally identify him as the King's headsman. Ellis's Historical Inquiries, however, name him as the executioner, stating that he stated so before dying. It is possible he relented and agreed to untertake the commission, but there are others who have been identified. William Hewlett was tried for the execution (or "regicide," as the Royalists would say) after the Restoration and convicted. In 1661, two people identified as "Dayborne and Bickerstaffe" were arrested but then discharged. Henry Walker, a revolutionary journalist, or his brother William, were suspected but never charged. Various local legends around England name local worthies. It was common practice for the head of a traitor to be held up and exhibited to the crowd with the words "Behold the head of a traitor!"; although Charles' head was exhibited, the words were not used. In an unprecedented gesture, one of the revolutionary leaders, Oliver Cromwell, allowed the King's head to be sewn back on his body so the family could pay its respects. Charles was buried in private and at night on 7 February 1649, in the Henry VIII vault inside St. George's Chapel in Windsor Castle. The King's son, King Charles II, later planned an elaborate royal mausoleum, but this never eventuated. Ten days after Charles's execution, a memoir purporting to be from Charles's hand appeared for sale. This book, the Eikon Basilike (Greek: the "Royal Portrait"), contained an apologia for royal policies, and proved an effective piece of royalist propaganda. Parliament commissioned John Milton to write a rejoinder, the Eikonoklastes ("The Iconoclast"), but the response made little headway against the pathos of the royalist book.

Legacy

Eikonoklastes]] With the monarchy overthrown, power was assumed by Oliver Cromwell, then Lord General of the Parliamentary Army. The Long Parliament (known by then as the Rump Parliament) which had been called by Charles I in 1640 continued to exist until Cromwell forcibly disbanded it in 1653. Cromwell then became Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland; a monarch in all but name: he was even "invested" on the royal coronation chair. Upon his death in 1658, Cromwell was briefly succeeded by his son, Richard Cromwell. Richard Cromwell was an ineffective ruler, and the Long Parliament was reinstated in 1659. The Long Parliament dissolved itself in 1660, and the first elections in twenty years led to the election of a Convention Parliament which restored Charles I's eldest son to the monarchy as Charles II. Upon the Restoration, Charles II added a commemoration of his father—to be observed on 30 January, the date of the execution—to the Book of Common Prayer. In the time of Queen Victoria this was however removed due to popular discontent with the commemorating of a dead monarch with a major feast day of the Church; now, 30 January is only listed as a "Lesser Festival." There are several Anglican/Episcopal churches dedicated to Charles I as "King and Martyr," in England, Canada, Australia and the United States. The Society of King Charles the Martyr was established in 1894 by one Mrs Greville-Negent, assisted by Fr. James Fish, rector of St Margaret Pattens, London. The objectives of the SKCM include prayer for the Church of England and the Anglican Communion, promoting a wider observance of 30 January in commemoration of Charles' "martyrdom," and the reinstatement of his feast day in the Book of Common Prayer. King Charles is regarded as a martyr by some Anglicans for his notion of "Christian Kingship," and as a "defender of the Anglican faith." The Colony of Carolina in North America was named for Charles I. Carolina later separated into North Carolina and South Carolina, which eventually became parts of the United States. To the north in the Virginia Colony, Cape Charles, the Charles River, Charles River Shire and Charles City Shire were named for him. Charles City Shire survives almost 400 years later as Charles City County, Virginia.

Style and arms

The official style of Charles I was "Charles, by the Grace of God, King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc." (The claim to France was only nominal, and had been asserted by every English King since Edward III, regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled.) The authors of his death warrant, however, did not wish to use the religious portions of his title. It only referred to him as "Charles Stuart, King of England". Whilst he was King, Charles I's arms were: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland).

Issue

Painting of Charles I's children

In modern culture

The television special "Blackadder: The Cavalier Years" features a surreal version of the events leading to his execution. Charles's life has often been treated seriously in novels and plays as well as on film.

External links

- [http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page76.asp The Royal Household. (2004). "Charles I." Official Web Site of the British Monarchy.]
- [http://www.skcm.org The Society of King Charles the Martyr]

References

- Ellis's Historical Inquiries
- Gardiner, Samuel Rawson, ed. (1906). The Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution 1625–1660, 3rd revised ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Williamson, D. (1998). The Kings and Queens of England. New York: National Portrait Gallery. Charles I of England Charles I of England Category:Natives of Fife Category:House of Stuart Category:Heirs to the English & British thrones Category:English monarchs Category:Scottish monarchs Category:Knights of the Garter Category:English Civil War Category:Regicide Charles I of England Category:Executed royalty members Category:Dukes in the Peerage of England Category:Dukes in the Peerage of Scotland Category:Saints ja:チャールズ1世 (イングランド王)

Henrietta Maria

Queen Henrietta Maria (November 25, 1609 – September 10, 1669) was Queen Consort of England, Scotland and Ireland (June 13, 1625 - January 30, 1649) through her marriage to Charles I. The