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June 19

June 19

June 19 is the 170th day of the year (171st in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 195 days remaining.

Events

Unknown - The Rossetta Stone one is found and destroyed.
- 1179 - The Norwegian battle of Kalvskinnet outside Nidaros. Earl Erling Skakke is killed, and the battle changes the tide of the civil wars.
- 1269 - King Louis IX of France orders all Jews found in public without an identifying yellow badge to be fined ten livres of silver.
- 1306 - The Earl of Pembroke's defeat Bruce's Scottish army at the Battle of Methven.
- 1767 - Jean Chastel killed the Beast of Gévaudan.
- 1816 - Battle of Seven Oaks between Northwest Company and Hudson Bay Company, near Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- 1821 - Decisive defeat of the Philikí Etaireía by the Ottomans at Drăgăşani (in Wallachia).
- 1846 - First baseball game under recognizable modern rules in Hoboken, New Jersey, United States.
- 1860 - Louise of Orange-Nassau marries King Charles XV of Sweden-Norway.
- 1862 - Slavery is banned in U.S territories.
- 1865 - Over two years after the Emancipation Proclamation, slaves in Galveston, Texas, United States, are finally informed of their freedom. The anniversary is henceforth unofficially celebrated as Juneteenth.
- 1867 - Maximilian I of the Mexican Empire is executed by a firing squad in Querétaro, Querétaro.
- 1870 - After all of the Southern States are formally readmitted to the United States of America, the Confederate States of America (AKA the CSA) ceases to exist.
- 1893 - Lizzie Borden is a phychopath.
- 1912 - The eight-hour work day is established in the United States.
- 1934 - The U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is established. The FCC regulates radio and television broadcasts. (see the Communications Act of 1934.)
- 1943 - Race riots occur in Beaumont, Texas, United States.
- 1944 - The Battle of the Philippine Sea took place, where the United States Navy sank 3 Japanese aircraft carriers and shot down almost 400 aircraft in what was called The Marianas Turkey Shoot.
- 1949 - NASCAR sanctions the first "strictly stock" race, which will evolve into the modern Nextel Cup. Jim Roper wins the event.
- 1950 - The first commercial drag strip, the Santa Ana Drags, begins at Orange County Airport (now John Wayne Airport) at Santa Ana, in Southern California, United States. Admission wss 50 cents; or 75 cents if the ticket holder wanted to watch the mechanics work.
- 1954 - The last regular-service streetcar operated by Twin City Rapid Transit runs in Minneapolis, United States.
- 1954 - The animated Bugs Bunny short Devil May Hare debuts in theaters, introducing The Tasmanian Devil.
- 1961 - Kuwait declares independence from the United Kingdom.
- 1967 - Bjorn Daehlie, Norwegian cross-country skier, and gold medal Olympian, is born.
- 1970 - Signature of the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT)
- 1976 - King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden marries Silvia Sommerlath.
- 1978 - First appearance of the comic strip Garfield.
- 1999 - Turin, Italy, is picked as the host city of the 2006 Winter Olympics.
- 1999 - Author Stephen King is struck by a minivan in a hit-and-run accident.
- 2000 - Datapoint, the company that commissioned the Intel 8008 microprocessor, sells its European operations and changes its name to Dynacore.

Births

- 1301 - Prince Morikuni, Japanese shogun (d. 1333)
- 1507 - Annibale Caro, Italian poet (d. 1566)
- 1566 - King James I of England and VI of Scotland (d. 1625)
- 1606 - James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Hamilton, Scottish statesman (d. 1649)
- 1623 - Blaise Pascal, French mathematician and philosopher (d. 1662)
- 1633 - Philipp van Limborch, Dutch protestant theologian (d. 1712)
- 1764 - José Gervasio Artigas, father of Uruguay (d. 1850)
- 1792 - Gustav Schwab, German author (d. 1850)
- 1834 - Charles Spurgeon, English preacher (d. 1892)
- 1846 - Antonio Abetti, Italian astronomer (d. 1928)
- 1861 - Douglas Haig, British soldier (d. 1928)
- 1861 - José Rizal, Filipino poet and national hero (d. 1896)
- 1865 - Dame May Whitty, English entertainer (d. 1948)
- 1896 - Wallis Simpson, Duchess of Windsor (d. 1986)
- 1897 - Cyril Norman Hinshelwood, English chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967)
- 1897 - Moe Howard, American actor and comedian (d. 1975)
- 1898 - James Joseph Sweeney, American Catholic prelate (d. 1968)
- 1902 - Guy Lombardo, Canadian bandleader (d. 1977)
- 1903 - Lou Gehrig, baseball player (d. 1941)
- 1903 - Wally Hammond, English cricketer (d. 1965)
- 1906 - Ernst Boris Chain, German-born biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1979)
- 1910 - Paul Flory, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1985)
- 1914 - Alan Cranston, American politician (d. 2000)
- 1915 - Julius Schwartz, American editor and agent
- 1922 - Aage Niels Bohr, Danish physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1928 - Nancy Marchand, American actress (d. 2000)
- 1928 - Barry Took, British comedy writer and broadcaster (d. 2002)
- 1930 - Gena Rowlands, American actress
- 1932 - Pier Angeli, Italian-born actress (d. 1972)
- 1933 - Viktor Patsayev, cosmonaut
- 1938 - Wahoo McDaniel, American football player and wrestler (d. 2002)
- 1945 - Aung San Suu Kyi, Burmese politician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- 1945 - Radovan Karadžić, Serbian-Bosnian politician
- 1947 - Salman Rushdie, Indian author
- 1948 - Phylicia Rashad, American actress
- 1948 - Nick Drake, British guitarist
- 1951 - Ann Wilson, American singer
- 1954 - Kathleen Turner, American actress
- 1957 - Anna Lindh, Swedish politician (d. 2003)
- 1960 - Luke Morley, British guitarist and songwriter
- 1963 - Paula Abdul, American singer
- 1962 - Jeremy Bates, English tennis player
- 1963 - Rory Underwood, English rugby player
- 1964 - Boris Johnson, British politician and journalist
- 1966 - Joichi Ito, Japanese Activist and Entrepeneur
- 1967 - Bjørn Dæhlie, Norwegian skier
- 1968 - Alastair Lynch, Australian footballer
- 1970 - Quincy Watts, American athlete
- 1970 - Rahul Gandhi, Indian Politician
- 1970 - Brian Welch, American guitarist (KoЯn)
- 1972 - Brian McBride, American soccer player
- 1974 - Joshua John Fanene, American artist
- 1976 - Bryan Hughes, English footballer
- 1977 - Peter Warrick, American football player
- 1978 - Dirk Nowitzki, German basketball player
- 1982 - David Pollack, American football player

Deaths

- 1312 - Piers Gaveston, French favorite of Edward II of England
- 1542 - Leo Jud, Swiss reformer (b. 1482)
- 1584 - François, Duke of Anjou (b. 1555)
- 1608 - Alberico Gentili, Italian jurist (b. 1551)
- 1650 - Matthäus Merian, Swiss engraver (b. 1593)
- 1692 - Rebecca Nurse, accused American witch (hanged)
- 1747 - Alessandro Marcello, Italian composer (b. 1669)
- 1762 - Johann Ernst Eberlin, German composer (b. 1702)
- 1768 - Benjamin Tasker, provincial Governor of Maryland (b. 1690)
- 1805 - Louis-Jean-François Lagrenée, French painter (b. 1724)
- 1820 - Joseph Banks, English naturalist and botanist (b. 1743)
- 1844 - Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, French naturalist (b. 1772)
- 1902 - King Albert of Saxony (b. 1828)
- 1921 - Ramón López Velarde, Mexican poet (b. 1888)
- 1937 - J. M. Barrie, Scottish author (b. 1860)
- 1939 - Grace Abbott, American social worker and activist (b. 1878)
- 1953 - Julius Rosenberg, American spy (executed) (b. 1918)
- 1953 - Ethel Rosenberg, American spy (executed) (b. 1915)
- 1966 - Ed Wynn, American actor (b. 1886)
- 1968 - James Joseph Sweeney, American Catholic prelate (b. 1898)
- 1975 - Sam Giancana, gangster (b.1908)
- 1977 - Ali Shariati, Iranian sociologist (b. 1933)
- 1977 - Lady Olave Baden-Powell, English Chief Girl Guide (b. 1889)
- 1979 - Paul Popenoe, American eugenicist (b. 1888)
- 1993 - William Golding, English writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911)
- 1996 - G. David Schine, American investigator and businessman (b. 1927)
- 2003 - Laura Sadler, English actress (b. 1980)

Holidays and observances

- Juneteenth – celebrates the Emancipation Proclamation
- Father's Day in various countries (third Sunday in June, 2005)
- World Sauntering Day.

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/19 BBC: On This Day] ---- June 18 - June 20 - May 19 - July 19 – listing of all days ko:6월 19일 ms:19 Jun ja:6月19日 simple:June 19 th:19 มิถุนายน

June 19

June 19 is the 170th day of the year (171st in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 195 days remaining.

Events

Births

Deaths

Holidays and observances

- Juneteenth – celebrates the Emancipation Proclamation
- Father's Day in various countries (third Sunday in June, 2005)
- World Sauntering Day.

External links

1179

Events

- Third Council of the Lateran condemned Waldensians and Cathars as heretics, institutes a reformation of clerical life, and creates the first "ghettos" for Jews
- Afonso I is recognized as the true King of Portugal by Pope Alexander III, bringing Portugal the protection of the Catholic Church against the Castillian monarchy
- Philip II is crowned King of France
- Aberdeen is chartered by William the Lion
- Westminster School founded on the grounds of Westminster Abbey

Births

- John of Ibelin, the Old Lord of Beirut (approximate date; died 1236)
- Mikhail of Kiev (died 1246)
- Hermann von Salza, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights (approximate date)
- Shimazu Tadahisa, warlord of the Shimazu clan of Japan (died 1227)
- William III Talvas, Count of Ponthieu
- Yaqut al-Hamawi, Arab geographer (died 1229)

Deaths

- September 17 - Hildegard of Bingen, German abbess, mystic writer, and composer (born 1098)
- Taira no Shigemori, Japanese rebel (born 1138) Category:1179 ko:1179년

Earl

An Earl or Jarl was an Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian title, meaning chieftain and it referred especially to chieftains set to rule a territory in a king's stead. In Scandinavia, it became obsolete in the Middle Ages, whereas, in Britain, it became synonymous with count. Today, an earl is a member of the British peerage ranks below a Marquess and above a Viscount. A British Earl equates in rank to a continental Count. The wife of an Earl bears the rank of Countess. Countess, Earl of Surrey, Earl of Shrewsbury, Earl of Essex, Earl of Kent, Earl of Derby, Earl of Wiltshire. From: Parliament Procession Roll of 1512]]

Etymology

The word "earl" derives from Middle English "erl" meaning warrior, nobleman, equivalent to the jarl in Old Norse. It remains unclear whether there exists connection by etymology to the Anglo-Saxon term "Ealdorman" which translates literally as "Elder", "Senior", and refers to a chief counselor of the realm. That term survives in modern English as "Alderman", a councilman or representative in local government or a local church governing body. The Norman-derived "count" was not used probably due to its resemblance to the unflattering word "cunt", though "countess" was and is used for the female title. As Geoffrey Hughes writes, "It is a likely speculation that the Norman French title 'Count' was abandoned in England in favour of the Germanic 'Earl' [...] precisely because of the uncomfortable phonetic proximity to cunt".

History

See Ríg for the account in Norse mythology of the warrior Jarl or Ríg-Jarl presented as the ancestor of the class of warrior-nobles. Some dozen runic inscriptions on rune stones and metal pieces exist containing the phrase ekerilaR. The first word ek means "I", whereas the meaning of the word erilaR is unclear. Some believe it shall be read out "I, the Herul", others say it means "I, the rune-carver" but the most widespread interpretation in modern research is that it actually means "I, the Jarl". See also: Birger Jarl

England

After the Norman Conquest the largest secular subdivision in England was the shire. This had not been the case in Anglo-Saxon England when some shires were grouped together into larger units known as earldoms, headed by an ealdorman or earl. Under Edward the Confessor earldoms like Wessex, Mercia and Northumbria -- names that represent earlier independent kingdoms -- were much larger than any shire. These earldoms disappeared soon after the Conquest. The Normans did appoint earls; however, they were associated with only a single shire at most. There was no administrative layer larger than the shire after the Norman Conquest. Earls originally functioned essentially as royal governors. The English kings found it dangerous to give additional power to already powerful aristocrats, and so gradually sheriffs assumed the governing role. The details of this transition remain obscure, since earls in more peripheral areas (such as the Scottish and Welsh marches and Cornwall) retained some viceregal powers long after other earls had lost them. The loosening of central authority during the Anarchy also complicates any smooth description of the changeover. A loose connection between earls and shires remained for a long time after authority had moved over to the sheriffs. An official defining characteristic of an earl consisted of the receipt of the "third penny" of the revenues of justice of a shire. Thus every earl had an association with some shire, and very often a new creation of an earldom would take place in favor of the county where the new earl already had large estates and local influence. Also, due to the this association of earls and shires, the medieval practice could remain somewhat loose regarding the precise name used: no confusion could arise by calling someone earl of a shire, earl of the county town of the shire, or earl of some other prominent place in the shire; these all implied the same. Thus we find the "earl of Shrewsbury" (Shropshire), "earl of Arundel" or "earl of Chichester" (Sussex), "earl of Winchester" (Hampshire), etc. In a few cases the earl was traditionally addressed by his family name, e.g. the "earl Warenne" (in this case the practice may have arisen because these earls had little or no property in Surrey, their official county). As this last case illustrates, an earl did not always have an intimate association with "his" county. Another example comes from the earls of Oxford, whose property largely lay in Essex. They became earls of Oxford because earls of Essex and of the other nearby shires already existed. Eventually the connection between an earl and a shire disappeared, so that in the present day a number of earldoms take their names from towns, mountains, or simply surnames. Nevertheless, some consider that the earldoms named for counties (or county towns) retain more prestige.

Scotland

Some major earldoms in Scotland originated from the office of mormaer: others developed later by analogy.

Norway

In medieval Norway, the title of jarl was the highest rank below the king himself. The jarl was the only one beside the king himself who was entitled to have a hird (large armed retinue). There was usually no more than one jarl in mainland Norway at any one time, sometimes none. The ruler of the Norwegian dependancy of Orkney held the title of jarl, and after Iceland had acknowledged Norwegian overlordship in 1261, a jarl was sent there as well as the king's high representative. In mainland Norway the title jarl was usually used for one of two purposes:
- To appoint a de facto ruler in cases where the king was a minor or seriously ill (e.g. Håkon galen in 1204 during the minority of king Guttorm, Skule Bårdsson in 1217 during the illness of king Inge Bårdsson.)
- To appease a pretender to the throne without giving him the title of king (e.g. Eirik, the brother of king Sverre.) In 1237, jarl Skule Bårdsson was given the rank of duke (hertug). This was the first time this title had been used in Norway, and meant that the title jarl was no longer the highest rank below the king. It also heralded the introduction of new noble titles from continental Europe, which were to replace the old norse titles. The last jarl in mainland Norway was appointed in 1295.

Forms of Address

An Earl has the title Earl of X when the title originates from a placename, or Earl X when the title comes from a surname. In either case, the Earl is referred to as Lord X, and his wife as Lady X. Countesses who hold earldoms in their own right also use Lady X, but their husbands do not receive any titles. The eldest son of an Earl generally bears the courtesy title of Viscount or Lord; one refers to a younger son of an earl as the Honourable [Forename] [Surname] and to a daughter as Lady [Forename] [Surname] (Lady Diana Spencer furnishing a well-known example).

References

- Geoffrey Hughes, Swearing : a social history of foul language, oaths and profanity in English, ISBN 0140267077 Category:Peerage Category:Noble titles

1269

For broader historical context, see 1260s and 13th century.

Events

Europe

- June 19 - King Louis IX of France orders all Jews found in public without an identifying yellow badge to be fined ten livres of silver.
- Pélerin de Maricourt first describes magnetic poles and remarks on the nonexistence of isolated magnetic poles.
- King Otakar II of Bohemia inherits Carinthia and part of Carniola, making him the most powerful prince within the Holy Roman Empire; the empire lacking an emperor during the ongoing great interregnum, Otakar II was one of the most powerful man in Europe.
- The construction of Blair Castle in Scotland is begun by John Comyn.

Africa

- The Almohad dynasty of caliphs (not universally accepted) that once ruled most of North Africa and Al-Andalus (Moorish Spain) was extinguished when Idris II was murdered in the dynasty's last remaining possession, Marrakesh.
- The Berber Merinid dynasty completes the conquest of Morocco, replacing the Almohad dynasty which it defeated in Marrakesh.

Asia

- The Eastern Orthodox Patriarchy of Antioch returns to Antioch after a 171-year exile, during which it had been replaced by the Latin Patriarch of Antioch.

Births

- Philip of Artois
- Huang Gongwang, Chinese painter (died 1354)
- Vedantadesika, Hindu poet and philosopher

Deaths

- John de Balliol, father of John Balliol, King of Scotland
- Svarn, King of Galicia Category:1269 ko:1269년

Louis IX of France

, France]] King Louis IX of France or Saint Louis (April 25, 1214/1215 – August 25, 1270) was King of France from 1226 until his death. Born at Poissy, France, he was a member of the Capetian dynasty and the son of King Louis VIII and Blanche of Castile.

Life

Much of what we know of Louis' life comes from Jean de Joinville's famous biography of Louis, Life of Saint Louis. Joinville was a close friend, confidant, and counselor to the king, and also participated as a witness in the papal inquest into Louis' life that ended with his canonization in 1297 by Pope Boniface VIII. Louis was eleven years old when his father died in 1226. He was crowned king the same year in the cathedral at Reims. Because of Louis' youth, his mother, Blanche of Castile, ruled France as regent until 1234, when Louis was deemed of age to rule himself. She continued as an important counsellor to the king until her death in 1252. On May 27, 1234 Louis married Marguerite de Provence (1221–December 21, 1295), the sister of Eleanor, the wife of Henry III of England. Louis was the elder brother of Charles I of Sicily (1227–1285), whom he created count of Anjou, thus founding the second Angevin dynasty. Louis brought an end to the Albigensian Crusade in 1229 after signing an agreement with Count Raymond VII of Toulouse that cleared his father of wrong-doing. Raymond VI had been suspected of murdering a preacher on a mission to convert the Cathars. Louis's piety and kindness towards the poor were much celebrated. He went on crusade twice, in 1248 (Seventh Crusade) and then in 1270 (Eighth Crusade). Both crusades were total failures. After initial success in his first attempt, Louis's army was met by overwhelming resistance from the Egyptian army and citizens. In 1249, Louis was eventually defeated and taken prisoner in Mansoura, Egypt. Louis and his companions were then released in return for the surrender of the French army and a large ransom. He died near Tunis during the latter expedition on August 25, 1270 traditionally during an outbreak of plague but thought by modern scholars to be dysentery. Some of his entrails were buried directly on the spot in Tunisia, where a Tomb of Saint-Louis can still be visited today, whereas other parts of his entrails were sealed in an urn and placed in the Basilica of Monreale, Palermo, where they still remain. His corpse was taken to the French royal necropolis at Saint-Denis, resting in Lyon on the way. His tomb at Saint-Denis was a magnificent gilt brass monument designed in the late 14th century. It was melted down during the French Wars of Religion, at which time the body of the king disappeared. Only one finger was rescued and is kept at Saint-Denis. Pope Boniface VIII proclaimed the canonization of Louis in 1297; he is the only French monarch ever to be made a saint. Louis IX was succeeded by his son, Philippe III.

Patron of arts and arbiter of Europe

Philippe III Louis' patronage of the arts drove much innovation in Gothic art and architecture, and the style of his court radiated throughout Europe by both the purchase of art objects from Parisian masters for export and by the marriage of the king's many daughters to foreign husbands and their subsequent introduction of Parisian models elsewhere. Louis' personal chapel, the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, was copied more than once by his descendants elsewhere. Louis most likely ordered the production of the Morgan Bible, a masterpiece of medieval painting. Saint Louis ruled during the so-called "golden century of Saint Louis", when the kingdom of France was at its height in Europe, both politically and economically. The king of France was regarded as a primus inter pares among the kings and rulers of Europe. He commanded the largest army, and ruled the largest and most wealthy kingdom of Europe, a kingdom which was the European center of arts and intellectual thought (La Sorbonne) at the time. For many, King Louis IX embodied the whole of Christendom in his person. His reputation of saintliness and fairness was already well established while he was alive, and on many occasions he was chosen as an arbiter in the quarrels opposing the rulers of Europe. It should be noted that the prestige and respect felt in Europe for King Louis IX was due more to the attraction that his benevolent personality created rather than to military domination. For his contemporaries, he was the quintessential example of the Christian prince.

Religious zeal

This perception of Louis IX as the quintessential Christian prince was reinforced by his religious zeal. Saint Louis was a devout Christian, and he built the Sainte Chapelle ("Holy Chapel"), located within the royal palace complex (now the Paris Hall of Justice), on the Île de la Cité in the center of Paris. The Sainte Chapelle, a perfect example of the Rayonnant style of Gothic architecture, was erected as a shrine for the Crown of Thorns and a fragment of the True Cross, precious relics of the Passion of Jesus. Louis purchased these in 1239–1241 from Emperor Baldwin II of the Latin Empire of Constantinople, for the exorbitant sum of 135,000 livres (the chapel, on the other hand, only cost 60,000 livres to build). This purchase should be understood in the context of extreme religious fervor that existed in Europe in the 13th century. The purchase contributed a lot to reinforce the central position of the king of France in western Christendom, as well as to further increase the renown of Paris, then the largest city of western Europe. It was a time when cities and rulers vied for relics, trying to increase their reputation and fame, and Louis IX had succeeded in securing the most prized of all relics in his capital. The purchase was thus not only an act of devotion, but also a political gesture: the French monarchy was trying to establish the kingdom of France as the "new Jerusalem". Louis IX took very seriously his mission of "lieutenant of God on Earth", with which he had been invested when he had been crowned in Reims. Thus, in order to fulfill his duty, he conducted several crusades, and even though they were unsuccessful, it contributed to the prestige that he enjoyed. Contemporaries would not have understood that the king of France do not lead a crusade to the Holy Land. In the same vein, he also ordered the expulsion of the Jews from France, although the loose control of the central government over the kingdom meant that many Jews actually remained in the provinces. Again, this needs to be understood in the context of the 13th century: the dislike of the Jews was general in Europe, as the Christians held the Jews responsible for the death of Jesus Christ. The decision to expel the Jews was largely welcome in all spheres of society. In all these deeds, Louis IX tried to fulfill the duty of France, which was seen as "the eldest daughter of the Church" (la fille aînée de l'Église), a tradition of protector of the Church going back to the Franks and Charlemagne, who had been crowned in Rome in 800. Indeed, the official Latin title of the kings of France was Rex Francorum, i.e. "king of the Franks", and the kings of France were also known by the title "very Christian king" (Rex Christianissimus). The relationship between France and the papacy was at its peak in the 12th and 13th centuries, and most of the crusades were actually called by the popes from French soil. Eventually, in 1309, the popes even left Rome and relocated to the French city of Avignon.

Veneration as a saint

Avignon Louis IX is often considered the model of the ideal Christian monarch. Because of the aura of holiness attached to the memory of Louis IX, many Kings of France were called Louis, especially in the Bourbon dynasty (Louis XIII to Louis XVIII).

Children

#Blanche (1240–April 29, 1243) #Isabelle (March 2, 1241–January 28, 1271), married Theobald V of Champagne #Louis (February 25, 1244–January 1260) #Philippe III (May 1, 1245–October 5, 1285) #Jean (born and died in 1248) #Jean Tristan (1250–August 3, 1270) #Pierre (1251–1284) #Blanche (1253–1323), married Ferdinand de la Cerda #Marguerite (1254–1271), married John I, Duke of Brabant #Robert, Count of Clermont (1256–February 7, 1317). He was the ancestor of King Henry IV of France. #Agnes of France (c. 1260–December 19, 1327), married Robert II, Duke of Burgundy

Places named after Saint Louis

The cities of Saint Louis, Missouri, Saint-Louis du Sénégal in Senegal, Saint-Louis in Alsace, as well as Lac Saint-Louis in Quebec, and the Mission San Luis Rey de Francia in California are among the many places named after the king. The Cathedral Saint-Louis in Versailles and the French royal Order of Saint Louis (1693-1790 and 1814-1830) were also created after the king.

External links

[http://xenophongroup.com/montjoie/taillebr.htm Site about The Saintonge War between Louis IX of France and Henry III of England]. [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/makrisi.html Account of the first Crusade of Saint Louis from the perspective of the Arabs.]. [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1249sixthcde-let.html A letter from Guy, a knight, concerning the capture of Damietta on the sixth Crusade with a speech delivered by Saint Louis to his men]. [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/WedLord.html Etext full version of the Memoirs of the Lord of Joinville, a biography of Saint Louis written by one of his knights]

Bibliography

Joinville, Jean de, The History of St. Louis (Trans. Joan Evans).
Category:1214 births Category:1215 births Category:1270 deaths Louis 09 Category:Saints Category:Crusades ja:ルイ9世 (フランス王)

Jew

The word Jew (Hebrew: יהודי transliterated: Yehudi) is used in many ways, but generally refers to a follower of Judaism, a child of a Jewish mother, or someone of Jewish descent with a connection to Jewish culture or ethnicity; and often a combination of these attributes. This article discusses the term as describing an ethnic group; for a consideration of Jewish religion, please refer to Judaism. Most Jews regard themselves as a people, members of a nation, descended from the ancient Israelites and converts who joined their religion at various times and places. The Hebrew name Yehudi (plural Yehudim) came into being when the Kingdom of Israel was split between the northern Kingdom of Israel and the southern Kingdom of Judah. The term originally referred to the people of the southern kingdom, although the term Bnei Yisrael (Israelites) was still used for both groups. After the Assyrians conquered the northern kingdom leaving the southern kingdom as the only Israelite state, the word Yehudim gradually came to refer to people of the Jewish faith as a whole, rather than those specifically from Judah. The English word Jew is ultimately derived from Yehudi (see Etymology). Its first use in the Bible to refer to the Jewish people as a whole is in the Book of Esther. In modern usage, Jews include both those Jews actively practicing Judaism, and those Jews who, while not practicing Judaism as a religion, still identify themselves as Jews by virtue of their family's Jewish heritage and their own cultural identification. Usage note: The word "Jew" is a noun. Its use as an adjective (e.g. "Jew lawyer") is widely considered offensive; "Jewish" is strongly preferred. Its use as a verb (e.g. "to jew someone") is also considered offensive. However, some sources, such as the American Heritage Dictionary, suggest that phrases like "Jewish person" may be offensive if pointedly used to avoid the word "Jew".

Etymology

There are different views as to the origin of the English language word Jew. The most common view is that the Middle English word Jew is from the Old French giu, earlier juieu, from the Latin iudeus from the Greek Ioudaios (Ιουδαίος). The Latin simply means Judaean, from the land of Judaea. The Hebrew for Jew, יהודי , is pronounced ye-hoo-DEE. The Hebrew letter Yodh (or Yud), י, used as a 'y' in the Hebrew language (as in the word ye-hoo-DEE), becomes a 'j' in languages using the Latin-based alphabet when the Yodh is used as a consonant rather than as a vowel. Therefore, a rough transliteration of יהודי in English would be Jew. The etymological equivalent is in use in other languages, e.g., "Jude" in German, "jøde," in Norwegian, etc., but derivations of the word "Hebrew" is also in use to describe a Jewish person, e.g., in Italian (Ebrei) and , (Yevrey). (See Names of the Jewish people for a full overview.)

Who is a Jew?

Names of the Jewish people. (1878 painting by Maurice Gottlieb)]] Judaism shares some of the characteristics of a nation, an ethnicity, a religion, and a culture, making the definition of who is a Jew vary slightly depending on whether a religious or national approach to identity is used. For discussions of the religious views on who is a Jew and how these views differ from each other, please see Who is a Jew?. Generally, in modern secular usage, Jews include three groups: people who practice Judaism and have a Jewish ethnic background (sometimes including those who do not have strictly matrilineal descent), people without Jewish parents who have converted to Judaism; and those Jews who, while not practicing Judaism as a religion, still identify themselves as Jewish by virtue of their family's Jewish descent and their own cultural and historical identification with the Jewish people. Historical definitions of Jewish identity have traditionally been based on Halakhic definitions of matrilineal descent, and halachic conversions. Historical definitions of who is a Jew date back to the codification of the oral traditon into the Babylonian Talmud. Biblical interpertations of sections in the Tanach, such as Deuteronomy 7:1-5, by learned Jewish sages, is used as a warning against intermarriage between of Jews and non Jews because "[the non-Jewish male spouse] will cause your child to turn away from Me and they will worship the gods of others." Leviticus 24:10 speaks of the son in a marriage between a Hebrew woman and an Egyptian man to be "of the community of Israel.", which contrasts with Ezra 10:2-3, where Israelites returning from Egypt, vowed to put aside their gentile wives and their children. Since the Haskalah, these halakhic interpertations of Jewish identity have been challenged.

Jewish culture

Judaism guides its adherents in both practice and belief, and has been called not only a religion, but also a "way of life," which has made drawing a clear distinction between Judaism, Jewish culture, and Jewish nationality rather difficult. In many times and places, such as in the ancient Hellenic world, in Europe before and after the Enlightenment (see Haskalah), and in contemporary United States and Israel, cultural phenomena have developed that are in some sense characteristically Jewish without being at all specifically religious. Some factors in this come from within Judaism, others from the interaction of Jews with others around them, others from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community, as opposed to religion itself.

Ethnic divisions

The most commonly used terms to describe ethnic divisions among Jews currently are: Ashkenazi (meaning "German" in Hebrew, denoting the Central European base of Jewry); and Sephardi (meaning "Spanish" or "Iberia" in Hebrew, denoting their Spanish, Portuguese and North African location). They refer to both religious and ethnic divisions. Other Jewish ethnic groups include Mizrahi Jews (a term overlapping Sephardi, but emphasizing North African and Middle Eastern rather than Spanish history, and including the Maghrebim); Teimanim (Yemenite and Omani Jews); and such smaller groups as the Gruzim and Juhurim from the Caucasus, the Bene Israel, Bnei Menashe, Cochin and Telugu Jews of India, the Romaniotes of Greece, the Italkim (Bené Roma) of Italy, various African Jews (most notably the Beta Israel or Ethiopian Jews), the Bukharan Jews of Central Asia, and the Persian Jews of Iran.

Population

Prior to World War II the world population of Jews was approximately 18 million. The Holocaust reduced this number to approximately 12 million. Today, there are an estimated 13 million to 14.6 million Jews worldwide in over 134 countries.

Significant geographic populations

Please note that these populations represent low-end estimates of the worldwide Jewish population, accounting for around 0.2% of the world's population. Higher estimates place the worldwide Jewish population at over 14.5 million.

State of Israel

world's population (Shown standing between the two banners)]] Israel, the Jewish nation-state, is the only country in which Jews make up a majority of the citizens, although the United States has a larger number of Jews. It was established as an independent democratic state on May 14, 1948. Of the 120 members in its parliament, the Knesset, 9 members are Israeli Arabs and 2 are Israeli Druses. At the time of its independence, approximately 600,000 Jews lived in Israel. Since then, the country's Jewish population has increased by about one million over each decade as more immigrants arrived and more Israelis were born, resulting in one of the most significant global Jewish population shifts in over 2,000 years. All the Arab Israeli Wars have not slowed Israel's growth. Israel opened its doors to the Holocaust survivors. It has absorbed a majority of the Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews from the Islamic countries. It has taken in hundreds of thousands of Jews from the former USSR, and has airlifted tens of thousands of Ethiopian Jewsto Israel. In the past decade nearly a million immigrants came to Israel from the former Soviet Union. Many Jews who emigrated to Israel have moved elsewhere, known as yerida ("descent" [from the Holy Land]), due to its economic problems or due to disillusionment with political conditions and the continuing Israeli-Palestinian conflict

Diaspora (outside Israel)

The waves of immigration to the United States at the turn of the 19th century, massacre of European Jewry during the Holocaust, and the foundation of the state of Israel (and subsequent Jewish exodus from Arab lands) all resulted in substantial shifts in the population centers of world Jewry during the 20th century. Jewish exodus from Arab lands of the Russian Empire to the safety of the US from 1881-1924.]] Currently, the largest Jewish community in the world is located in the United States, with around 5.6 million Jews. Elsewhere in the Americas, there are also large Jewish populations in Canada and Argentina, and smaller populations in Brazil, Mexico , Uruguay, Venezuela, Chile, and several other countries (see History of the Jews in Latin America). Western Europe's largest Jewish community can be found in France, home to 600,000 Jews, the majority of whom are immigrants or refugees from North African Arab countries such as Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia (or their descendants). There are over 265,000 Jews in the United Kingdom. In Eastern Europe, there are anywhere from 500,000 to over two million Jews living in Russia, Ukraine, Hungary, Belarus and the other areas once dominated by the Soviet Union, but exact figures are difficult to establish. The fastest-growing Jewish community in the world, outside Israel, is the one in Germany, especially in Berlin, its capital. Tens of thousands of Jews from the former Eastern Bloc have settled in Germany since the fall of the Berlin Wall. The Arab countries of North Africa and the Middle East were home to around 900,000 Jews in 1945. Systematic persecution after the founding of Israel caused almost all of these Jews to flee to Israel, North America, and Europe in the 1950s. Today, around 8,000 Jews remain in Arab nations. Iran is home to around 25,000 Jews, down from a population of 100,000 Jews before the 1979 revolution. After the revolution some of the Iranian Jews emigrated to Israel or Europe but most of them emigrated (with their non-Jewish Iranian compatriots) to the United States (especially Los Angeles). Outside Europe, Asia and the Americas, significant Jewish populations exist in Australia and South Africa.

Population changes: Assimilation

Since at least the time of the ancient Greeks, a proportion of Jews have assimilated into the wider non-Jewish society around them, by either choice or force, ceasing to practice Judaism and losing their Jewish identity. Some Jewish communities, for example the Kaifeng Jews of China, have disappeared entirely, but assimilation has remained relatively low over much of the past millenium, as Jews were often not allowed to integrate with the wider communities in which they lived. The advent of the Jewish Enlightenment (see Haskalah) of the 1700s and the subsequent emancipation of the Jewish populations of Europe and America in the 1800s, changed the situation, allowing Jews to increasingly participate in, and become part of, secular society. The result has been a growing trend of assimilation, as Jews marry non-Jewish spouses and stop participating in the Jewish community. Rates of interreligious marriage vary widely: In the United States they are just under 50%, in the United Kingdom around 50%, and in Australia and Mexico as low as 10%, and in France they may be as high as 75%. In the United States, only about a third of children from intermarriages affiliate themselves with Jewish practice. Additionally, since non-religious Jews generally tend to marry later and have fewer children than the general population, the Jewish community in many countries is aging. The result is that most countries in the Diaspora have steady or slightly declining Jewish populations as Jews continue to assimilate into the countries in which they live.

Population changes: Wars against the Jews

Diaspora Throughout history, many rulers, empires and nations have oppressed their Jewish populations, or sought to eliminate them entirely. Methods employed have ranged from expulsion to outright genocide; within nations, often the threat of these extreme methods was sufficient to silence dissent. Some examples in the history of anti-Semitism are: the Great Jewish Revolt against the Roman Empire; the First Crusade which resulted in the massacre of Jews; the Spanish Inquisition led by Torquamada and the Auto de fe against the Marrano Jews; the Bohdan Chmielnicki Cossack massacres in Ukraine; the Pogroms backed by the Russian Tsars; as well as expulsions from Spain, England, France, Germany, and other countries in which the Jews had settled. The persecution culminated in Adolf Hitler's Final Solution which led to the Holocaust, and the slaughter of approximately 6 million Jews from 1939 to 1945.

Population changes: Growth

Israel is the only country with a consistently growing Jewish population due to natural population increase, though the Jewish populations of other countries in Europe and North America have recently increased due to immigration. In the Diaspora, in almost every country the Jewish population in general is either declining or steady, but Orthodox and Haredi Jewish communities, whose members often shun birth control for religious reasons, have experienced rapid population growth, with rates near 4% per year for Haredi Jews in Israel, and similar rates in other countries. Orthodox and Conservative Judaism discourage proselytization to non-Jews, but many Jewish groups have tried to reach out to the assimilated Jewish communities of the Diaspora in order to increase the number of Jews. Additionally, while in principle Reform Judaism favors seeking new members for the faith, this position has not translated into active proselytism, instead taking the form of an effort to reach out to non-Jewish spouses of intermarried couples. There is also a trend of Orthodox movements pursuing secular Jews in order to give them a stronger Jewish identity so there is less chance of intermarriage. As a result of the efforts by these and other Jewish groups over the past twenty-five years, there has been a trend of secular Jews becoming more religiously observant, known as the Baal Teshuva movement, though the demographic implications of the trend are unknown. Additionally, there is also a growing movement of Jews by Choice by gentiles who make the decision to head in the direction of becoming Jews.

Jewish languages

Hebrew is the liturgical language of Judaism (termed lashon ha-kodesh, "the holy tongue"), and is the language of the State of Israel. It was revived by Eliezer ben Yehuda, who arrived in Palestine in 1881 at a time when no one spoke the Hebrew language. Diaspora Jews (outside Israel) today speak the local languages of their respective countries. Yiddish is the historic language of many Ashkenazi Jews, and Ladino of many Sephardic Jews.

History of the Jews

:See also: Historical Schisms among the Jews

Jews and migrations

Historical Schisms among the Jews Throughout Jewish history, Jews have repeatedly been directly or indirectly expelled from both their original homeland, and the areas in which they have resided. This experience as both immigrants and emigrants (see: Jewish refugees) have shaped Jewish identity and religious practice in many ways. An incomplete list of such migrations includes:
- The patriarch Abraham was a migrant to the land of Canaan from Ur of the Chaldees.
- The Children of Israel experienced the Exodus (meaning "departure" or "going forth" in Greek) from ancient Egypt, as recorded in the Book of Exodus.
- The Kingdom of Israel was sent into permanent exile and scattered all over the world by Assyria.
- The Kingdom of Judah was exiled first by Babylonia and then by Rome.
- The 2,000 year dispersion of the Jewish diaspora beginning under the Roman Empire, as Jews were spread throughout the Roman world and, driven from land to land, and settled wherever they could live freely enough to practice their religion. Over the course of the diaspora the center of Jewish life moved from Babylonia to Spain to Poland to United States and to Israel.
- Many expulsions during the Middle Ages and Enlightenment in Europe, including: 1290, 16,000 Jews were expelled from England; in 1396, 100,000 from France; in 1421 thousands were expelled from Austria. Many of these Jews settled in Eastern Europe, especially Poland.
- Following the Spanish Inquisition in 1492, the Spanish population of around 200,000 Sephardic Jews were expelled by the Spanish crown and Catholic church, followed by expulsions in 1493 in Sicily (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire, the Netherlands, and North Africa, others migrating to Southern Europe and the Middle East.
- During the 19th century, France's policies of equal citizenship regardless of religion led to the immigration of Jews (especially from Eastern and Central Europe), which was encouraged by Napoleon Bonaparte.
- The arrival of millions of Jews in the New World, including immigration of over 1,000,000 Eastern European Jews to the United States from 1890-1925, see History of the Jews in the United States.
- The Pogroms in Eastern Europe, the rise of modern Anti-Semitism, the Holocaust and the rise of Arab nationalism all served to fuel the movements and migrations of huge segments of Jewry from land to land and continent to continent, until they have now arrived back in large numbers at their original historical homeland in Israel.
- The Islamic Revolution of Iran, forced many Iranian Jews to flee Iran. Most found refuge in the US (particularly Los Angeles, CA) and Israel. Smaller communities of Persian Jews exist in Canada and Western Europe.

Kingdoms of Israel and Judah

Persian Jews)]] Jews descend mostly from the ancient Israelites (also known as Hebrews), who settled in the Land of Israel. The Israelites traced their common lineage to the biblical patriarch Abraham through Isaac and Jacob. A kingdom was established under Saul and continued under King David and Solomon. King David conquered Jerusalem (first a Canaanite, then a Jebusite town) and made it his capital. After Solomon's reign the nation split into two kingdoms, the Kingdom of Israel (in the north) and the Kingdom of Judah (in the south). The Kingdom of Israel was conquered by the Assyrian ruler Shalmaneser V in the 8th century BC and spread all over the Assyrian empire, where they were assimilated into other cultures and become known as the Ten Lost Tribes. The Kingdom of Judah continued as an independent state until it was conquered by a Babylonian army in the early 6th century BC, destroying the First Temple that was at the centre of Jewish worship. The Judean elite was exiled to Babylonia, but later at least a part of them returned to their homeland after the subsequent conquest of Babylonia by the Persians seventy years later, a period known as the Babylonian Captivity. A new Second Temple was constructed, and old religious practices were resumed.

Persian, Greek, and Roman rule

:See related article Jewish-Roman wars. The Seleucid Kingdom, which arose after the Persians were defeated by Alexander the Great, sought to introduce Greek culture into the Persian world. When the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes, supported by Hellenized Jews (those who had adopted Greek culture), attempted to convert the Jewish Temple to a temple of Zeus, the non-Hellenized Jews revolted under the leadership of the Maccabees and rededicated the Temple to the Jewish God (hence the origins of Hanukkah) and created an independent Jewish kingdom known as the Hasmonaean Kingdom which lasted from 165 BCE to 63 BCE, when the kingdom came under influence of the Roman Empire. During the early part of Roman rule, the Hasmonaeans remained in power, until the family was annihilated by Herod the Great. Herod came from a wealthy Idumean family and became a very successful client-king under the Romans. He significantly expanded the Temple in Jerusalem. Upon his death in 4 BCE the Romans directly ruled Judea and there were frequent changes of policies by conflicting and empire-building Caesars, generals, governors, and consuls who often acted cruelly or to maximize their own wealth and power. Rome's attitudes swung from tolerance to hostility against its Jewish subjects, who had since moved throughout the Empire. The Romans, worshipping a large pantheon, could not readily accommodate the exclusive monotheism of Judaism, and the religious Jews could not accept Roman polytheism. After a famine and riots in 66 CE, the Judeans began to revolt against their Roman rulers. The revolt was smashed by the Roman emperors Vespasian and Titus Flavius. In Rome the Arch of Titus still stands, showing enslaved Judeans and a menorah being brought to Rome. It is customary for Jews not to walk through this arch. menorah The Romans all but destroyed Jerusalem; only a single "Western Wall" of the Second Temple remained. After the end of this first revolt, the Judeans continued to live in their land in significant numbers, and were allowed to practice their religion. In the second century the Roman Emperor Hadrian began to rebuild Jerusalem as a pagan city while restricting some Jewish practices. Angry at this affront, the Judeans again revolted led by Simon Bar Kokhba. Hadrian responded with overwhelming force, putting down the revolution and killing as many as half a million Jews. After the Roman Legions prevailed in 135, Jews were not allowed to enter the city of Jerusalem and most Jewish worship was forbidden by Rome. Following the destruction of Jerusalem and the expulsion of the Jews, Jewish worship stopped being centrally organized around the Temple, and instead was rebuilt around rabbis who acted as teachers and leaders of individual communities. No new books were added to the Jewish Bible after the Roman period, instead major efforts went into interpreting and developing the Halakhah, or oral law, and writing down these traditions in the Talmud, the key work on the interepretation of Jewish law, written during the first to fifth centuries CE.

Beginning of the Diaspora

Though Jews had settled outside Israel since the time of the Babylonians, the results of the Roman response to the Jewish revolt shifted the center of Jewish life from its ancient home to the diaspora. While some Jews remained in Judea, renamed Palestine by the Romans, some Jews were sold into slavery, while others became citizens of other parts of the Roman Empire. This is the traditional explanation to the Jewish diaspora, almost universally accepted by past and present rabbinical or Talmudical scholars, who believe that Jews are almost exclusively biological descendants of the Judean exiles, a belief backed up at least partially by DNA evidence. Some secular historians speculate that a majority of the Jews in Antiquity were most likely descendants of converts in the cities of the Graeco-Roman world, especially in Alexandria and Asia Minor. They were only affected by the diaspora in its spiritual sense and by the sense of loss and homelessness which became a cornerstone of the Jewish creed, much supported by persecutions in various parts of the world. Any such policy of conversion, which spread the Jewish religion throughout Hellenistic civilization, seems to have ended with the wars against the Romans and the following reconstruction