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Justin Hall

Justin Hall

Justin Hall (born in Chicago, Illinois, December 16, 1974) is a video game designer, filmmaker, published writer, and currently a graduate student living in Los Angeles, California. Hall is known to some early adopters of the internet for his web-based diary which he started in January 1994 while he was a student at Swarthmore College. Called Justin's Links from the Underground, the site offered one of the earliest guided tours of the web. :"Justin Hall of Links.net was probably the first individual to post a running commentary about his Web discoveries, on "Links from the Underground," back in the Web's Jurassic era (1994).
—Heidi Pollock, May 2001: Yahoo Internet Life Who Let The Blogs Out? Over time, the site came to focus on Hall's life, in intimate detail. A long history of near-daily reporting on his affairs lead Hall to be referred to as "the founding father of personal blogging" by the The New York Times Magazine in December 2004. In January 2005, Hall ceased posting his diary entries on Justin's Links. In the halcyon days of San Francisco's web mania, Hall worked at HotWired, Wired Magazine's early online venture. There and years afterwards, he worked with author Howard Rheingold on a number of online projects, including Electric Minds. Hall also worked with Dennis Fong's Gamers.com. As a freelance writer, Hall's articles have appeared in The New York Times, The South China Morning Post, Rolling Stone, Salon, Wired, The Feature, and [http://www.links.net/share/write/fulllist.html other publications]. His travels in Tokyo, Japan resulted in a guidebook Just In Tokyo (ISBN 1-89-105350-7), published in 2002 by Garrett County Press. Today Hall is a graduate student in the USC Interactive Media Division, and a regular attendee of the Indie Game Jam. In late 2005, Bloggers inspired and led by Hall saved the life of a suicidal American soldier in Iraq - http://www.matthewgood.org/mblog/?p=592

External links


- [http://links.net/ Justin's Links]
- [http://www.links.net/share/write/ Published Articles]
- [http://interactive.usc.edu/members/jhall/ Graduate Studies Research Weblog]
- [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2005/02/20/MNGBKBEJO01.DTL "Time to get a life -- pioneer blogger Justin Hall bows out at 31"] (San Francisco Chronicle, February 20, 2005)
- [http://www.pliink.com/mt/marxy/archives/000517.html Interview on neomarxisme.com (May 05, 2005)]
- [http://www.links.net/share/vid/tgs2k5-onlineMed.mov Video report from the Tokyo Game Show 2005 September] Hall, Justin Hall, Justin

December 16

December 16 is the 350th day of the year (351st in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. There are 15 days remaining.

Events


- 1392 - Emperor Go-Kameyama abdicates in favor of rival claimant Go-Komatsu, ending the nanboku-cho period of competing imperial courts in Muromachi Japan.
- 1598 - An outnumbered Korean and Ming navy ambush and defeat a Japanese army at the Battle of Noryang Point.
- 1653 - Oliver Cromwell becomes Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland.
- 1689 - The English Parliament adopts the Bill of Rights.
- 1773 - The Boston Tea Party: a crowd of colonists disguised as Mohawk Indians dumps 342 crates of tea into Boston harbor as a protest against the British Tea tax.
- 1811 - The first of a series of severe earthquakes occurs, in the vicinity of New Madrid, Missouri in the United States.
- 1838 - Boers defeat Zulu troops at Battle of Blood River, led by Dambuza and Nhlela, celebrated in South Africa as the day of the vow.
- 1850 - The first four ships arrive to settle Christchurch, New Zealand.
- 1864 - American Civil War: Union troops led by General George Thomas defeat Confederate troops in the Battle of Nashville.
- 1893 - World premiere of Antonin Dvorak's "New World Symphony".
- 1910 - Henri Coanda makes first short flight in aircraft with jet engine
- 1922 - Poland's President Gabriel Narutowicz assassinated.
- 1942 - SS Chief Heinrich Himmler orders that the Roma (gypsy) people be sent to Auschwitz for extermination.
- 1944 - World War II: The Battle of the Bulge begins.
- 1944 - World War II: A V-2 rocket hits the Rex Cinema in Antwerp killing 567 people.
- 1946 - Léon Blum becomes Prime Minister of France.
- 1957 - I.I. Chundrigar left the office of Prime Minister of Pakistan.
- 1958 - A fire at a store in Bogotá, Colombia kills 83 people.
- 1960 - A United Airlines Douglas DC-8 and a TWA Lockheed Super Constellation collide over New York City, killing 134.
- 1963 - Park Chung-Hee is sworn in as South Korea's fifth president.
- 1966 - Mao's Little Red Book is published in Beijing.
- 1970 - Shipworkers in Gdańsk, Poland clash with government police and the seeds of the Solidarity movement are sown.
- 1971 - The Pakistan Army surrenders, ending the Liberation War of Bangladesh and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 simultaneously.
- 1973 - O.J. Simpson becomes the first player in NFL history to rush for 2000 yards in one season.
- 1985 - In New York City, Mafia bosses Paul Castellano and Thomas Bilotti are shot dead , making hit organizer John Gotti the leader of the Gambino family.
- 1989 - The Romanian Revolution begins in the city of Timişoara as a protest against an attempt to evict a dissident priest.
- 1990 - Jean-Bertrand Aristide is elected president of Haiti.
- 1991 - United Nations reverses its 1975 resolution that Zionism is racism by a vote of 111-25, with 13 abstentions.
- 1997 - Super Typhoon Paka makes landfall on the island of Guam with 150 mph winds.
- 1997 - 685 kids went to hospital in Japan after an episode of pokemon see also: Pokémon: Banned Episodes.
- 1998 - Operation Desert Fox: American and British troops begin to bomb Iraqi targets after Iraq obstructs UN weapons inspectors.
- 1999 - Mud streams kill thousands in Venezuela.
- 2000 - NASA announces that there is an ocean beneath Jupiter moon Ganymede's icy surface.
- 2003 - Deborah Jin induces the formation of a fermionic condensate among fermionic atoms.

Births


- 1485 - Catherine of Aragon, Queen of England (d. 1536)
- 1584 - John Selden, English jurist and oriental scholar (d. 1654)
- 1614 - Eberhard III, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1674)
- 1714 - George Whitefield, English-born Methodist leader (d. 1770)
- 1716 - Louis-Jules Mancini-Mazarini, Duc de Nivernais, French diplomat and writer (d. 1798)
- 1717 - Elizabeth Carter, English writer (d. 1806)
- 1742 - Gebhard Fürst Blücher von Wahlstatt, German field marshal (d. 1819)
- 1770 - Ludwig van Beethoven, German composer (d. 1827)
- 1775 - Jane Austen, English writer (d. 1817)
- 1775 - François-Adrien Boieldieu, French composer (d. 1834)
- 1776 - Johann Wilhelm Ritter, German physicist (d. 1810)
- 1790 - King Léopold I of Belgium (d. 1865)
- 1861 - Antonio de La Gandara, French painter (d. 1917)
- 1863 - George Santayana, philosopher, poet (d. 1952)
- 1865 - Olavo Bilac, Brazilian poet (d. 1918)
- 1882 - Zoltán Kodály, Hungarian composer (d. 1967)
- 1882 - Walther Meissner, German physicist (d. 1974)
- 1888 - King Alexander of Yugoslavia (d. 1934)
- 1899 - Noel Coward, English playwright (d. 1973)
- 1901 - Margaret Mead, American anthropologist (d. 1978)
- 1905 - Piet Hein, Danish mathematician and inventor (d. 1996)
- 1917 - Sir Arthur C. Clarke, British writer
- 1926 - James McCracken, American tenor (d. 1988)
- 1927 - Randall Garrett, American writer
- 1928 - Philip K. Dick, American writer (d. 1982)
- 1929 - Nicholas Courtney, British actor
- 1932 - Rodion Shchedrin, Russian composer
- 1934 - Elgin Baylor, American basketball player
- 1938 - Liv Ullmann, Norwegian actress
- 1941 - Lesley Stahl, American journalist
- 1943 - Steven Bochco, American television producer and writer
- 1946 - Benny Andersson, Swedish singer and songwriter (ABBA)
- 1946 - Trevor Pinnock, English conductor and harpsichordist
- 1947 - Vincent Matthews, American athlete
- 1951 - Robben Ford, American guitarist
- 1952 - Joel Garner, West Indian cricketer
- 1961 - Bill Hicks, American comedian (d. 1994)
- 1963 - Benjamin Bratt, American actor
- 1964 - Heike Drechsler, German track and field athlete
- 1967 - Donovan Bailey, Canadian athlete
- 1975 - Benjamin Kowalewicz, Canadian singer (Billy Talent)
- 1977 - Sylvain Distin, French footballer
- 1987 - Nicholas Robinson, American Hockey Player; attended Calvin College in 2005.

Deaths


- 714 - Pippin of Herstal, Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia
- 999 - Saint Adelaide of Italy (b. 931)
- 1325 - Charles of Valois, son of Philip III of France (b. 1270)
- 1379 - John Fitzalan, Marshal of England (drowned)
- 1470 - John II, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1425)
- 1515 - Afonso de Albuquerque Portuguese naval general (b. 1453)
- 1669 - Nathaniel Fiennes, English politician
- 1687 - William Petty, English scientist and philosopher (b. 1623)
- 1751 - Leopold II of Anhalt-Dessau, Prussian general (b. 1700)
- 1774 - François Quesnay, French economist (b. 1694)
- 1783 - Johann A. Hasse, German composer (b. 1699)
- 1783 - William James British naval commander (b. 1720)
- 1809 - Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, French chemist (b. 1755)
- 1859 - Wilhelm Grimm, German writer and folklorist (b. 1786)
- 1898 - Pavel Tretyakov, Russian businessman and art collector (b. 1832)
- 1914 - Ivan Zajc, Croatian composer (b. 1832)
- 1916 - Grigori Rasputin, Russian monk (b. 1869)
- 1921 - Camille Saint-Saëns, French composer (b. 1835)
- 1922 - Gabriel Narutowicz, first President of Poland (b. 1865)
- 1928 - Elinor Wylie, American poet and writer (b. 1885)
- 1945 - Giovanni Agnelli, Italian automobile manufacturer (b. 1866)
- 1945 - Fumimaro Konoye, Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1891)
- 1949 - Sidney Olcott, Canadian film director (b. 1873)
- 1956 - Nina Hamnett, Welsh artist (b. 1890)
- 1965 - W. Somerset Maugham, English writer (b. 1874)
- 1977 - Risto Jarva, Finnish filmmaker (b. 1934)
- 1980 - Colonel Harland Sanders, American fast food entrepreneur (b. 1890)
- 1980 - Hellmuth Walter, German engineer and inventor (b. 1900)
- 1982 - Colin Chapman, English engineer and automobile manufacturer (b. 1928)
- 1985 - Paul Castellano, American gangster (b. 1915)
- 1989 - Lee Van Cleef, American actor (b. 1925)
- 1989 - Aileen Pringle, American actress (b. 1895)
- 1990 - Douglas Campbell, American World War I flying ace (b. 1896)
- 1993 - Moses Gunn, American actor (b. 1929)
- 1993 - Tanaka Kakuei, Japanese political leader (b. 1918)
- 1995 - Mariele Ventre, Italian choir director (b. 1939)
- 1996 - Quentin Bell, English biographer and art historian (b. 1910)
- 2003 - Robert Stanfield, Premier of Nova Scotia (b. 1914)
- 2003 - Gary Stewart, American singer (suicide) (b. 1945)
- 2004 - Ted Abernathy, baseball player (b. 1933)

Holidays and observances


- Bahrain - National Day
- Bangladesh - Victory Day
- Kazakhstan - Independence Day
- Nepal - Constitution Day (To be confirmed)
- South Africa - Day of Reconciliation

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/16 BBC: On This Day] ---- December 15 - December 17 - November 16 - January 16 -- listing of all days ko:12월 16일 ms:16 Disember ja:12月16日 simple:December 16 th:16 ธันวาคม

Graduate student

A graduate school or "grad school" (American English), or, in British English a postgraduate school, is a school that awards advanced degrees, with the general requirement that students must have earned an undergraduate (bachelors) degree. Many universities award graduate degrees; a graduate school is not necessarily a separate institution. Graduate schools are also a part of quaternary education, together with postdoctorate research, and a graduate school experience often involves a significant component of original research, including the writing and defense of a thesis or dissertation. Students who attend graduate schools are called "graduate students" or "grad students" in the US and Canada, and "postgraduate students" or "post-grads" in Britain and other Commonwealth countries. Degrees awarded by graduate schools include master's degrees, doctorate degrees (Ph.D.s), and other postgraduate qualifications such as a graduate certificates, as well as some professional degrees. The term "graduate school" does not usually refer to medical school (students are called "medical-" or "med-students") and only occasionally refers to law school or business school. Although graduate school programs are distinct experiences from undergraduate degree programs, graduate instruction (in Australia, the United States, and other countries) is often offered by some of the same senior faculty and departments as teach undergraduate courses. Unlike in undergraduate programs, though, it is rarer for graduate students to take coursework outside their specific field of study at the Master's level. At the Ph.D. level, though, it is quite common to take courses from a wider range of study, for which some fixed portion of coursework is typically required to be taken from outside one's department and college of the degree-seeking candidate, to broaden the research abilities of the student. Some institutions designate separate graduate versus undergraduate faculty and denote other divisions (often called School of whatever, e.g., diplomacy, etc.)

Canada

Admission

Admission to a masters program generally requires a bachelor's degree in a related field, with sufficiently high grades (usually ranging from B+ / 80% average and up, though this requirement may be significantly higher in some faculties), recommendations from professors, and, for some fields, demonstrated ability in at least one foreign language. Some schools require samples of the student's writing as well as a research proposal. At English-speaking universities, applicants from countries where English is not the primary language are required to submit scores from the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). Admission to a doctoral program typically requires a masters degree in a related field, sufficiently high grades, recommendations, samples of writing, and a research proposal. Requirements are often set higher than those for a masters program. In exceptional cases, a student holding an honours BA with sufficiently high grades and proven writing and research abilities may be admitted directly to a Ph.D. program without the requirement to first complete a masters. Graduate students must usually declare their research goal or submit a research proposal upon entering grad school; in the case of master's degrees, there will be some flexibility (that is, one is not held to one's research proposal, although major changes, for example from premodern to modern history, are discouraged). In the case of Ph.D.s, the research direction is usually known as it will typically follow the direction of the master's research. Master's degrees can typically be completed in one year but normally take at least two; they may not exceed five years. Doctoral degrees require a minimum of two years but frequently take much longer, not usually exceeding six years.

Funding

Graduate students may take out student loans, but instead they often work as teaching or research assistants. Students normally agree, as a condition of acceptance to a programme, not to devote more than twelve hours per week to work or outside interests. Funding is available to first-year masters students whose transcripts reflect exceptionally high grades; this funding is normally given in the second year. Funding for Ph.D. students comes from a variety of sources, and many universities waive tuition fees for doctoral candidates. Funding is available in the form of bursaries and other awards, both private and public.

Requirements for completion

Both master's and doctoral programs may be done by coursework or research or a combination of the two, depending on the subject and faculty. Most faculties require both, with the emphasis on research, and with coursework being directly related to the field of research. Masters candidates undertaking research are typically required to complete a thesis comprising some original research and ranging from seventy to two-hundred pages. Some fields may require candidates to study at least one foreign language if they have not already earned sufficient foreign-language credits. Some faculties require candidates to defend their thesis, but many do not. Those that do not often have a requirement of taking two additional courses, minimum, in lieu of preparing a thesis. Ph.D. candidates undertaking research must typically complete a thesis, or dissertation, consisting of original research representing a significant contribution to their field, and ranging from two-hundred to five-hundred pages. Most Ph.D. candidates will be required to sit comprehensive examinations—examinations testing general knowledge in their field of specialization—in their second or third year as a prerequisite to continuing their studies, and must defend their thesis as a final requirement. Some faculties require candidates to earn sufficient credits in a third or fourth foreign language; for example, most candidates in modern Japanese topics must demonstrate ability in English, Japanese, and Mandarin, while candidates in pre-modern Japanese topics must demonstrate ability in English, Japanese, Classical Chinese, and Classical Japanese. At English-speaking Canadian universities, both masters and Ph.D. theses may be presented in English or in the language of the subject (German for German literature, for example), but if this is the case an extensive abstract must be also presented in English. In exceptional circumstances, a thesis may be presented in French. French-speaking universities have varying sets of rules; some will accept students with little knowledge of French if they can communicate with their supervisors (usually in English).

United Kingdom

Admission

Admission to do a research degree in the UK typically requires the sponsorship of a professor. It is useful to have a master's degree, but certainly not essential. A good bachelor's degree, however, is required. Usually research students are admitted to do an M.Phil and can later convert to a Ph.D if they progress well. Admission to do a taught master's degree (based on coursework) depends upon having an undergraduate degree, generally in a related subject.

Funding

It is very difficult to obtain funding for postgraduate study in the UK. There are a few scholarships for master's courses, but these are rare and dependent on the course and class of undergraduate degree obtained. Most master's students are self-funded. Funding is available for some Ph.D. courses. There is more funding available to those in the sciences than in other disciplines. For overseas students, most major funding applications are due as early as twelve months or more before the intended graduate course will begin. This funding is also often highly competitive. The most widely available, and thus important, award for overseas students is the Overseas Research Student Award, which pays the difference in university fees between an overseas student and a British or EU resident. However, a student can only apply for the ORS for one university, often before he or she knows whether they have been accepted.

United States

Admission

Admission to graduate school usually requires a bachelor's degree. High grades in one's field of study are important, grades outside the field less so. Good GRE scores and, especially, good letters of recommendation from undergraduate instructors are essential. Within the sciences and some social sciences, previous research experience may be important; within most humanities disciplines, an example of academic writing normally suffices. Many universities require a personal statement, which may include indications of the intended area(s) of research; how detailed this statement is or whether it is possible to change one's focus of research depends strongly on the discipline and department being applied to. In some disciplines or universities, graduate applicants may find it best to have at least one recommendation from research work outside of the college where they earned their Bachelor's degree; however, as with previous research experience, this may not be very important in most humanities disciplines. The most selective schools set minimum GPAs and test scores below which they will not accept any applicants; this reduces the time spent reviewing applications. Some also require professors to act as sponsors. Finally, applicants from non-English speaking countries must take the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). At most institutions, decisions regarding admission are not made by the institution itself but the department for which the applicant will be studying.

Requirements for completion

Graduate students often declare their intended degree (Master's or Doctorate) in their applications. In some cases, master's programs allow successful students to continue toward the doctorate degree. Additionally, students who complete their coursework but not dissertation ("ABD," for "all but dissertation") often receive master's degrees and an additional master's called a Master of Philosophy, or MPhil. The Master's component of a doctorate program often requires one or two years, and some students, because doctoral programs are better-funded, apply for doctoral programs while only intending to attain a Master's degree. This is generally not accepted and, if a student's advisor learns of the student's plans, can result in early termination. Many graduate programs require students to pass one or several examinations in order to demonstrate their competence as scholars. Comprehensive examinations ("Comps") are often required in the first year of doctoral study, and are designed to test a student's background undergraduate-level knowledge. Students failing after two attempts are usually expelled from the program, often being awarded a master's degree instead of a Ph.D. Some students who fail to perform well are declared "terminal Masters" students and not allowed to progress on to the Ph.D. after finishing & defending their master's thesis. Comprehensive examinations of this type are more common in the sciences and some social sciences, and relatively unknown in most humanities disciplines. Most graduate students perform teaching duties. Early in the program, they often serve as graders and tutors; as they advance, they can be promoted to Lecturer status, receiving more responsibility and a larger stipend. Doctoral students generally spend roughly their first two to three years taking course work, and by their second year if not before, begin research. Many master's and all specialist students will perform research culminating in a paper, presentation, and defense of their research. This is called the master's thesis (or, for Educational Specialist students, the specialist paper). Many US master's degree programs, however, do not require a master's thesis, focusing instead primarily on course work. In the second and third years of study, doctoral programs often require students to pass more examinations. Programs often require a Qualifying Examination ("Quals") or General Examination ("Generals"), testing students' grasp of a broad sample of their discipline, and/or one or several Special Field Examinations ("Specials"), testing students in their narrower selected areas of specialty within the discipline. If these examinations are held orally, they may be known colloquially as "orals". For some social science and many humanities disciplines, where graduate students may or may not have studied the discipline at the undergraduate level, these exams will be the first set, and be based either on graduate coursework or specific preparatory reading (sometimes up to a year's work in reading). In all cases, comprehensive exams are normally both stressful and time consuming, and must be passed to be allowed to proceed on to the thesis. Passing such examinations allows the student to stay, begin doctoral research, and rise to the status of a doctoral candidate, while failing usually results in the student leaving the program or re-taking the test after some time has passed (usually a semester or a year). Some schools have an intermediate category, passing at the Master's level, which allows the student to leave with a Master's without having completed a Master's thesis. For the next several years the doctoral candidate primarily performs his or her research. Usually this lasts three to eight years, though a rare few finish more quickly and some take substantially longer. In total, the typical doctoral degree takes between 4 and 10 years from entering the program to completion, though this time varies depending upon the department, thesis topic, and many other factors. For example, astronomy degrees take five to six years on average, but observational astronomy degrees take six to seven due to limiting factors of weather, while theoretical astronomy degrees take five. Though there is substantial variation among universities, departments, and individuals, humanities and social science doctorates on average take somewhat longer to complete than natural science doctorates. These differences are due to the differing nature of research between the humanities and some social sciences and the natural sciences (solitary as opposed to lab or group based), and to the differing expectations of the discipline in coursework, languages and length of thesis. However, time required to complete a doctorate also varies according to the candidate's abilities and choice of research. Some students may also choose to remain in a program if they fail to win an academic position, particularly in disciplines with a tight job market; by remaining a student, they can retain access to libraries and university facilities, while also retaining an academic affiliation, which can be essential for conferences and job-searches. Traditionally, doctoral programs were only intended to last three to four years and, in some disciplines (primarily the natural sciences), with the economic support of a second-income, a helpful advisor, and a light teaching load, it is possible for the degree to be completed in that amount of time. However, increasingly many disciplines, including most humanities, set their requirements for coursework, languages and the expected extent of thesis research by the assumption that students will take five years minimum or six to seven years on average; competition for jobs within these fields also raises expectations on the length and quality of theses considerably. In some disciplines doctoral programs can average seven to ten years, with those taking less seen as not doing as full a job as they should have. Archaeology, which requires long periods of research, tends towards this. The increase in length of degree is a matter of great concern for both students and universities, though there is much disagreement on potential solutions to this problem. Foreign graduate students outnumber American-born students in some US departments, primarily in the natural sciences, and engineering.

Funding

Graduate students who are not independently wealthy live meagerly compared to their peer group, but how meagerly depends greatly on the nature of funding at their university. At some elite universities with large endowments, there may be a minimum stipend established for all Ph.D. students within their first five years, as well as a tuition waiver. This stipend may consist of a scholarship for one to two years, and then guaranteed TA or RA positions. At many elite universities, these stipends have been increasing, in response both to student pressure and especially to competition among the elite universities for graduate students. Because of this competition, increases tend to be concentrated on the beginning years of the program, not on the relatively poorly funded finishing students. At most universities, however, the level of available funding is much less and required work greater. Students who are able to attain an RA (research assistant) or TA (teaching assistant) position, at least, may acquire tuition-forgiveness and a stipend that pays for most expenses. Stipends do not usually correlate with local cost of living, so students in expensive locales such as Boston and Berkeley, even funded, almost invariably lose economic ground. RA positions are more coveted than TA positions because, while teaching is generally considered a distraction from one's work, RAs typically are paid to work on the dissertation they are required to complete anyway. RA positions are more typical of science disciplines; they are relatively uncommon in humanities disciplines, and where they exist, rarely allow the student to work on their own research. A rare few students can attain outside fellowships such as the National Science Foundation (NSF) and National Physical Sciences Consortium (NPSC). The sciences are funded well enough that most students can attain either outside or institutional funding, but in the humanities, not all do. Some humanities students are forced to borrow money during their coursework, then take full-time jobs while completing their dissertations. Again, funding differs greatly by the wealth of the university; some universities give five years of full funding to all Ph.D. students, though often with a teaching requirement attached; other universities do not. However, because of the teaching requirements, which can be in the research years of the Ph.D., even the most funded of universities often do not have funding for humanities or social science students who need to do research elsewhere, whether in the United States or overseas. Foreign grads are typically funded the same way as domestic (US) grads, although some funding sources (such as many NSF fellowships) may only be awarded to domestic students. International students often have worse financial difficulties than domestic students. Reasons include high costs to visit their families back home, support of a family not allowed to work due to immigration laws, tuition that is ridiculous by world standards, and large fees: visa fees by the Immigration and Naturalization Service, surveillance fees (such as Student and Exchange Visitor Information Systems, or SEVIS[http://www.cnn.com/2004/EDUCATION/03/21/international.students.ap/index.html]) by Congress and Homeland Security. In rare cases, graduate students can lose funding and be de facto terminated from the program. Depending on the structure of the department, this can sometimes even happen at the whim of an advisor. This can be devastating, and there have been instances of suicide, or murder of professors or advisors by graduate students who have lost funding and are unable to complete their degrees. With the recognition of both the lack of funding and the uncertainty of the job market, many academics advise their undergraduate students not to pursue graduate education if they do not have adequate funding. However, even students with generous funding at the beginning of their degree may find themselves struggling to find funding to conduct research away from the university or to finish writing.

Graduate Employee Unions

At many universities some graduate students are employed by their university to teach classes or do research. While all graduate employees are graduate students many graduate students are not employees. MBA students, for example, usually pay tuition and don't have paid teaching or research positions. In many countries graduate employees have collectively organized labor unions in order to bargain a contract with their university. In Canada, for example, almost all graduate employees are members of a CUPE local. In the United States there are many graduate employee unions at public universities, the Coalition of Graduate Employee Unions lists 25 recognized unions at public universities on its website. Private universities, however, are covered under the National Labor Relations Act rather than state labor laws and until 2001 there were no recognized unions at private universities. Many graduate students see themselves as akin to junior faculty, but with significantly lower pay. Many graduate students feel that teaching takes time that would better be spent on research, and many point out that there is a vicious circle in the academic labor economy. Institutions that rely on cheap graduate student labor have no need to create expensive professorships, so graduate students who have taught extensively in graduate school can find it immensely difficult to get a teaching job when they have obtained their degree. Many institutions depend heavily on graduate student teaching: [http://www.yaleunions.org/geso/reports/BlackboardBlues.pdf a 2003 report by the Yale graduate student union], for instance, claims that "70% of undergraduate teaching contact hours at Yale are performed by transient teachers: graduate teachers, adjunct instructors, and other teachers not on the tenure track." The United Auto Workers (under the slogan "Uniting Academic Workers") and the American Federation of Teachers are two of the international unions that often represent graduate employees. Private universities' administrations often oppose their graduate students when they try to form unions, arguing that students should be exempt from labor laws intended for "employees", while the internationals and most graduate students feel all workers have an inalienable right to unionize. This tactic is similar to that used by WAL-MART which considers its employees to be "associates" rather than "employees". In some cases unionization movements have met with enough student opposition to fail. At the schools where graduate employees are unionized, which positions are unionized vary. Sometimes only one set of employees will unionize (e.g. teaching assistants, residential directors); at other times, most or all will. Typically, fellowship recipients, usually not employed by their university, do not participate. When negotiations fail, graduate employee unions sometimes go on strike. While graduate student unions can use the same types of strikes that other unions do, they have also made use of teach-ins, work-ins, marches, rallies, and grade strikes. In a grade strike, graduate students refuse to grade exams and papers and, if the strike lasts until the end of the academic term, also refuse to turn in final grades. Another form of job action is known as "work-to-rule", in which graduate student instructors work exactly as many hours as they are paid for and no more. Typically, one 3-credit course is considered to take 10 hours per week of work, although many instructors spend more time than this on class meetings, class preparation, office hours, corresponding with students, and especially grading student work. Graduate employees at New York University are currently on strike, as the NYU administration has refused to re-negotiate a contract with GSOC.

Life after graduate school

Traditionally, successful doctorate candidates in the English-speaking world would proceed to tenure-track faculty positions upon graduation, perhaps after completing a post-doctoral position. Some of the requirements or recommendations for doctoral programs still reflect this tradition (for example, it is recommended that Ph.D. students gain at least some teaching experience—for example, by working as teaching assistants—during their studies). In recent years, however, merely possessing an advanced degree is no guarantee of getting an academic job. Universities are more reluctant to hire full-time faculty, relying increasingly on part-time teachers who earn less money, have no tenure or job security, and are not eligible for benefits. The term "Publish or perish" refers to the increasing need for faculty to engage in research and publish regularly in order to be considered for tenure-track positions, promotions, salary increases, and so on. As a result of these issues, many Ph.D.s enter industry—in some fields, more than 50 percent do. Others seek work in academically-related fields, such as Librarianship.

References


- William G. Bowen & Neil L. Rudenstine, In Pursuit of the PhD (Princeton UP, 1992; ISBN 0-691-04294-2). A comprehensive report on graduate education in the US from the 1960s to the 1990s, based on surveys of tens of thousands of graduate students.

See also


- Comprehensive examination
- EURODOC (European Council of Doctoral Candidates and junior researchers)
- Piled Higher and Deeper (widely read graduate school oriented comic stip)
- Thesis
- Thesis defence

External links


- [http://www.AcademicLadder.com Academic Ladder] - An informational site for graduate students and professors climbing the academic ladder.
- [http://www.everythingbio.com/gradschool/index.php EverythingBio] - Search for biology graduate schools, and find out information about different programs before you apply.
- [http://www.edusvcs.com/ FullyEmployedMBA] - Provides comprehensive content and articles on getting your masters degree in business.
- [http://www.petersons.com/ Peterson's Planner] - A very large educational resource website that can be used to find schools, secure funding, and practice for standardized tests.
- [http://www.phinished.org/ Phinished.org] - A discussion & support group for those who cannot seem to finish their theses or dissertations.
- [http://sciencecareers.sciencemag.org/ Science Careers] - Contains many articles about graduate school life and scientific training, career development, and the science job market.
- [http://www.philosophicalgourmet.com/ The Philosophical Gourmet Report] - Information about graduate programs in philosophy. Category:Educational stages Category:School types ja:大学院生 th:บัณฑิตวิทยาลัย

Los Angeles, California

The City of Los Angeles (from Spanish; Los Ángeles, ) also known simply as L.A., is the second-largest city in the United States in terms of population, as well as one of the world's most important economic, cultural, and entertainment centers. It was incorporated as a city in California on April 4, 1850, when the city's population was only 1,610, and is the county seat of Los Angeles County. As of the 2000 census, it has a population of 3,694,820, but a May 1, 2005 California Department of Finance estimate shows the city's population at 3,957,875, with the metropolitan area at 17,545,623. The city is also large by geographic standards since it sprawls over more than 465 square miles (1200 square kilometers), making it physically larger than New York City and Chicago. In addition, Los Angeles hosted two Olympic Games (in 1932 and 1984) and is home to world-renowned scientific and cultural institutions. The city is one of the biggest entry points for immigrants to the United States, making it one of the most culturally diverse places in the world. People are attracted to the city for its warm weather, its vibrant lifestyle, its unique energy, and the opportunity to realize the "American Dream."

History

The Los Angeles coastal area was occupied by the Tongva, Chumash, and even earlier Native American peoples for thousands of years. The Spanish arrived in 1542, when Juan Cabrillo visited the area. In 1769, the Spanish returned to California to stay. Father Juan Crespi described a "beautiful river", which the explorers named in Spanish "El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles del Río de Porciúncula", English: "The Village of Our Lady the Queen of the Angels of the Porciuncula River". The Mission San Gabriel Arcángel was founded in 1771, thus establishing a permanent presence in the area and securing Spanish territory. territory On September 4, 1781, settlers from the San Gabriel Mission founded the town and named it after the river, but used a slighly shorter version. The official name was El Pueblo de la Reina de los Ángeles, "The Town of the Queen of the Angels", showing Franciscan affiliation. It remained a small mission and ranch town for decades. Mexican independence from Spain was achieved in the 1820s, but the greatest change took place in present-day Montebello after the Battle of Rio San Gabriel in 1847, which decided the fate of Los Angeles. Yankees gained control after they flooded into California during the Gold Rush and secured the subsequent admission of California into the United States. Los Angeles was incorporated as a city in 1850. Railroads arrived when the Southern Pacific completed its line to Los Angeles in 1876. Oil was discovered in 1892, and by 1923, Los Angeles was supplying one-quarter of the world's petroleum. Even more important to the city's growth was water. In 1913, William Mulholland completed the aqueduct that assured the city's growth and led to the annexation by the City of Los Angeles, starting in 1915, of dozens of neighboring communities without water supplies of their own. A somewhat fictionalized account of the Owens Valley Water War can be found in the motion picture Chinatown. In the 1920s the motion picture and aviation industries both flocked to Los Angeles and helped to further develop it. The city was the proud host of the 1932 Summer Olympics. World War II brought new growth and prosperity to the city, although many of its Japanese-American residents were transported to internment camps for the duration of the war. This period also saw the arrival of the German exiles, which included such notables as Thomas Mann, Bertolt Brecht and Lion Feuchtwanger. The postwar years saw an even greater boom as urban sprawl expanded into the San Fernando Valley. The Watts riots in 1965 reminded the country of the deep racial divisions that even the nation's youngest city faced. The XXIII Olympiad was successfully hosted in Los Angeles in 1984. The city was once again tested by the 1992 Los Angeles riots and the 1994 Northridge earthquake. A city-wide vote on San Fernando Valley and Hollywood secession was defeated in 2002.

Geography and climate

Geography

2002 According to the United States Census Bureau,the city has a total area of 1,290.6 km² (498.3 mi²). 1,214.9 km² (469.1 mi²) of it is land and 75.7 km² (29.2 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 5.86% water. The extreme north-south distance is 44 miles (71 km), the extreme east-west distance is 29 miles (47 km), and the length of the city boundary is 342 miles (550 km). The land area is the 9th largest in the Lower-48th of United States (excluding Alaska and Hawaii). The highest point in Los Angeles is Sister Elsie Peak (5,080 feet) at the far reaches of the northeastern San Fernando Valley, part of Mt. Lukens. The Los Angeles River is a short, largely seasonal river flowing through the city, with headwaters in San Fernando Valley. Its length is almost entirely lined in concrete. The Los Angeles area is remarkably rich in native plant species. With its beaches, dunes, wetlands, hills, mountains, and rivers, the area contains a number of important biological communities. The largest area is coastal sage scrub, which covers the hillsides in combustible chaparral. Native plants include: California poppy, matilija poppy, toyon, coast live oak, giant wild rye grass, and hundreds of others. Unfortunately, many native species are so rare as to be endangered, such as the Los Angeles sunflower. There are many exotic flowers and flowering trees that are blooming year-round, with subtle colors, including the jacaranda, hibiscus, phlox, bougainvillea, coral tree blossoms and bird of paradise. If there were no city here, flower-growing could still flourish as an industry, as it does in Lompoc. Wisteria has been known to grow to house-lot size, and in Descanso Gardens there are forests of camellia trees. Orchids require special attention in this Mediterranean climate.

Cityscape

Mediterranean climate Mediterranean climate The city is divided into many neighborhoods. Most of the neighborhood names come from farm towns that were annexed by the growing city, physical terrain features, major streets, or subdivision names coined by enterprising developers. These divisions have no legal status but are of significance to residents for cultural and financial reasons. Signs have been placed on major thoroughfares designating some of the communities, a practice going back decades. (The "neighborhood councils" of Los Angeles began in 1999 and often follow different borders).

Climate

Mediterranean climate The city is situated in a Mediterranean climate or subtropical zone, experiencing mild, wet winters and warm to hot, dry summers. Onshore breezes keep the beach communities of Los Angeles and San Diego cooler in summer and warmer in winter than those further inland. Temperatures in the summer can get well over 90 °F (32 °C) and smog can become a problem. Average Summer day time highs are 85 °F (29 °C), with overnight lows of 66 °F (18 °C). Winter day time high temperatures get up to around 67 °F (19 °C, with overnight lows of 48 °F (8 °C) and rain is a possibility. Generally the weather is warm and dry in all seasons, with 325 days of sunshine a year. The median temperature in January is 58.3 °F (14.6 °C) and 74.3 °F (23.5 °C) in July. The highest temperature recorded within city borders was 116.0 °F (46.7 °C) at Canoga Park in 1985; the lowest temperature recorded was 18.0°F (−7.8 °C) in 1989, also at Canoga Park. The highest temperature ever recorded for Downtown Los Angeles was 112.0 °F (44.4 °C) on June 26 1990, and the lowest temperature ever recorded was 28.0 °F (−2.2 °C) on January 4 1949. Accumulating snowfall is a once in a lifetime event. There has been three recorded instances of snowfall in the city; two inches (5 cm) of snow fell in 1932 and the last snowfall occurred in 1949. Rain occurs mainly in the winter and spring months (February being the wettest month) with great variations in storm severity year by year. Los Angeles averages 13-16 inches (330 to 410 mm) of rain per year.

Pollution

1949Due to the city's geography as well as the population's heavy reliance on automobiles as a major form of transportation, the city suffers from severe air pollution in the form of smog. The Los Angeles Basin and the San Fernando Valley hold in the fumes from automobiles, diesel trucks, shipping, and locomotive engines, as well as manufacturing and other sources. In addition, the groundwater is increasingly threatened by MTBE from gas stations and perchlorate from rocket fuel. Some consider urban sprawl to be a result of the city's transportation system. Light pollution is also a problem.

Seismic activity

Like most areas of California, Los Angeles is subject to frequent earthquakes, due to the close proximity of the San Andreas Fault, as well as the smaller San Jacinto Fault and Banning Fault, in southern California. Most earthquakes are relatively minor, however, throughout history there are several major earthquakes. The most recent was the 1994 Northridge earthquake, which was centered in the northern San Fernando Valley. Coming less than two years after the L.A. riots, the Northridge earthquake was a severe emotional shock to Southern Californians, in addition to causing physical damage worth billions of dollars. Other major earthquakes include the 1987 Whittier Narrows earthquake and the 1971 Sylmar earthquake.

People and culture

Demographics

Sylmar earthquake

Census 2000

As of the census of 2000, there were 3,694,820 people, 1,275,412 households, and 798,407 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,041.3/km² (7,876.8/mi²). There were 1,337,706 housing units at an average density of 1,101.1/km² (2,851.8/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 46.93% White, 11.24% African American, 0.80% Native American, 15.89% Asian, 0.16% Pacific Islander, 25.70% from other races, and 5.18% from two or more races. 46.53% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race and 29.75% White, not of Latino/Hispanic origins. There were 1,275,412 households of which 33.5% had children under 18, 41.9% were married couples, 14.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.4% were non-families. 28.5% of households were made up of individuals and 7.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.83 and the average family size 3.56. The age distribution was: 26.6% under 18, 11.1% from 18 to 24, 34.1% from 25 to 44, 18.6% from 45 to 64, and 9.7% who were 65 or older. The median age was 32. For every 100 females there were 99.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.5 males. The median income for a household was $36,687, and for a family was $39,942. Males had a median income of $31,880, females $30,197. The per capita income was $20,671. 22.1% of the population and 18.3% of families were below the poverty line. 30.3% of those under the age of 18 and 12.6% of those aged 65 or older were below the poverty line.

Other demographics

Of 2,182,114 native people, 1,485,576 were born in California, 663,746 were born in a different state of the United States of America, and 31,792 were born in a United States territory (Puerto Rico, Guam, U.S. Virgin Islands, or Northern Marianas). Of 1,512,720 foreign born people, 100,252 were born in Europe, 376,767 were born in Asia, 20,730 were born in Africa, 4,104 were born in Oceania, 996,996 were born in Latin America, and 13,859 were born in Northern America. Of such foreign-born people, 569,771 entered between 1990 to March 2000. 509,841 are naturalized citizens and 1,002,879 are not citizens. The people of Los Angeles are known as Angelenos. L.A. can truly be described as a "world city" (Alpha World City) — that is, it has one of the largest and most diverse populations of any municipality anywhere. The Hispanic and Asian American populations are growing particularly quickly — the Asian American population is the second largest of any city in the U.S. Los Angeles hosts the largest populations of Armenians, Cambodians, Filipino, Guatemalans, Israelis, Koreans, Salvadorans, Thais, Mexicans, and Hungarians outside of their respective countries. Los Angeles is also home to the largest populations of Japanese and Persians (Iranians) living in the U.S., and has one of the largest Native American populations in the country. L.A. is home to people from more than 140 countries, who speak at least 224 different languages. Ethnic enclaves like Chinatown, Koreatown, Little India (Artesia), Little Armenia, Thai Town, Historic Filipinotown and Little Ethiopia give testimony to the polyglot character of Los Angeles.

Crime

The COMPSTAT unit of the Los Angeles Police Department tabulates Part I offenses (violent and property crimes) committed in the city. Los Angeles has been experiencing significant decline in Part I offenses since the mid 1990s hitting a record low in 2004. Criminality peaked in 1992 with 72,667 recorded acts of violence (1,096 homicides) and 245,129 recorded property crimes. In 2004, there were 31,245 recorded violent crimes of which 518 were homicides. The distribution of homicides in the city is uneven with nearly half of such crimes occurring in the four stations of the South Bureau of the LAPD encompassing South Los Angeles and the Harbor area. A further quarter occur in the areas covered by the Central Bureau which covers Downtown and its environs. Property crimes were three times more common than violent crimes; 90,374 were recorded in 2004. When compared to other large cities, Los Angeles fares relatively well with a total crime index lower than San Francisco, Chicago, and Boston. Many movies and songs about Los Angeles depict the notion that the city is home to a large number of gangsters and professional criminals. According to a May 2001 Drug Threat Assessment by the National Drug Intelligence Center [http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs0/668/overview.htm], Los Angeles County is home to 152,000 gang members organized into 1,350 gangs. In Los Angeles, car chases happen more often than in most other major cities (sometimes several per week). The city's complex freeway system allows for lengthier pursuits, which may take them throughout the city. Other common crimes include: car-to-car shootings (see road rage), drive-by shootings, thrill killings, hit-and-run accidents, and carjackings. Numerous instances of all these crimes are documented on the LAPD press release Web site [http://www.lapdonline.org/portal/generic.php?page=/press_releases/press_releases.php]. One interesting example is a report on ten freeway shootings within two months [http://www.nbc4.tv/news/4449599/detail.html]. Also, Los Angeles has been a popular setting for several crime-based video games, such as Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas (which features Los Santos, a city largely based on the Los Angeles metropolitan area) and True Crime: Streets of LA (which takes place in a close replica of the Los Angeles area).

Arts and entertainment

True Crime: Streets of LA Los Angeles is sometimes considered the entertainment capital of the world. It shares the title of the cultural capital of the United States with New York City. Its largest entertainment industry is film production, but it is an important center for music, art, and architecture as well. As a major global metropolis, Los Angeles has evolved a unique culture and that is well-portrayed in popular media and is sometimes idealized as highly desirable. However, this culture has also inspired criticism that it is not really a unique culture, although most believe the contrary. Residents of the city of Los Angeles are served by the Los Angeles Public Library (LAPL) and its branch locations. Residents of the unincorporated areas of Los Angeles County and various cities within the county are served by the County of Los Angeles Public Library The LAPL is funded by voter-approved bond and tax levy packages. The Main Library is located in downtown Los Angeles and has been recognized as a National Historic Site.

Media

The major daily newspaper in the area is The Los Angeles Times. La Opinión is the city's major Spanish-language paper. There are also a wide variety of smaller regional newspapers, alternative weeklies and magazines, including the Los Angeles Newspaper Group's Daily News (which focuses coverage on the Valley), Village Voice Media's L.A. Weekly, L.A. City Beat, Los Angeles magazine, Los Angeles Business Journal, Los Angeles Daily Journal (legal industry paper), Variety (entertainment industry paper), and [http://www.downtownnews.com Los Angeles Downtown News]. In addition to the English and Spanish language papers, numerous local periodicals serve immigrant communities in their native languages (e.g. Korean, Persian and Japanese). Most of the above papers are center-left or left in their political stance with the clear exception of the Daily News, which is center-right. One example of this is that the L.A. Times often does high-quality investigative journalism on important inner-city issues like health care and crime, while the L.A. Daily News is usually content to run wire stories on those issues, if it covers them at all. The L.A. Daily News also focuses on business issues, education, and crime. It strongly supports lowering taxes. Many cities adjacent to Los Angeles also have their own daily newspapers whose coverage and availability overlaps into certain Los Angeles neighborhoods. Examples include the Daily Breeze (serving the South Bay), and The Long Beach Press-Telegram. The Los Angeles metro area is served by a wide variety of local television stations, and is the second largest designated market area (DMA) in the U.S. with 5,431,140 homes (4.956% of the U.S.). The major network television affiliates include KCBS 2 (CBS), KABC-TV 7 (ABC), KNBC 4 (NBC), KTTV 11 (FOX), KTLA 5 (WB), and KCOP 13 (UPN), and KPXN 30 (i). There are also four PBS stations in the area, including KVCR 24, KCET 28, KOCE 50, and KLCS 58. World TV operates on two channels, KNET 25 and KSFV-LP 27. There are also several Spanish-language television networks, including KMEX 34 (Univision), KFTR 46 (Telefutura), KVEA 52 (Telemundo), and KAZA 54 (Azteca America). KTBN 40 (Trinity Broadcasting Network), is a religious station in the area. Several independent television stations also operate in the area, including KCAL 9 (owned by CBS/Viacom), KSCI 18 (focuses primarily on Asian language programming), KWHY 22 (Spanish-language), KNLA-LP 27 (Spanish-language), KJLA 33 (variety), KPAL-LP 38, KXLA 44, KDOC 56 (classic programming and local sports), KJLA 57 (variety), and KRCA 62 (Asian language programming).

Religion

Los Angeles is home to adherents of many religions. Los Angeles has the second-largest Jewish community in the United States, rivaled only by New York City. The Roman Catholic Archbishop of Los Angeles leads the largest archdiocese in the country. Roger Cardinal Mahony oversaw construction of the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels, completed in 2002 at the north end of downtown. The Los Angeles Temple of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is their second-largest temple and is located in West Los Angeles. The Azusa Street Revival (1906–1909) in Los Angeles was a key milestone in the history of the Pentecostal movement. Los Angeles can be called the birthplace of Christian Fundamentalism. From 1908 to 1959 the Bible Institute of Los Angeles (B.I.O.L.A. now Biola University) was located in downtown at the corner of Hope and Sixth streets, in front and to the west of the Los Angeles Central Library building. In 1913, B.I.O.L.A. published a set of books called The Fundamentals, which presented a defense of the traditional conservative interpretation of the Holy Bible. The term fundamentalism is derived from these books. In the 1920s, Aimee Semple McPherson established a thriving evangelical ministry, with her Angelus Temple in Echo Park open to both black and white church members. Billy Graham became a celebrity during a successful revival campaign in Los Angeles in 1949. Herbert W. Armstrong's Worldwide Church of God used to have its headquarters in nearby Pasadena, now in Glendale. Until his death in 2005, Dr. Gene Scott was based near downtown. The Metropolitan Community Church, a fellowship of Christian congregations a focus on outreach to gays and lesbians, was started in Los Angeles in 1968 by Troy Perry. Jack Chick, of "Chick Tracts", was born in Boyle Heights and lived in the area most of his life. Chick Tracts]] Because of Los Angeles's large multi-ethnic population there are numerous organizations in the area representing a wide variety of faiths, including Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, Sikhism, Bahá'í, various Eastern Orthodox Churchs, Sufism and others. Immigrants from Asia for example, have formed a number of significant Buddhist congregations. Los Angeles has been a destination for Swamis and Gurus since as early as 1900, including Paramahansa Yogananda (1920). The Self-Realization Fellowship is headquartered in Hollywood and has a private park in Pacific Palisades. Los Angeles is the home to a number of Neopagans, as well as adherents of various other mystical religions. One wing of the Theosophist movement is centered in Los Angeles, and another is in neighboring Pasadena. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi founded the Transcendental Meditation movement in Los Angeles in the late 1950s. The Church of Scientology has a major presence in Hollywood, as does the Kabbalah Centre.

Sports

Club Sport League Venue Logo
Baseball Major League Baseball: National League Dodger Stadium Dodger Stadium
Baseball Major League Baseball: American League Angel Stadium of Anaheim Angel Stadium of Anaheim
Los Angeles Lakers Basketball National Basketball Association: Western Conference Staples Center Staples Center
Los Angeles Clippers Basketball National Basketball Association: Western Conference Staples Center Staples Center
Los Angeles Sparks Basketball Women's National Basketball Association: Western Conference Staples Center Staples Center
Los Angeles Kings Ice Hockey National Hockey League: Western Conference Staples Center Staples Center
Mighty Ducks of Anaheim Ice Hockey National Hockey League: Western Conference Arrowhead Pond Arrowhead Pond
C.D. Chivas USA Soccer Major League Soccer: Western Confernce Home Depot Center Home Depot Center
Los Angeles Galaxy Soccer Major League Soccer: Western Conference Home Depot Center Home Depot Center
Los Angeles Avengers Arena Football Arena Football League: American Conference Staples Center Staples Center
---- Los Angeles is the home of the Los Angeles Dodgers, the Los Angeles Lakers and Los Angeles Clippers , the Los Angeles Sparks, the Los Angeles Kings, the Club Deportivo Chivas USA and Los Angeles Galaxy, and the Los Angeles Avengers. Los Angeles has been without an NFL franchise since 1995 despite being the second-biggest television market in North America. Prior to 1995, the Rams (1946-1994) and the Raiders (1982-1994) of the NFL were in the Los Angeles market. Raiders Anaheim, about 25 miles (40 km) to the south-east of downtown, is home to the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim and the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. At various times in history the Angels have been known as the Los Angeles Angels (1961-1965), the California Angels (1965-1997), and the Anaheim Angels (1997-2004); talks in 2004 suggested the team was considering returning to the original name, over loud protests from the Anaheim government. The name was officially changed to the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim in late December 2004 in order to link with the larger city while still complying with contractual obligations. Beach volleyball and windsurfing were both invented in the area (though predecessors of both were invented in some form by Duke Kahanamoku in Hawaii). Venice, also known as Dogtown, is credited with being the birthplace of skateboarding and the place where Rollerblading first became popular. Area beaches are popular with surfers, who have created their own subculture. Los Angeles has twice played host to the summer Olympic Games: in 1932 and in 1984. The Los Angeles area contains all kinds of topography, notably the hills and mountains rising around the metropolis (it's the only major city in the United States bisected by a mountain range); four mountain ranges extend into city boundaries. Thousands of miles of trails crisscross the city and neighboring areas, providing exercise and wilderness access on foot, bike, or horse. Across the county a great variety of outdoor activities are available, such as skiing, rock climbing, gold panning, hang gliding, and windsurfing. Numerous outdoor clubs serve these sports, including the Angeles Chapter of the Sierra Club, which leads over 4,000 outings annually in the area.

Economy

The economy of Los Angeles is driven by agriculture, petroleum, entertainment (motion pictures, television, and recorded music), aerospace, international trade, and tourism. Los Angeles is also the largest manufacturing center in the United States. The contiguous ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach together compose the most significant port in North America and one of the most important ports in the world. They are vital to trade within the Pacific Rim. Los Angeles is the world center for the entertainment industry, including adult entertainment. Other significant industries include media production, finance, aerospace, telecommunications, law, tourism, health and medicine, and transportation. The city is home to three major Fortune 500 companies, including aerospace contractor Northrop Grumman, energy company Occidental Petroleum Corporation, and homebuilding company KB Home. Other companies headquartered in Los Angeles include Twentieth Century Fox, Herbalife, Univision, Metro Interactive, LLC, Premier America, CB Richard Ellis, Gibson, Dunn & Crutcher LLP, Guess, Inc., O'Melveny & Myers LLP, Paul, Hastings, Janofsky & Walker LLP, TOKYOPOP, The Jim Henson Company, Paramount Pictures, Robinsons-May, Sunkist, Fox Sports Net, Health Net, Inc., 21st Century Insurance, and The Coffee Bean & Tea Leaf. The metropolitan area contains the headquarters of even more companies, many of whom wish to escape the city's high taxes. For example, Los Angeles charges a gross receipts tax based on a percentage of business revenue, while most neighboring cities charge only small flat fees. The companies below clearly benefit from their proximity to Los Angeles, while at the same time they also avoid the city's taxes (and other problems). Some of the major companies headquartered in cities adjacent to Los Angeles include Shakey's Pizza (Alhambra), Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences (Beverly Hills), City National Bank (Beverly Hills), Hilton Hotels (Beverly Hills), DiC Entertainment (Burbank), The Walt Disney Company (Fortune 500 - Burbank), Warner Brothers (Burbank), Countrywide Financial Corporation (Fortune 500 - Calabasas), THQ (Calabasas), Belkin (Compton), National Public Radio West (Culver City), Sony Pictures Entertainment (parent of Columbia Pictures, located in Culver City), Computer Sciences Corporation (Fortune 500 - El Segundo), DirecTV (El Segundo), Mattel (Fortune 500 - El Segundo), Unocal (Fortune 500 - El Segundo), DreamWorks SKG (Glendale), Sea Launch (Long Beach), ICANN (Marina Del Rey), Cunard Line (Santa Clarita), Princess Cruises (Santa Clarita), Activision (Santa Monica), and RAND (Santa Monica). There are many other well-known companies with headquarters located in the County of Los Angeles or the greater Los Angeles area, but they are far beyond the City of Los Angeles (and the scope of this article). See Los Angeles County: Economy for a list of such companies in Los Angeles County.

Infrastructure

Government

Los Angeles County: Economy The city is governed by a mayor-council system. The current mayor is Antonio Villaraigosa. There are 15 city council districts. Other elected city officials include the city attorney, Rocky Delgadillo, and the city controller, Laura Chick. The city attorney prosecutes misdemeanors within the city limits. The district attorney, elected by the county voters, prosecutes misdemeanors in unincorporated areas and in 78 of the 88 cities in the county, as well as felonies throughout the county. The Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) polices the city of Los Angeles. The Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department polices all unincorporated areas of Los Angeles County and some cities which have contracted for law enforcement services because they lack police departments of their own, including Calabasas, Temple City, West Hollywood, and Compton. The