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June 25

June 25

June 25 is the 176th day of the year (177th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 189 days remaining.

Events

- 841 - Battle of Fontenay
- 1530 - The Augsburg Confession is presented at the Diet of Augsburg to the Holy Roman Emperor by the Lutheran princes and Electors of Germany.
- 1788 - Virginia ratifies the United States Constitution and is admitted as the 10th state of the United States.
- 1876 - Battle of the Little Big Horn and the death of Colonel George Armstrong Custer.
- 1938 - Dr. Douglas Hyde is elected the first President of Ireland.
- 1945 - Seán T. O'Kelly is elected the second President of Ireland.
- 1950 - The beginning of the Korean War.
- 1959 - Eamon de Valera is elected the third President of Ireland.
- 1967 - First global satellite television programme – "Our World"
- 1973 - Erskine Hamilton Childers is elected the fourth President of Ireland.
- 1975 - State of Emergency in India declared.
- Mozambique achieved independence.
- 1982 - Greece abolishes headshaving of the recruits in the military.
- 1983 - India wins the Cricket World Cup.
- 1991 - Croatia and Slovenia declare their independence from Yugoslavia.
- 1993 - David Letterman airs his last episode of Late_Night_with_David_Letterman.
- Kim Campbell is chosen as leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada and becomes the first female Prime Minister of Canada.
- 1996 - The Khobar Towers bombing leaves 19 U.S. servicemen dead in Saudi Arabia.
- 1997 - An unmanned Progress spacecraft collided with the Russian Space station, Mir.
- 1998 - Microsoft Windows 98 is released.
- In Clinton v. City of New York, the United States Supreme Court decides that the Line Item Veto Act of 1996 is unconstitutional.
- 1999 - The American soap opera Another World airs its 8891st and final episode.

Births

1328 to 1899

- 1328 - William Montacute, 2nd Earl of Salisbury, English military leader (d. 1397)
- 1560 - Wilhelm Fabry, German surgeon (d. 1634)
- 1612 - John Albert Vasa, Polish bishop (d. 1634)
- 1715 - Joseph-François Foulon, French politician (d. 1789)
- 1852 - Antoni Gaudí, Catalan architect (d. 1926)
- 1858 - Georges Courteline, French dramatist (d. 1929)
- 1864 - Walther Nernst, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1941)
- 1865 - Robert Henri, American painter (d. 1929)
- 1884 - Henry Kahnweiler, German art promoter (d. 1979)
- 1887 - George Abbott, American playwright, screenwriter, producer, director, and actor (d. 1995)
- 1894 - Hermann Oberth, German physicist (d. 1989)

1900 to 1999

- 1900 - Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, Viceroy of India (d. 1979)
- 1903 - George Orwell, British writer (d. 1950)
- 1907 - J. Hans D. Jensen, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1973)
- 1911 - William Howard Stein, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1980)
- 1912 - William T. Cahill, Governor of New Jersey (d. 1996)
- 1913 - Cyril Fletcher, British comedian (d. 2005)
- 1921 - Celia Franca, Canadian ballet dancer
- 1923 - Nicholas Mosley, British writer
- 1924 - Sidney Lumet, American actor and director
- 1925 - June Lockhart, American actress
- 1926 - Ingeborg Bachmann, Austrian writer (d. 1973)
- 1928 - Alexei Abrikosov, Russian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1929 - Eric Carle, American children's author
- 1930 - Mary Beth Peil, American opera singer and actress
- 1932 - Peter Blake, English artist
- 1933 - James Meredith, American civil rights activist
- Álvaro Siza Vieira, Portuguese architect
- 1940 - A.J. Quinnell, English thriller and mystery writer (d. 2005)
- 1945 - Carly Simon, American singer
- 1955 - Terry Chimes, British musician
- 1956 - Boris Trajkovski, President of the Republic of Macedonia (d. 2004)
- 1957 - John Porcerelli, Former Professional Boxer, Preeminent Psychologist and Doctor
- 1963 - George Michael, English singer
- Yann Martel, Canadian author
- 1966 - Dikembe Mutombo, Congan basketball player
- 1969 - Matt Gallant, U.S. television host
- 1970 - Lucy Benjamin, British actress
- Erki Nool, Estonian decathlete, Olympian
- 1972 - Carlos Delgado, Puerto Rican Major League Baseball player
- 1974 - Karisma Kapoor, Indian actress
- 1975 - Linda Cardellini, American actress
- Albert Costa, Spanish tennis player
- Vladimir Kramnik, Russian chess player
- 1981 - Simon Ammann, Swiss ski jumper
- 1982 - Mikhail Youzhny, Russian tennis player
- 1983 - Nargis Farahmand, Afghani poet
- 1986 - Aya Matsuura, Japanese singer
- 1990 - Sabrina Maria Magdalena Preiner, Austrian princess of Winden

Deaths

1134 to 1899

- 1134 - King Nicholas of Denmark
- 1218 - Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester, French crusader (b. 1160)
- 1483 - Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers, English writer
- 1522 - Franchinus Gaffurius, Italian composer (b. 1451)
- 1533 - Mary Tudor, queen of Louis XII of France (b. 1496)
- 1579 - Hatano Hideharu, Japanese warlord and samurai (b. 1541)
- 1593 - Michele Mercati, Italian physician and gardener (b. 1541)
- 1634 - John Marston, English playwright (b. 1576)
- 1638 - Juan Pérez de Montalbán, Spanish writer (b. 1602)
- 1665 - Archduke Sigismund Francis of Austria (b. 1630)
- 1669 - François de Vendôme, duc de Beaufort, French soldier (b. 1616)
- 1671 - Giovanni Battista Riccioli, Italian astronomer (b. 1598)
- 1767 - Georg Philipp Telemann, German composer (b. 1681)
- 1798 - Thomas Sandby, English cartographer and architect (b. 1721)
- 1822 - E.T.A. Hoffmann, German writer, composer, and painter (b. 1776)
- 1861 - Abd-ul-Mejid, Ottoman Sultan (b. 1823)
- 1868 - Carlo Matteucci, Italian physicist (b. 1811)
- 1875 - Antoine-Louis Barye, French sculptor (b. 1796)
- 1876 - George Armstrong Custer, U.S. Army officer (killed in battle) (b. 1839)
- 1882 - François Jouffroy, French sculptor (b. 1806)
- 1884 - Hans Rott, Austrian composer (b. 1858)

1900 to 1999

- 1916 - Thomas Eakins, American artist (b. 1844)
- 1937 - Colin Clive, British actor (b. 1900)
- 1948 - William C. Lee, U.S. general (b. 1895)
- 1960 - Tommy Corcoran, baseball player (b. 1869)
- 1971 - John Boyd Orr, Scottish physician and biologist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1880)
- 1976 - Johnny Mercer, American songwriter (b. 1909)
- 1983 - Alberto Ginastera, Argentine composer (b. 1916)
- 1988 - Hillel Slovak, Israeli-born guitarist (b. 1962)
- 1995 - Warren Burger, Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court (b. 1907)
- Ernest Walton, Irish physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1903)
- 1997 - Jacques-Yves Cousteau, French explorer, scientist, and inventor (b. 1910)

2000 onwards

- 2003 - Lester Maddox, Governor of Georgia (b. 1915)

Holidays and Observances

- Statehood Day in Slovenia and Croatia
- Antichristmas celebrated by some Satanists (see also Midsummer)
- National Catfish Day
- Spain – Fiesta of Santa Orosia
- Mozambique – Independence Day
- Abyssinian Coptic Orthodox Church – Feast of Saint Pontius Pilate

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/25 BBC: On This Day] ---- June 24 - June 26 - May 25 - July 25 – listing of all days ko:6월 25일 ms:25 Jun ja:6月25日 simple:June 25 th:25 มิถุนายน

June 25

June 25 is the 176th day of the year (177th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 189 days remaining.

Events

Births

1328 to 1899

1900 to 1999

Deaths

1134 to 1899

1900 to 1999

2000 onwards

- 2003 - Lester Maddox, Governor of Georgia (b. 1915)

Holidays and Observances

External links

Leap year

A leap year (or intercalary year) is a year containing an extra day or month in order to keep the calendar year in sync with an astronomical or seasonal year. Seasons and astronomical events do not repeat at an exact number of days, so a calendar which had the same number of days in each year would over time drift with respect to the event it was supposed to track. By occasionally inserting (or intercalating) an additional day or month into the year, the drift can be corrected. Leap years (which keep the calendar in sync with the year) should not be confused with leap seconds (which keep clock time in sync with the day).

Gregorian calendar

The Gregorian calendar, the current standard calendar in most of the world, adds a 29th day to February in all years evenly divisible by 4, except for century years (those ending in -00), which receive the extra day only if they are evenly divisible by 400. Thus 1996 was a leap year whereas 1999 was not, and 1600, 2000 and 2400 are leap years but 1700, 1800, 1900 and 2100 are not. The reasoning behind this rule is as follows:
- The Gregorian calendar is designed to keep the vernal equinox on or close to March 21, so that the date of Easter (celebrated on the Sunday after the 14th day of the Moon that falls on or after 21 March) remains correct with respect to the vernal equinox.
- The vernal equinox year is currently about 365.242375 days long.
- The Gregorian leap year rule gives an average year length of 365.2425 days. This difference of a little over 0.0001 days means that in around 8,000 years, the calendar will be about one day behind where it should be. But in 8,000 years' time the length of the vernal equinox year will have changed by an amount we can't accurately predict (see below). So the Gregorian leap year rule does a good enough job. Image:Gregoriancalendarleap.png

Which day is the leap day?

The Gregorian calendar is a modification of the Julian calendar first used by the Romans. The Roman calendar originated as a lunar calendar (though from the 5th century BC it no longer followed the real moon) and named its days after three of the phases of the moon: the new moon (calends, hence "calendar"), the first quarter (nones) and the full moon (ides). Days were counted down (inclusively) to the next named day, so 24 February was ante diem sextum calendas martii ("the sixth day before the calends of March"). Since 45 BC, February in a leap year had two days called "the sixth day before the calends of March". The extra day was originally the second of these, but since the third century it was the first. Hence the term bissextile day for 24 February in a bissextile year. Where this custom is followed, anniversaries after the inserted day are moved in leap years. For example, the former feast day of Saint Matthias, 24 February in ordinary years, would be 25 February in leap years. This historical nicety is, however, in the process of being discarded: The European Union declared that, starting in 2000, 29 February rather than 24 February would be leap day, and the Roman Catholic Church also now uses 29 February as leap day. The only tangible difference is felt in countries that celebrate feast days.

Julian calendar

The Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by 4. This rule gives an average year length of 365.25 days. The excess of about 0.0076 days with respect to the vernal equinox year means that the vernal equinox moves a day earlier in the calendar every 130 years or so.

Revised Julian Calendar

The Revised Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by 4, except for years divisible by 100 that do not leave a remainder of 200 or 600 when divided by 900. This rule agrees with the rule for the Gregorian calendar until 2799. The first year that dates in the Revised Julian calendar will not agree with the those in the Gregorian calendar will be 2800, because it will be a leap year in the Gregorian calendar but not in the Revised Julian calendar. This rule gives an average year length of 365.242222… days. This is a very good approximation to the mean tropical year, but because the vernal equinox tropical year is slightly longer, the Revised Julian calendar does not do as good a job as the Gregorian calendar of keeping the vernal equinox on or close to 21 March.

Chinese calendar

The Chinese calendar is lunisolar, so a leap year has an extra month, often called an embolismic month after the Greek word for it. In the Chinese calendar the leap month is added according to a complicated rule, which ensures that month 11 is always the month that contains the northern winter solstice. The intercalary month takes the same number as the preceding month; for example, if it follows the second month then it is simply called "leap second month".

Hebrew calendar

The Hebrew calendar is also lunisolar with an embolistic month. In the Hebrew calendar the extra month is called Adar Alef (first Adar) and is added before Adar, which then becomes Adar Sheni (second Adar). According to the Metonic cycle, this is done seven times every nineteen years, specifically, in years, 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19. In addition, the Hebrew calendar has postponement rules that postpone the start of the year by one or two days. The year before the postponement gets one or two extra days, and the year whose start is postponed loses one or two days. These postponement rules reduce the number of different combinations of year length and starting day of the week from 28 to 14, and regulate the location of certain religious holidays in relation to the Sabbath.

Hindu Calendar

In the Hindu calendar, which is a lunisolar calendar, the embolismic month is called adhika maas (extra month). It is the month in which the sun is in the same sign of the stellar zodiac on two consecutive dark moons.

Iranian calendar

The Iranian calendar also has a single intercalated day once in every four years, but every 33 years or so the leap years will be five years apart instead of four years apart. The system used is more accurate and more complicated, and is based on the time of the March equinox as observed from Teheran. The 33-year period is not completely regular; every so often the 33-year cycle will be broken by a cycle of 29 or 37 years.

Long term leap year rules

The accumulated difference between the Gregorian calendar and the vernal equinoctial year amounts to 1 day in about 8,000 years. This suggests that the calendar needs to be improved by another refinement to the leap year rule: perhaps by avoiding leap years in years divisible by 8,000. (The most common such proposal is to avoid leap years in years divisible by 4,000 [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22gregorian+calendar%22+error+%22leap+year%22+4000]. This is based on the difference between the Gregorian calendar and the mean tropical year. Others claim, erroneously, that the Gregorian calendar itself already contains a refinement of this kind [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mleapyr.html].) However, there is little point in planning a calendar so far ahead because over a timescale of tens of thousands of years the number of days in a year will change for a number of reasons, most notably: #Precession of the equinoxes moves the position of the vernal equinox with respect to perihelion and so changes the length of the vernal equinoctial year. #Tidal acceleration from the sun and moon slows the rotation of the earth, making the day longer. In particular, the second component of change depends on such things as post-glacial rebound and sea level rise due to climate change. We can't predict these changes accurately enough to be able to make a calendar that will be accurate to a day in tens of thousands of years.

Marriage proposal

There is a tradition, said to go back to Saint Patrick and Saint Bridget in 5th century Ireland, whereby women may only make marriage proposals in leap years.

Saint Patrick and the leap year

:Saint Patrick, having driven the frogs out of the bogs was walking along the shores of Lough Neagh, when he was accosted by Saint Bridget in tears, and was told that a mutiny had broken out in the nunnery over which she presided, the ladies claiming the right of popping the question. :Saint Patrick said he would concede them the right every seventh year, when Saint Bridget threw her arms round his neck, and exclaimed, "Arrah, Pathrick, jewel, I daurn't go back to the girls wid such a proposal. Make it one year in four." Saint Patrick replied, "Bridget, acushla, squeeze me that way again, an' I'll give ye leap-year, the longest of the lot." Saint Bridget, upon this, popped the question to St Patrick himself, who, of course, could not marry: so he patched up the difficulty as best he could with a kiss and a silk gown. (Source: Evans, Ivor H, Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, Cassell, London, 1988) According to a 1288 law in Scotland, fines were levied if the proposal was refused by the man; compensation ranged from a kiss to a silk gown to soften the blow. Because men felt that put them at too great a risk, the tradition was in some places tightened to restricting female proposals to 29 February.

Birthdays

A person who was born on 29 February may be called a "leapling". In non-leap years they usually celebrate their birthday on 28 February or 1 March. There are many instances in children's literature where a person's claim to be only a quarter of their actual age turns out be based on counting their leap-year birthdays. A similar device is used in the plot of the Gilbert and Sullivan operetta The Pirates of Penzance. Category:Calendars Category:Units of time als:Schaltjahr ko:윤년 ja:閏年 simple:Leap year th:ปีอธิกสุรทิน

841

Events
- June 25: Battle of Fontenay - Louis the German and Charles the Bald defeat Lothar.
- Battle at Magh-Ochtar in Kildare, Ireland, at which Feidlimid mac Cremthanin is defeated by the Southern Uí Neill. Births Deaths Category:841 ko:841년

1530

Events

- June 25 - Augsburg confession presented to Charles V of Holy Roman Empire.
- August 12 - Florence is captured by Spanish troops under Prince Philibert of Orange. The Medici are restored in the person of the Pope's nephew Alessandro de Medici.
- Knights of Malta are formed when the Knights Hospitaller are given Malta by Pope Clement VIII.
- Ducal palace of Celle constructed.
- Martin Afonso de Souza's expedition to patrol the Brazilian coast, banish the French, and create the first colonial towns: São Vicente and São Paulo.
- Austrian forces capture Gran in Hungary, and raid as far as Buda.
- Copernicus presents his sun-based system.

Births

- February 18 - Uesugi Kenshin, Japanese samurai and warlord (died 1578)
- May 7 - Louis I de Bourbon, Prince de Condé, French protestant general (died 1569)
- July 3 - Claude Fauchet, French historian (died 1601)
- August 25 - Ivan IV of Russia (died 1584)
- September 30 - Geronimo Mercuriali, Italian philologist and physician (d. 1606)
- November 1 - Étienne de La Boétie, French judge and writer (died 1563)
- November 6 - Josias Simler, Swiss scholar (died 1576)
- Julius Caesar Aranzi, Italian anatomist (died 1589)
- Christopher Bathory, Prince of Transylvania (died 1581)
- Jean Bodin, French jurist (died 1596)
- Pey de Garros, Provençal poet
- Wawrzyniec Grzymala Goslicki, Polish bishop, political thinker and philosopher (died 1607)
- Thomas Hoby, English diplomat and translator (died 1566)
- Moses Isserles, rabbi and Talmudist (died 1572)
- Shibata Katsuie, Japanese military commander during the Sengoku Period
- Koriki Kiyonaga, daimyo in Azuchi-Momoyama period and Edo period (died 1608)
- Jan Kochanowski, Polish writer (died 1584)
- Ralph Lane, English explorer (died 1603)
- Claude Le Jeune, French composer (died 1600)
- Joseph Boniface de La Molle, lover of Marguerite de Valois (died 1574)
- Gabriel Montgomery, captain of the Scottish Guard of Henry II of France (died 1574)
- François de Montmorency (died 1579)
- Israel ben Moses Najara, Jewish liturgical poet (died 1599)
- Jean Nicot, French diplomat and scholar (died 1606)
- Grace O'Malley, Irish noblewoman (died 1603)
- Shane O'Neill, Irish chieftain and rebel (died 1567)
- Turlough Luineach O'Neill, Irish chieftain of Tyrone (died 1595)
- Nicholas Sander, English Catholic propagandist (died 1581)
- Ruy López de Segura, Spanish priest and chess analyst (died 1580)
- Josias Simmler, Swiss theologian and classicist (died 1576)
- Mordecai Yoffe, author of Levush Malkhut (died 1612)

Deaths

- April 27 - Jacopo Sannazaro, Italian poet (born 1458)
- August 2 - Kano Masanobu, chief painter of the Ashikaga shogunate (born 1434)
- November 29 - Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, British statesman
- December 1 - Margaret of Austria, Regent of the Netherlands (born 1480)
- December 26 - Babur, founder of the Mughal Empire (born 1483)
- Joan, princess of Castile
- Francesco Ferruccio, Florentine captain (born 1489)
- Mercurino Gattinara, Italian statesman and jurist (born 1465)
- Fernando Lopes, Protuguese prisoner and first permanent resident of Saint Helena
- Quentin Matsys, Flemish painter (born 1466)
- Konstanty Ostrogski, Grand Hetman of Lithuania (born 1460) Category:1530 ko:1530년

Diet of Augsburg

The Diet of Augsburg were the meetings of the Reichstag of the Holy Roman Empire in the German city of Augsburg. There were many such sessions, but the three meetings during the Reformation and the ensuing religious wars between the Catholic emperor Charles V and the Protestant Schmalkaldic League in the early 16th century are especially noteworthy. The session of 1530 attempted to calm rising tensions over Protestantism. It brought forth the Confessio Augustana, a central document of Lutheranism that was presented to emperor Charles V. After his victory over the Schmalkaldic League, Charles V convened the session of 1547/48 (geharnischter Reichstag), where the Augsburg Interim was proclaimed. This attempt to give Catholicism the priority was rejected by many princes, though, and a resolution of the confessional tensions was only achieved at the session on 1555, where the Peace of Augsburg was concluded. The treaty acknowledged the Confessio Augustana and codified the cuius regio, eius religio principle, which gave each prince the power to decide the religion of his subjects.

Lutheran

Lutheranism is a Christian tradition committed to the main theological insights of Martin Luther. It is numerically the third largest single Christian movement, with an estimated 82.6 million people belonging to the various congregations, bodies, and churches which call themselves Lutheran. Luther's insights are generally held to have been a major foundation of the Protestant movement. The relationship between Lutheranism and the Protestant tradition is, however, ambiguous: some Lutherans consider Lutheranism to be outside the Protestant tradition, while others see it as part of this tradition.

History of Lutheranism

Early history

Lutheranism as a movement traces its origin to the work of Martin Luther, a German religious scholar who sought to reform the practices of the Roman Catholic Church in the early 16th century. The symbolic beginning of the Reformation occurred on October 31, 1517, which Lutherans and other Protestants regard as Reformation Day, when Doctor Luther posted an open invitation to debate his 95 theses concerning the teaching and practice of indulgences within the Church. Between 1517 and 1520, Luther preached and published his scathing criticisms of the Catholic Church in books and pamphlets. His ideas were supported by many other Christian theologians, and they also had a certain populist appeal. As a result, Luther gained many supporters and followers from all levels of society, from peasants who considered him a folk hero, to knights who swore to protect him, to rulers of German lands who wanted more independence from papal interference in their domestic policies. Luther also gained some powerful enemies, including the Pope in Rome and the youthful Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Concerned about the "problem" of Luther, the Pope and Roman officials decided to send representatives to Luther to discuss his concerns and to persuade him to retract his challenges to papal authority. The effort was largely unsuccessful. Luther continued to discover new areas in need of reform. Finally, the papal bull called the Exsurge Domine was issued in 1520, calling on Luther to condemn and abandon his ideas. Luther replied by burning the bull and volumes of canon law in a bonfire at Wittenberg. Finally, a new bull excommunicating Luther and those who agreed with him was issued. Charles V wanted to outlaw the now excommunicated Luther and his followers, but he was warned by advisors that doing so outright would cause a revolt, since Luther had become so popular. More importantly, the ruler of Luther's land, Elector Frederick the Wise, refused to allow any of his subjects to be condemned without trial. So instead, Luther was to be summoned to appear before the Diet of Worms. Luther went to Worms, but when called upon by imperial and papal officials to retract his ideas, Luther replied: "I cannot submit my faith either to the Pope or to the Councils, because it is clear as day they have frequently erred and contradicted each other. Unless therefore, I am convinced by the testimony of Scripture ... I cannot and will not retract ..." --Martin Luther, April 16, 1521 Luther had been granted a Safe Conduct to travel to and from his trial, but remembering how a similar promise had been violated in the case of Jan Hus, Luther's supporters prevailed upon him to escape from Worms in the dark of night, before he too could be seized and executed. Luther remained in hiding for some time, all the while continuing to write and develop his ideas. Shortly after Luther escaped, Charles V issued the Edict of Worms, which outlawed Luther and his followers, declared Luther and his followers heretics, and banned Luther's writings.

Religious war

What had started as a strictly theological and academic debate had now turned into something of a social and political conflict as well, pitting Luther, his German allies and Northern European supporters against Charles V, France, the Italian Pope, their territories and other allies. The conflict would erupt into a religious war after Luther's death, fueled by the political climate of the Holy Roman Empire and strong personalities on both sides. In 1526, at the First Diet of Speyer, it was decided that, until a General Council could meet and settle the theological issues raised by Martin Luther, the Edict of Worms would not be enforced and each Prince could decide if Lutheran teachings and worship would be allowed in his territories. In 1529, at the Second Diet of Speyer, the decision the previous Diet of Speyer was reversed — despite the strong protests of the Lutheran princes, free cities and some Zwinglian territories. These states quickly became known as Protestants. At first, this term Protestant was used politically for the states that resisted the Edict of Worms. Over time, however, this term came to be used for the religious movements that opposed the Roman Catholic tradition in the sixteenth century. Lutheranism would become known as a separate movement after the 1530 Diet of Augsburg, which was convened by Charles V to try to stop the growing Protestant movement. At the Diet, Philipp Melanchthon presented a written summary of Lutheran beliefs called the Augsburg Confession. Several of the German princes (and later, kings and princes of other countries) signed the document to define "Lutheran" territories. These princes would ally to create the Schmalkaldic League in 1531, which lead to the Schmalkald War that pitted the Lutheran princes of the Schmalkaldic League against the Catholic forces of Charles V. After the conclusion of the Schmalkald War, Charles V attempted to impose Catholic religious doctrine on the territories that he had defeated. However, the Lutheran movement was far from defeated. In 1577, the next generation of Lutheran theologians gathered the work of the previous generation to define the doctrine of the persisting Lutheran church. This document is known as the Formula of Concord. In 1580, it was published with the Augsburg Confession, the Apology of the Augsburg Confession, the Large and Small Catechisms of Martin Luther, the Schmalcald Articles and the Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope. Together they were distributed in a volume titled The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. This book is still used today, and is referred to as the Book of Concord.

Results of the Lutheran Reformation

Luther and his followers began a large exodus from the Catholic Church known as the Protestant Reformation. In the years and decades following Luther's posting of the 95 theses on the door of the Wittenberg church, large numbers of Europeans left the Roman Church, including the majority of German speakers (the only German speaking areas where the population remained mostly in the Catholic church were those under the domain or influence of Catholic Austria and Bavaria or the electoral archbishops of Mainz, Cologne, and Trier). Because Luther sparked this mass movement, he is known as the father of the Protestant Reformation, and the father of Protestantism in general. Today, approximately 1 out every 4 Christians in the world is a Protestant, and 1 out of every 5 Protestants in the world is a Lutheran. Thus, approximately 1 out of every 20 Christians in the world is a Lutheran.

Lutheran doctrine

German speakers

The Holy Scripture and the Lutheran Confessions

The formal principle of Lutheranism and one of the signature teachings of the Lutheran Reformation is the teaching named Sola scriptura -- "Scripture alone." Lutherans believe that the Bible is divinely inspired and is the final authority for all matters of faith and doctrine. Lutherans also hold that the Holy Scripture is explained and interpreted by the Book of Concord -- a series of Confessions of faith composed by Lutherans in the 16th Century. Traditionally, Lutheran pastors, congregations and church bodies agree to teach in harmony with the Book of Concord because it teaches and faithfully explains the Word of God. For this reason, Lutherans who follow the Book of Concord closely, especially conservative Lutherans, often refer to themselves as Confessional Lutherans. Other Lutherans, who agree with the main teachings of the Lutheran Confessions, but may take exception to some of its doctrine, subscribe to the Book of Concord in so far as they are in harmony with Holy Scripture. Some Lutheran church bodies, such as the Lutheran Church--Missouri Synod, also teach Biblical inerrancy. Others adopt the viewpoint that the Bible contains God's Word, but is essentially a human document, subject to error in non-spiritual matters. Those who hold to the former reject modern liberal scholarship, while those that hold to the latter embrace it.

Central doctrines

The material principle of Lutheranism is the doctrine of salvation by God's grace alone (Sola Gratia), through faith alone (Sola Fide) for the sake of Christ's merit alone (Solus Christus). Lutherans believe God made the world, humanity included, perfect, holy and sinless. However, Adam and Eve chose to disobey God, trusting in their own strength, knowledge and wisdom. Because of this Original Sin -- the sin from which all other sins come -- all descendents of Adam and Eve (thus, all humans) are born in sin and are sinners. For Lutherans, original sin could be characterized as the "chief sin, a root and fountainhead of all actual sins" (Formula of Concord). Lutherans teach that sinners cannot do anything (i.e. "good works") to satisfy God's justice. Every human thought and deed is colored by sin and sinful motives. God has intervened in this world because He loves sinners and does not want them to be damned to Hell, and, by His grace alone -- His free gift of mercy -- a person is forgiven, adopted as a child of God, and given eternal salvation. For this reason, Lutherans teach that salvation is possible only because of the birth, perfect life of obedience, sufferings, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. In the person of Jesus Christ, Lutherans believe God and Man meet. Because He is God, He is sinless and so a worthy sacrifice, without spot or blemish. Because He is a man, He could die. In His death, death is destroyed, our debt paid for and our sins forgiven. Lutherans believe that individuals receive this gift of salvation by faith alone -- a full and complete trust in God's promises to forgive and to save. Even faith itself is seen as a gift of God, created in the hearts of Christians by the work of the Holy Spirit when they hear God's Word proclaimed, and when they are baptized. Lutherans believe that all who trust in Jesus alone can be sure of their salvation, for it is in Christ's work and his promises in which their surety lies. They teach that, at death, Christians are immediately taken into the presence of God in Heaven, where they await the resurrection of the body at the second coming of Christ. Although Lutherans believe good works do not satisfy God's justice, this is not to say that good works play no role in the Christian life. Good works always and in every instance spring spontaneously from true faith, and have their true origin in God, not in the fallen human heart or in human striving; their complete absence would demonstrate that faith, too, is absent. With the whole Christian community, Lutherans believe that there is one God, existing in three persons. (see Trinity) Most Lutherans also teach:
- The distinction between Law and Gospel
- Single Predestination: God chose to save His children before the world was created, but does not predestine the lost to be damned. Unlike Calvin, who explained how the reprobate come to be damned (double predestination), Luther said it was a mystery -- something which humanity cannot, and probably should not, try to comprehend.
- Infant Baptism
- Baptismal Regeneration
- The Real Presence of Christ's Body and Blood "in, with and under" the Bread and wine of the Lord's Supper.
- Amillennialism For an overview of Lutheran theology, see: ELCA Perspective: Braaten, Carl E., Principles of Lutheran Theology Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983. LCMS Perspective: Pieper, Franz. Christian Dogmatics. Saint Louis, Mo. : Concordia Pub. House, 1950-1957.

Lutheran religious practices

Lutherans generally place great emphasis on a liturgical approach to worship services; however, many Lutheran churches today also hold contemporary worship services for the purpose of evangelical outreach. Music forms a large part of a traditional Lutheran service. Lutheran hymns are sometimes known as chorales, and Luther himself composed hymns and hymn tunes, the most famous of which is "A Mighty Fortress is Our God" ("Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott"). Many Lutheran churches have active music ministries, including choirs, hand-bell choirs, children's choirs and sometimes carillon societies (to ring bells in a bell tower). Johann Sebastian Bach, a devout Lutheran, composed music for the Lutheran church. Children's ministries are considered fundamental in most Lutheran churches. Almost all maintain Sunday Schools, and many host or maintain private nursery-schools, primary schools, regional high schools and universities. Lutheran pastors and staff are repeatedly reminded that most evangelism occurs within the church, with children. Pastors usually teach in the common language of the parish. In the U.S., some congregations and synods traditionally taught in German or Norwegian, but this custom has been in significant decline since the early/middle 20th century. Pastors almost always have substantial theological educations, including Greek and Hebrew so that they can refer directly to the canonical Christian scriptures in the original language. Lutheran pastors may marry and have families. Lutheran Churches in the United States use a number of hymnals. The most widely uses are: Christian Worship (WELS), The Lutheran Book of Worship (ELCA and ELCIC), The Lutheran Hymnal (LCMS, WELS & CLC)and Lutheran Worship (LCMS). The Lutheran Church -- Missouri Synod recently approved a new hymnal, Lutheran Service Book, which will be available in the fall of 2006. The Evangelical Lutheran Church has also approved a new hymnal, Evangelical Lutheran Worship, which will be available in October 2006.

Lutheran ecumenism

Lutherans believe in ecumenism the idea that there is a single Christian church, and a single Christian faith. This belief is ingrained in the Lutheran confessions, and reflects the history of Lutheranism as a reform movement rather than a separatist movement. For that reason, a number of modern Lutheran denominations, now largely separated from state control, are reaching out to other Lutheran denominations as well as other Christian denominations. However, more conservative varieties of Lutheran strive to maintain historical distinctiveness, emphasizing doctrinal purity over ecumenical outreach. The largest organizations of Lutheran churches around the world are the Lutheran World Federation and the International Lutheran Council, which include the great majority of Lutheran denominations around the globe.

Lutheranism in North America

In the U.S., congregations are grouped into over 20 different denominations. The three largest Lutheran bodies in the United States are, in order of size: the more liberal Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA), the more conservative Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod (LCMS), and the most conservative of the three, the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS). These denominations provide seminaries, pastoral care, and Sunday School and liturgical materials. Local congregations contribute funds to support them and receive services and materials. Denominations help to start new congregations affiliated with them. In Canada, the two largest Lutheran denominations are the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC) and the Lutheran Church - Canada (LCC). The ELCIC was formed in 1986 when the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Canada (former congregations of the American Lutheran Church) absorbed the Canada Section of the Lutheran Church in America. The LCC was formed in 1988 when Canadian congregations of the LCMS formed their own denomination.

Denominational organization

The ELCA is divided into 64 geographical and one non-geographical synods (the Slovak Zion Synod). The ELCA has established relationships of full communion with The Episcopal Church, the Moravian Church, the United Church of Christ, the Presbyterian Church (USA) and the Reformed Church in America and an interim agreement with the United Methodist Church. The ELCA ordains both men and women to the pastoral office. It does not bless clergy in active same-sex relationships nor bless same-sex marriages; however such persons resigned to celibacy can be ordained. The LCMS is divided into 35 districts, including 2 non-geographical districts. It permits only qualified men to serve as pastors. It encourages women to be active in the church and has affirmed women's suffrage within congregations since 1969. In 2004, the synod decided that women may also "serve in humanly established offices" such as congregation president, reader, or usher. The LCMS does not permit active homosexuals to serve in the ministry, and it has affirmed an exclusively heterosexual definition of marriage. The LCMS practices closed communion (also called "close" communion), and has undergone recent internal struggles regarding participation of its clergy in interfaith "events." Particularly controversial was the post-9/11 event "A Prayer for America", held at Yankee Stadium, in which the church's Atlantic District President David Benke offered a Christian prayer alongside representatives of various non-Lutheran Christian, and non-Christian faiths. The WELS is also divided into districts. As with the LCMS, it permits only qualified men to serve as pastors and adopts similar positions on homosexuality and marriage. WELS does not support women's suffrage in the church. WELS teaches the "Unit Concept" of fellowship. Strict adherence to this requires members to refrain from all worship, including prayer, with those not in fellowship with WELS. One historic difference between the ELCA and the LCMS that can be seen today are the ethnic origins of both synods. The synods that merged into the ELCA came from a mix of German, Scandinavian, and Baltic congregations, while the LCMS has a primarily German background. Often one can walk into an ELCA church and decifer the ethnicity of its founders by examining the church architecture or the names on the roster. Not all Lutherans have German, Scandinavian, or Baltic backgrouds, however, and both the ELCA and LCMS openly welcome people of all ethnicities. In Canada, the ELCIC is divided into five synods and is in full communion with the Anglican Church of Canada. The LCC, based out of Winnipeg, Manitoba, is divided into three districts and maintains strong ties to the LCMS. There are at least 20 smaller Lutheran Denominations in the U.S., with many of them being cultural or doctrinal offshoots of the main three.

Inter-denomination relations

U.S. denominations differ on doctrine and practice. Doctrinally, the differences are primarily based on the degree of authority denominations place on the written text of Scripture. The ELCA subscribes to the "Historical-Critical Method" of Scripture interpretation, which attempts to interpret the text while taking account of the historical, cultural, and scientific limitations or biases imposed by the original writers. Many members of the ELCA believe that such higher criticism represents the best efforts of modern scholarship. The LCMS and WELS follow the traditional "historical-grammatical" method of interpreting the Scripture text, which seeks to understand the text as it is written within the context of history, culture, and language. Many members of these denominations feel this approach best reflects the original meaning of the text. A detailed discussion of differences between the denominations can be found at their respective pages (ELCA, LCMS, WELS). As a result of doctrinal differences, cooperation between different denominations varies: there is collaboration on some forms of outreach (for example, Lutheran World Relief); in worship practice, however, the conservative denominations typically practice closed communion, limiting celebration of the Eucharist (Lord's Supper) to those within their own denominations out of concern for doctrinal differences.

Lutheran publishers

English-language publishers of books on Luther and Lutheran theology # [http://www.cph.org/ Concordia Publishing House] (LCMS) # [http://www.augsburgfortress.com/ Augsburg Fortress] and [http://www.fortresspress.com/ Fortress Press] (ELCA) # [http://www.nph.net/ Northwestern Publishing House] (WELS) # [http://CLCbookhouse.org/ Church of the Lutheran Confession Bookhouse] (CLC) # [http://www.openbook.com.au/ Openbook Publishers] (Lutheran Church of Australia) # [http://www.aflconline.org/parish-ed/index.html Ambassador Publications] (AFLC)

Modern Lutheranism in Europe

Lutheranism is the state religion in most of the Nordic countries: Norway, Denmark, Finland, and Iceland. In these countries, the churches are supported directly by taxes. The church tax, an income tax of about 1–2%, is collected only from the members of the church, but the church also gets its share from other taxes such as the municipal corporation tax. Priests are educated at the Faculties of Theology of the state universities. With the extension of the European Union, the status of state churches is largely revised; they remain a State Church but win greater autonomy. In Sweden, Lutheranism was the state religion up until the year 2000. The church is no longer supported by taxes, but the fees are collected along with taxes. Lutheranism is also prominent in Estonia and Latvia. Members of the predominant churches in Germany, whether Lutheran, Reformed, or Catholic are also required by the state to pay a church tax in addition to their normal income tax. Certain parts of Germany are traditionally Lutheran (generally towards the north and east) while others are historically Catholic (especially Bavaria and areas along the Rhine). Modern mobility and a decrease in religiosity have, however, been instrumental in shifting the demographic situation, as did the movements of German refugees from areas lost to Poland and Russia as a result of World War II. Notably, the European churches have very low attending memberships at the offices; due to the history of those European churches, most parts of them knew persecution during the 17th and 18th centuries. The church attendance on Sunday is not decisive and houses offices are still perennial, particularly in southern Europe. Most people feel it is more important to attend to the lot of conference and training and Biblical studies. So, in northern Europe many attend religious services only for baptisms, Confirmation (sacrament)confirmations, weddings, funerals, and possibly at Christmas. Confirmation is treated seriously and is usually delayed until the end of the high school courses. The Lutheran confirmation training usually constitutes the largest exposure of Northern Europeans to Christian doctrines. Recently, the Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of the Netherlands merged with two Reformed churches (the Nederlandse Hervormde Kerk and the Gereformeerde Kerken), creating the 2,000,000 strong Protestant Church of the Netherlands. The 'PKN' claims to be both Reformed and Lutheran and is a member of both the WARC and the Lutheran World Federation]. The Lutheran congregations in the Netherlands have remained largely autonomous. Except in Northern Europe (see above), very few seminaries are state-supported. Due to large agreements like the Concorde de Leuenberg (1962), involving many churches raising from the Reformation the training for students in theology embraces a wide range of theologies including modern and contemporary movements in biblical criticism and theology. Many major seaports contain the outposts of the respective Nordic Lutheran churches (e.g. Norwegian and Finnish) to provide aid, social opportunities, and pastoral care for visiting seamen — in their own language. A few Lutheran pastors work in foreign countries such as France. ja:ルーテル教会

1788

1788 was a leap year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 1 - First edition of The Times, previously The Daily Universal Register, was published.
- January 2 - Georgia ratifies the United States Constitution and becomes the 4th U.S. state.
- January 9 - Connecticut ratifies the United States Constitution and becomes the 5th U.S. state.
- January 18 - Captain Arthur Phillip's ship arrives at Botany Bay
- January 26 - Captain Arthur Phillip decides to make the permanent settlement at Sydney Cove
- January 22 - Cyrus Griffin becomes the tenth and last President of the United States in Congress Assembled.
- January 26 - Australia Day: 11 ships of First Fleet from Botany Bay led by Arthur Phillip land in what would become Sydney, Australia.Great Britain establishes the prison colony of New South Wales, the first permanent European settlement on the continent.
- January 31 - Henry Benedict Stuart becomes the new Stuart claimant to the throne of Great Britain as King Charles IX and the figurehead of Jacobitism.
- February 1 - Isaac Briggs and William Longstreet patent the steamboat.
- February 6 - Massachusetts ratifies the United States Constitution and becomes the 6th U.S. state.
- February 9 - Austria enters the Russo-Turkish War of 1787-1792 and attacks Moldavia.
- March 14 - The Edinburgh Evening Courant carries a notice of £200 reward for capture of William Brodie, town councilor doubling as a burglar
- March 21 - A fire destroys 856 buildings in New Orleans leaving most of the town in ruins and twenty five percent of the population dead.
- April 28 - Maryland ratifies the United States Constitution and becomes the 7th U.S. state.
- May 23 - South Carolina ratifies the United States Constitution and becomes the 8th U.S. state.
- June 21 - New Hampshire ratifies the United States Constitution and becomes the 9th U.S. state.
- June 25 - Virginia ratifies the United States Constitution and becomes the 10th U.S. state.
- July 26 - New York ratifies the United States Constitution and becomes the 11th U.S. state.
- August 8 - The French king agreed to convene the Estates-General meeting in May of 1789. It was the first time since 1614.
- August 27 - Trial of William Brodie begins in Edinburgh, Scotland. He is sentenced to death by hanging
- October 1 - William Brodie hanged
- December 14 - King Charles III of Spain dies and is succeeded by his son Charles IV of Spain.
- "Battle" of Karansebes - Forces of Joseph II of Austria marching against Turks rout for nothing in Karansebes

Births

- January 22 - George Gordon, Lord Byron, English poet (d. 1824)
- February 5 - Robert Peel, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1850)
- February 22 - Arthur Schopenhauer, German philosopher (d. 1860)
- March 10 - Joseph von Eichendorff, German poet (d. 1857)
- April 14 - David G. Burnet, President of the Republic of Texas (d, 1870)
- May 16 - Friedrich Rückert, German poet, translator, and professor of Oriental languages (d. 1866)
- September 22 - Theodore Edward Hook, English author (d. 1841)
- October 11 - Simon Sechter, Austrian music teacher
- October 24 - Sarah Josepha Hale, American author (d. 1879)

Deaths

- January 14 - François Joseph Paul, marquis de Grasetilly, comte de Grasse, French admiral (b. 1722)
- January 31 - Charles Edward Stuart, claimant to the British throne (b. 1720)
- February 18 - John Whitehurst, English clockmaker and scientist (b. 1713)
- February 21 - Johann Georg Palitzsch, German astronomer (b. 1723)
- February 28 - Thomas Cushing, American Continental Congressman (b. 1725)
- April 12 - Carlo Antonio Campioni, French-born composer (b. 1719)
- April 15 - Giuseppe Bonno, Austrian composer (b. 1711)
- April 16 - Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, French naturalist (b. 1707)
- May 8 - Giovanni Antonio Scopoli, Italian-born physician and naturalist (b. 1723)
- June 18 - Adam Gib, Scottish religious leader (b. 1714)
- August 2 - Thomas Gainsborough, British painter (b. 1727)
- October 13 - Robert Nugent, 1st Earl Nugent, Irish politician and poet (b. 1702)
- December 6 - Jonathan Shipley, English bishop and politician (b. 1714)
- December 14 - Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, German composer (b. 1714)
- December 14 - King Charles III of Spain (b. 1716)
- December 22 - Percivall Pott, English surgeon (b. 1714) Category:1788 ko:1788년 ms:1788 simple:1788

United States Constitution

The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of the United States of America. It was completed on September 17, 1787, with its adoption by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and was later ratified by special conventions in each of the original thirteen states. It created a federal union of sovereign states, and a federal government to operate that union. It replaced the less defined union that had existed under the Articles of Confederation. It took effect in 1789 and has served as a model for the constitutions of numerous other nations. nations] nations nations nations

History

During the Revolutionary War, the thirteen states first formed a very weak central government—with the Congress being its only component—under the Articles of Confederation. Congress lacked any power to impose taxes, and, because there was no national executive or judiciary, relied on state authorities (who were often uncooperative) to enforce all of its acts. It also had no authority to override tax laws and tariffs between states. The Articles required unanimous consent from all the states before they could be amended and states took the central government so lightly that their representatives were often absent. For lack of a quorum, Congress was frequently blocked from making even moderate changes. In September 1786, commissioners from five states met in the Annapolis Convention to discuss adjustments to the Articles of Confederation that would improve commerce. They invited state representatives to convene in Philadelphia to discuss improvements to the federal government. After debate, the Confederation Congress endorsed the plan to revise the Articles of Confederation on February 21, 1787. Twelve states (Rhode Island being the only exception) accepted this invitation and sent delegates to convene in May 1787. The resolution calling the Convention specified its purpose was to propose amendments to the Articles, but the Convention decided to propose a rewritten Constitution. The Philadelphia Convention voted to keep deliberations secret and decided to draft a new fundamental government design which eventually stipulated that only 9 of the 13 states would have to ratify for the new government to go into effect. These actions were criticized by some as exceeding the convention's mandate and existing law. However, Congress, noting dissatisfaction with the Articles of Confederation government, unanimously agreed to submit the proposal to the states despite what some perceived as the exceeded terms of reference. On September 17, 1787, the Constitution was completed in Philadelphia, and the new government it prescribed came into existence on March 4, 1789, after fierce fights over ratification in many of the states. The original transcribed copy of the Constitution is on permanent display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C. For a list of those who signed the Constitution, see List of signatories of the United States Constitution.

The Constitution

The U.S. Constitution styles itself the "supreme law of the land." Courts have interpreted this phrase to mean that when laws (including state constitutions) that have been passed by state legislatures, or by the (national) U.S. Congress, are found to conflict with the federal constitution, these laws are ultra vires and have no effect. Decisions by the Supreme Court over the course of two centuries have repeatedly confirmed and strengthened the doctrine of Constitutional supremacy, or the supremacy clause. supremacy clause The Constitution guarantees the legitimacy of the American state by invoking the American electorate. The people exer