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Justin Martyr

Justin Martyr

Saint Justin Martyr (Justin the Martyr) (c. 100/114 – c. 162/168) was an early Christian apologist. His works represent the earliest surviving Christian apologies of notable size.

Life

Most of what is known about the life of Justin Martyr comes from his own writings. He was born at Flavia Neapolis (in Old Testament times Shechem, now Nablus) in Palestine. The city had been founded by Vespasian in the aftermath of the destruction of Jerusalem in 70. Justin suffered martyrdom at Rome under Marcus Aurelius when Rusticus was prefect of the city (between 162 and 168). He calls himself a Samaritan, but his father and grandfather were probably Greek or Roman, and he was brought up a pagan. It seems that he had property, studied philosophy, converted to Christianity, and devoted the rest of his life to teaching what he considered the true philosophy, still wearing his philosopher's gown to indicate that he had attained to the truth. He probably travelled widely and ultimately settled in Rome as a Christian teacher.

Writings

The earliest mention of Justin is found in the Oratio ad Graecos by Tatian, who calls him "the most admirable Justin," quotes a saying of his, and says that the Cynic Crescens laid snares for him. Irenaeus (Haer. I., xxviii. 1) speaks of his martyrdom, and of Tatian as his disciple; he quotes him twice (IV., vi. 2, V., xxvi. 2), and shows his influence in other places. Tertullian, in his Adversus Valentinianos, calls him a philosopher and martyr, and the earliest antagonist of heretics. Hippolytus and Methodius of Olympus also mention or quote him. Eusebius of Caesarea deals with him at some length (Church History, iv. 18), and names the following works: # The First Apology addressed to Antoninus Pius, his sons, and the Roman Senate; # a Second Apology addressed to the Roman Senate; # the Discourse to the Greeks, a discussion with Greek philosophers on the character of their gods; # a Hortatory Address to the Greeks; # a treatise On the Sovereignty of God, in which he makes use of pagan authorities as well as Christian; # a work entitled The Psalmist; # a treatise in scholastic form On the Soul; and # the Dialogue with Trypho. He implies that other works were in circulation; from Irenaeus he knows of the apology "Against Marcion," and from Justin's "Apology" (i. 26) of a "Refutation of all Heresies " (Church History, IV., xi. 10). Epiphanius (Haer., xlvi. 1) and Jerome (De vir. ill., ix.) mention Justin. Rufinus borrows from him the Latin original of Hadrian's letter. After Rufinus Justin was known mainly from Irenaeus and Eusebius, or from spurious works. The Chronicon Paschale assigns his martyrdom to the year 165. A considerable number of other works are given as Justin's by Arethas, Photius, and other writers; but their spuriousness is now generally admitted. The Expositio rectae fidei has been assigned by Draseke to Apollinaris of Laodicea, but it is probably a work of as late as the sixth century. The Cohortatio ad Graecos has been attributed to Apollinaris of Laodicea, Apollinaris of Hierapolis, as well as others. The Epistola ad Zenam et Serenum, an exhortation to Christian living, is dependent upon Clement of Alexandria, and is assigned by Batiffol to the Novatian Bishop Sisinnius (c. 400). The extant work under the title "On the Sovereignty of God" does not correspond with Eusebius' description of it, though Harnack regards it as still possibly Justin's, and at least of the second century. The author of the smaller treatise To the Greeks can not be Justin, because he is dependent on Tatian; Hanack places it between 180 and 240. The authenticity of the two Apologies and the Dialogue with Trypho is universally accepted. They are preserved only in the Sacra parallela; but, besides that they were known by Tatian, Methodius, and Eusebius, their influence is traceable in Athenagoras, Theophilus of Antioch, the Pseudo-Melito, and especially Tertullian. Eusebius speaks of two Apologies, but he quotes them both as one, which indeed they are in substance. The identity of authorship is shown not only by the reference in chapter 120 of the Dialogue to the Apology, but by the unity of treatment. Zahn showed that the Dialogue was originally divided into two books, that there is a considerable lacuna in chapter 74, as well as at the beginning, and that it is probably based on an actual occurrence at Ephesus, the personality of the Rabbi Tarphon being employed, though in a Hellenized form. The treatise On the Resurrection, of which extensive fragments are preserved in the Sacra parallela, is not so generally accepted. Even earlier than this collection, it is referred to by Procopius of Gaza (c. 465-528), and Methodius appeals to Justin in support of his interpretation of 1 Corinthians 15:50 in a way which makes it natural to assume the existence of a treatise on the subject, to say nothing of other traces of a connection in thought both here, in Irenaeus (V., ii.-xiii. 5), and also in Tertullian, where it is too close to be anything but a conscious following of the Greek. The Against Marcion is lost, as is the Refutation of all Heresies to which Justin himself refers in Apology, i. 26; Hegesippus, besides perhaps Irenaeus and Tertullian, seems to have used it.

The Apology

The Dialogue is a later work than the First Apology; the date of composition of the latter, from the fact that it was addressed to Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, and Lucius Verus, must fall between 147 and 161. The reference to Felix as governor of Egypt, since this can only be the Lucius Munatius Felix whom the Oxyrhynchus papyri name as prefect September 13, 151, fixes the date still more exactly. The Chronicon of Eusebius gives 152-153 as the date of the attacks of Crescens. What is designated as the Second Apology was written as a supplement to the first, on account of certain proceedings which had in the mean time taken place in Rome before Lollius Urbicus as prefect of the city, which must have been between 150 and 157. The purpose of the Apology is to prove to the emperors, renowned as upright and philosophical men, the injustice of the persecution of the Christians, who are the representatives of true philosophy. Chapters i.-xii. give the preliminary negative proof; chap. xiii. begins a positive exposition of Christianity. Christians are the true worshippers of God, the Creator of all things; they offer him the only sacrifices worthy of him, those of prayer and thanksgiving, and are taught by his Son, to whom they assign a place next in honor to him. This teaching leads them to perfect morality, as shown in their teacher's words and their own lives, and founded on their belief in the resurrection. The doctrine of the Logos made flesh is specially emphasized. What interferes with belief in this fact is the deceitful work of demons, in contrast with which Christian righteousness is still further described. Then follows the proof that Christ is the Son of God from Old Testament prophecy, fulfilled in every detail, no matter what evil spirits may pretend; even Plato learned from Moses. The remaining chapters (lxi.-lxvii.) give a glimpse of the daily life of Christians at the time—baptism, communion, and Sunday worship. The supplementary or Second Apology depicts the behavior of the Christians under persecution, of which the demons are again set forth as the instigators.

The Dialogue and Resurrection

In the Dialogue, after an introductory section (i.-ix.), Justin undertakes to show that Christianity is the new law for all men (x.-xxx.), and to prove from Scripture that Jesus is the Christ (xxxi.-cviii.). The concluding section (cix.-cxlii.) demonstrates that the Christians are the true people of God. The fragments of the work "On the Resurrection" begin with the assertion that the truth, and God the author of truth, need no witness, but that as a concession to the weakness of men it is necessary to give arguments to convince those who gainsay it. It is then shown, after a denial of unfounded deductions, that the resurrection of the body is neither impossible nor unworthy of God, and that the evidence of prophecy is not lacking for it. Another fragment takes up the positive proof of the resurrection, adducing that of Christ and of those whom he recalled to life. In another the resurrection is shown to be that of what has gone down, i.e., the body; the knowledge concerning it is the new doctrine in contrast with that of the old philosophers; the doctrine follows from the command to keep the body in moral purity. Interestingly, in the Dialogue, Justin also wrote, "For I choose to follow not men or men's doctrines, but God and the doctrines [delivered] by Him. For if you have fallen in with some who are called Christians, but who do not admit this [truth], and venture to blaspheme the God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob; who say there is no resurrection of the dead, and that their souls, when they die, are taken to heaven; do not imagine that they are Christians" (Dialogue. Chapter 80). While those in the Sabbatarian Church of God groups would agree that souls die (Ezekiel 18:4) and are not taken to heaven upon death (Job:14:14; John 3:13), those in the Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant churches would seem to disagree with Justin here. Justin is clearly stating that those who believe that souls are taken to heaven immediately when they die are not Christians. The Catholic Encyclopedia itself teaches that Justin may have been less than truthful as it states this about Justin, “In both "Apologies" and in his "Dialogue" he gives many personal details, e.g. about his studies in philosophy and his conversion; they are not, however, an autobiography, but are partly idealized, and it is necessary to distinguish in them between poetry and truth…He received a good education in philosophy, an account of which he gives us at the beginning of his "Dialogue with the Jew Tryphon"…This account cannot be taken too literally; the facts seem to be arranged with a view…This interview is evidently not described exactly as it took place, and yet the account cannot be wholly fictitious”.

Justin's theology

Flacius discovered "blemishes" in Justin's theology, which he attributed to the influence of pagan philosophers; and in modern times Semler and S.G. Lange have made him out a thorough Hellene, while Semisch and Otto defend him from this charge. In opposition to the school of Ferdinand Christian Baur, who considered him a Jewish Christian, Albrecht Ritschl has pointed out that it was precisely because he was a Gentile Christian that he did not fully understand the Old Testament foundation of Paul's teaching, and explained in this way the modified character of his Paulinism and his legal mode of thought. M. von Engelhardt has attempted to extend this line of treatment to Justin's entire theology, and to show that his conceptions of God, of free will and righteousness, of redemption, grace, and merit prove the influence of the cultivated Greek pagan world of the second century, dominated by the Platonic and Stoic philosophy. But he admits that Justin is a Christian in his unquestioning adherence to the Church and its faith, his unqualified recognition of the Old Testament, and his faith in Christ as the Son of God the Creator, made manifest in the flesh, crucified, and risen, through which belief he succeeds in getting away from the dualism of pagan and also of Gnostic philosophy.

His conversion and teachings

In the opening of the "Dialogue," Justin relates his vain search among the Stoics, Peripatetics, and Pythagoreans for a satisfying knowledge of God; his finding in the ideas of Plato wings for his soul, by the aid of which he hoped to attain the contemplation of the God-head; and his meeting on the sea-shore with an aged man who told him that by no human endeavor but only by divine revelation could this blessedness be attained, that the prophets had conveyed this revelation to man, and that their words had been fulfilled. Of the truth of this he assured himself by his own investigation; and the daily life of the Christians and the courage of the martyrs convinced him that the charges against them were unfounded. So he sought to spread the knowledge of Christianity as the true philosophy. Justin had, like others, the idea that the Greek philosophers had derived, if not borrowed, the most essential elements of truth found in their teaching from the Old Testament. But at the same time he adopted the Stoic doctrine of the "seminal word," and so philosophy was to him an operation of the Word -- in fact, through his identification of the Word with Christ, it was brought into immediate connection with him. Thus he does not scruple to declare that Socrates and Heraclitus were Christians (Apol., i. 46, ii. 10). His aim, of course, is to emphasize the absolute significance of Christ, so that all that ever existed of virtue and truth may be referred to him. The old philosophers and law-givers had only a part of the Logos, while the whole appears in Christ. While the gentile peoples, seduced by demons, had deserted the true God for idols, the Jews and Samaritans possessed the revelation given through the prophets and awaited the Messiah. The law, however, while containing commandments intended to promote the true fear of God, had other prescriptions of a purely pedagogic nature, which necessarily ceased when Christ, their end, appeared; of such temporary and merely relative regulations were circumcision, animal sacrifices, the Sabbath, and the laws as to food. Through Christ the abiding law of God has been fully proclaimed. In his character as the teacher of the new doctrine and promulgator of the new law lies the essential nature of his redeeming work. The idea of an economy of grace, of a restoration of the union with God which had been destroyed by sin, is not foreign to him. It is noteworthy that in the "Dialogue" he no longer speaks of a "seed of the Word" in every man, and in his non-apologetic works the emphasis is laid upon the redeeming acts of the life of Christ rather than upon the demonstration of the reasonableness and moral value of Christianity, though the fragmentary character of the latter works makes it difficult to determine exactly to what extent this is true and how far the teaching of Irenaeus on redemption is derived from him. Still, it is safe to say that Justin's theology is characterized throughout by an ethical strain. Faith does not justify but is a preliminary to justification, which is accomplished by repentance, change of heart, and a sinless life according to God's commandments. Baptism confers the remission only of previous sins; the Christian must there after show himself worthy of union with God by a life without sin. In the Eucharist he shows his devotion by offering bread and wine and by prayer, receiving in return the food consecrated by a formula of Christ's institution, which is the flesh and blood of the incarnate Jesus, and by which our flesh and blood are nourished through a kind of transformation (kata metabolen). Justin is confident that his teaching is that of the Church at large. He knows of a division among the orthodox only on the question of the millennium and on the attitude toward the milder Jewish Christianity, which he personally is willing to tolerate as long as its professors in their turn do not interfere with the liberty of the Gentile converts; his millennarianism seems to have no connection with Judaism, but he believes firmly in a millennium, and generally in the primitive Christian eschatology. Justin's self-perception of himself was that of a scholar, although his skills in Hebrew were either non-existent or minimal. He was somewhat anti-semitic, as was typical of church leaders in his day. After collaborating with a Jewish convert to assist him with the Hebrew, Justin published an attack on Judaism based upon a no longer extant text of a Midrash. This Midrash was reconstructed and published by Saul Lieberman.

His doctrine of the logos

His use of the idea of the logos has always attracted attention. It is probably too much to assume a direct connection with Philo in this particular. The idea of the Logos was widely familiar to educated men, and the designation of the Son of God as the Logos was not new to Christian theology. The significance is clear, however, of the manner in which Justin identifies the historical Christ with the rational force operative in the universe, which leads up to the claim of all truth and virtue for the Christians and to the demonstration of the adoration of Christ, which aroused so much opposition, as the only reasonable attitude. It is mainly for this justification of the worship of Christ that Justin employs the Logos-idea, though where he explicitly deals with the divinity of the Redeemer and his relation to the Father, he makes use of the Old Testament, not of the Logos-idea, which thus can not be said to form an essential part of his Christology. The importance which he attaches to the evidence of prophecy shows his estimate of the Old Testament Scriptures, which are to Christians absolutely the word of God, spoken by the Holy Ghost, and confirmed by the fulfilment of the prophecies. Not less divine, however, is the teaching of the apostles, which is read in the assembly every Lord's Day—though he can not use this in his "Dialogue" as he uses the Old Testament. The word of the apostles is the teaching of the Divine Logos, and reproduces the sayings of Christ authentically. As a rule he uses the synoptic Gospels – Matthew, Mark, and Luke – but has a few unmistakable references to John. He quotes the Book of Revelation as inspired because prophetic, naming its author. The opposition of Marcion prepares us for an attitude toward the Pauline epistles corresponding to that of the later Church. Distinct references are found to Romans, 1 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians, and 2 Thessalonians, and possible ones to Philippians, Titus, and 1 Timothy. It seems likely that he also knew Hebrews and 1 John. The apologetic character of Justin's habit of thought appears again in the Acts of his martyrdom (ASB, Apr., ii. 108 sqq.; Ruinart, Acta martyrum, Regensburg, 1859, 105 sqq.), the genuineness of which is attested by internal evidence.

External links

Translations of works by Justin Martyr: :[http://www.ccel.org/fathers/ANF-01/just/justap1index.html First Apology] :[http://www.ccel.org/fathers/ANF-01/just/justap2index.html Second Apology] :[http://www.ccel.org/fathers/ANF-01/just/justintrypho.html Dialogue with Trypho the Jew] Extracts and Commentary:
- [http://www.cogwriter.com/justin.htm Justin Martyr: Saint, Heretic, or Apostate?] - commentary from a Saturday Sabbatarian and anti-trinitarian point of view. category:Church Fathers Category:Ancient Roman Christianity Category:Christian martyrs Category:Samaritan culture and history Category:Saints ja:ユスティノス

100

Events

- Pliny the Younger advances to consulship.
- The Temple of the God of Medicine is built in Anguo, China.
- Lions have become extinct in Europe by this date.
- Tiberius Avidius Quietus rule as governor of Roman Britain ends
- Hopewell culture begins in what is now Ohio circa this date
- Fourth Buddhist Council is convened circa this year
- Pakores last king of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom takes the throne
- Kingdom of Himyarite is conquered by the Hadramaut
- Timgad founded by Emperor Trajan

Births

- Marcus Cornelius Fronto, Roman grammarian, rhetorician and advocate (approximate date).
- Justin Martyr, Christian apologist (approximate date).

Deaths

- Josephus, Jewish historian
- Agrippa II of Judea Category:100 ko:100년

162

Events

- Lucius Verus begins a war with the Parthians, due to the invasion of Syria and Armenia by Vologases III of Parthia.

Births

Deaths

- Justin Martyr, Christian writer (possible date) Category:162 ko:162년

168

Mathematics

168 is the order of the group PSL(2,7), the second smallest nonabelian simple group. From Hurwitz's automorphisms theorem we know that 168 is the maximum possible number of automorphisms of a genus 3 Riemann Surface, this maximum being achieved by the Klein quartic, whose symmetry group is PSL(2,7). The Fano plane has 168 symmetries, and again the symmetry group is PSL(2,7).

Events

- Change of Han Huandi to Han Lingdi of Han Dynasty; first year of Jianning era.
- Marcus Aurelius and Verus pushed back the Marcomanni in Dacia

Births

- Zhao Yun, a commander of the civil wars of the late Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period of China (died in 229)
- Jiang Qin, an officer in the kingdom of Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He died in 213 A.D.

Deaths

- Han Huandi, emperor of Han Dynasty

Other

There are 168 hours in a week

Meanings/Interpretation

In the Chinese culture, "168" is regarded as a highly successful number. In Cantonese, "168," read "yut look baat," which sounds similar to "a road of good fortune." This belief has inspired many Chinese to find ways of embedding this number in any possible way, including house numbers, phone numbers, and vehicle license plates.

References

- [http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/week214.html This Week's Finds in Mathematical Physics 214], John Baez Category:168 ko:168년

Apologist

Apologetics is the field of study concerned with the systematic defense of a position. Someone who engages in apologetics is called an apologist or an "apologete". The term comes from the Greek word apologia (απολογια), meaning defense of a position against an attack. When John Henry Newman entitled his spiritual autobiography Apologia Pro Vita Sua in 1864, he was playing upon both connotations. Early uses of the term include Plato's Apology (the defense speech of Socrates from his trial) and some works of early Christian apologists, such as St. Justin Martyr's two Apologies addressed to the emperor Marcus Aurelius.

Colloquial usage

Today the term "apologist" is colloquially applied to groups and individuals systematically promoting causes, justifying orthodoxies or denying certain events, even of crimes. Apologists are often characterized as being deceptive, or "whitewashing" their cause, primarily through omission of negative facts (selective perception) and exaggeration of positive ones, techniques of classical rhetoric. When used in this context, the term often has a pejorative meaning. The neutralized substitution of "spokesperson" for "apologist" in conversation conveys much the same sense of "partisan presenter with a weighted agenda," with less rhetorical freight.

Technical usages

The term apologetics etymologically derives from the Classical Greek word "apologia". In Classical Greek legal system two key technical terms were employed: the prosecution delivered the "kategoria", and the defendant replied with an "apologia". To deliver an "apologia" then meant making a formal speech to reply and rebut the charges. Plato's book The Apology was an account of Socrates' defence in court against his accusers. This Classical Greek term appears in the Koine (i.e. common) Greek of the New Testament. The Apostle Paul employs the term "apologia" in his trial speech to Festus and Agrippa when he says "I make my defence" (Acts 26:2). A cognate term appears in Paul's letter to the Philippians as he is "defending the gospel" (1:7 & 17), and in 1 Peter 3:15 believers must be ready to give an "answer" for their faith. The legal nuance of apologetics was reframed in a more specific sense to refer to the study of the defence of a doctrine or belief. In this context it most commonly refers to philosophical reconciliation. Religious apologetics is the effort to show that the preferred faith is not irrational, that believing in it is not against human reason, and that in fact the religion contains values and promotes ways of life more in accord with human nature than other faiths or beliefs. In the English language, the word apology is derived from the Greek word "apologia", but its use has changed; its primary sense now refers to a defensive plea for forgiveness for an action that is open to blame. It is occasionally used to refer to a speech or writing that defends the author's position. There is an argument to suggest that religious apologists such as Richard Swinburne should not be described as philosophers, since by definition a philosopher has an open mind and allows a line of reasoning to lead to a conclusion, rather than beginning with a conclusion and attempting to find reasons for it. While it can be argued that many secular philosophers do this themselves, the case of religious apologetics often seems readily apparent.

Intellectual and social function of religious apologetics

Apologetics serves an intellectual function within religious communities by providing arguments that support the doctrinal and ethical tenets of the religion. These arguments strengthen the believer's faith and support the propagation of the religion by offering arguments intended to persuade the uncommitted. Skeptics engaged in debate with apologists tend to expect apologetics to consist of powerful arguments intended to persuade skeptics, and are sometimes surprised by the failure of these arguments to even approach this goal. Occasionally, it's because the apologist just isn't any good. Most often, though, it's because the arguments only had the purpose of giving current believers license to continue believing. Since skeptics are not the intended target at all, these arguments aim for a much lower burden, not trying to do more than make the religious belief plausible or cast doubt on skeptical arguments. This faith-affirming aspect is often downplayed or even overlooked, but it can be very important, particularly in psychological and sociological terms. For some, the mere fact that even superficially reasonable arguments exist in support of their beliefs suffices to prevent them from making any effort at all to question whether they should continue to believe. For others, the ready-made arguments allow knee-jerk defense without the inconvenience of having to really consider the issues deeply on their own, or the risk that they might be forced to change their minds. And for the true believer, any excuse at all will do, no matter how far-fetched. This is consistent with the observations of sociologists of religion, such as Peter Berger and Douglas Cowan, who found that boundary maintenance of belief occurs when one religious tradition encounters another. In this view, engaging in apologetics is less about converting others than boosting their own beleaguered faith.

Varieties of Christian apologetics

There are a variety of Christian apologetic styles and schools of thought. In the Thomistic or Classical apologetics tradition philosophical arguments for God's existence are emphasized before turning to the specific case for Christian revelation claims. In the Evidentialist tradition empirical arguments about the life, miracles, death and resurrection of Christ are presented as probabilistic proofs. The Presuppositional tradition argues that belief in God must be presupposed, and from that vantage point non-theistic assumptions are proven to be fallacious.

Early Church

In the first centuries AD a number of Christian writers undertook the task of proving that Christianity was beneficial for the Roman Empire and for humanity as a whole. Also they wrote to defend their faith against attacks made by other people or to properly explain their faith. Aristides and Quadratus of Athens, writing in the early second century, were two of the first Christians to write apologetics treatises. Other second-century apologetics writings of note included the First Apology and Second Apology of Justin Martyr and the Epistle to Diognetus , a response to the accusation that Christians were a danger to Rome. About a century after Constantine's conversion to Christianity, the Roman Empire began falling to invaders from northern Europe. Some Christian writers sought to explain the decline of Roman culture and power by systematically downplaying the achievements of classical antiquity while emphasizing the persecution of Christians and the positive role of Christianity in society. Paulus Orosius wrote the first book advancing this perspective (History Against the Pagans), though the far more learned and influential work of this type was The City of God by Augustine of Hippo (426). Several of the early Christian apologists developed arguments from fulfilled prophecy and gospel miracles as proofs of Christ's divinity. Eusebius of Caesarea in his Demonstration of the Gospel attempted to prove the truth of Christianity by fulfilled prophecies from the Old Testament, and by rebutting arguments that the apostles had made up the story of Christ's resurrection.

Medieval to post-Reformation era

In Medieval Europe Anselm of Canterbury composed the Monologion and Proslogion in which he developed the ontological argument for God's existence. He believed that faith was necessary as a precursor to philosophical argument and expressed his position as "I do not seek to understand that I may believe, but I believe that I may understand: for this I also believe, that unless I believe I will not understand." Theodore Abu Qurra, the ninth century bishop of Harran, composed On God and The True Religion. Abu Qurra represents a group of Christian Arabic apologists who argued their case under early Islamic rule. A highly influential Catholic apologist was Thomas Aquinas who presented five arguments for God's existence in the Summa Theologiae. His approach, which adapted Aristotlean thought, is known as Thomism, and has dominated both Roman Catholic and Protestant approaches. The first Protestant textbook of apologetics was written by the Dutch legal scholar Hugo Grotius, On The Truth of the Christian Religion. This work, which was released in 1632 and translated into many languages, remained in print in English until the late nineteenth century, defended the historicity of the gospels, and also addressed arguments to Jews and Muslims.

Modern era

Since the seventeenth century the controversies over Deism, the Enlightenment, humanism, and theories of Feuerbach, Marx, Freud and Darwin, have each in turn spurred both Catholic and Protestant apologists to reply. Changing modes in apologetics, whether or not they are currently fashionable, are important markers in the history of ideas. Among the notable apologists of the early modern era are Blaise Pascal, Joseph Butler, William Paley, Søren Kierkegaard, and John Henry Newman. The Catholic G. K. Chesterton, the Anglican C. S. Lewis, the Lutheran John Warwick Montgomery, and the Presbyterian Francis Schaeffer were among the most prolific Christian apologists in the 20th century. Among the most widely read Christian apologists writing in English have been Josh McDowell and Lee Strobel. Another modern apologist is Ravi Zacharias, author of The Lotus and the Cross: Jesus Talks with Buddha which argues for Christian truth over world religions and other modern movements. Other prominent Christian apologists include:

- Gleason Archer
- Greg Bahnsen
- Edward John Carnell
- Gordon Clark
- William Lane Craig

- William Dembski
- John Frame
- Norman Geisler
- Michael Green
- Gary Habermas

- Carl F. H. Henry
- Karl Keating
- Scott Hahn
- Kimberly Hahn
- Walter Martin

- Alister McGrath
- Henry M. Morris
- J.P. Moreland
- Johnson C. Philip
- Clark Pinnock

- R. C. Sproul
- Robert Sungenis
- Bernard Ramm
- Cornelius Van Til
- Dietrich von Hildebrand
- Nicholas Wolterstorff

In India the emergence of modern rationalist and atheist beliefs has prompted a counter move from indigenous Christian apologists. The most notable among them is Johnson C. Philip, who authored more than 50 books and 2500 articles in defense of the Christian faith. He also founded the first seminary in the world that offers masters and doctoral programs in Christian apologetics through distance education. Known as Trinity School of Apologetics and Theology, it has trained a number of key apologists worldwide.

Apologetics in world religions

As the world's religions have encountered one another, apologists from within their respective faiths have emerged. One of the earliest Buddhist apologetic texts is The Questions of King Milinda, which deals with ethical and intellectual problems. In the British colonial era, Buddhists in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) wrote tracts that challenged and rejected Christianity. In the mid-nineteenth century, encounters between Buddhists and Christians in Japan prompted the formation of a Buddhist Propagation Society. In recent times A. L. De Silva, an Australian convert to Buddhism, has written a text designed to refute the arguments of Christian evangelists. At a sophisticated academic level, Gunapala Dharmasiri has challenged the Christian concept of God from a Theravadan Buddhist perspective. Apologists for Islam have defended the Qur'an using rationalist and empiricist arguments, and using cosmological arguments to prove God's existence. Muslim apologists have also challenged both Jewish and Christian beliefs. The late South African, Ahmed Deedat, was a prolific popular writer who debated Christian evangelists by arguing over discrepancies in the Bible, and claiming the Gospel of Barnabas is the only authentic record of Jesus' life. Hindu apologetics designed to counter Christian missions developed in the British colonial era. Richard Fox Young has collated examples of these early apologetic tracts. In a famous speech in 1805, Seneca chief Red Jacket was an apologist for Native American religion, as opposed to Christianity.

External links

- [http://www.apollos.ws Apollos.ws] The largest compilation of apologetics audio/video files.
- [http://www.fisheaters.com Fish Eaters: The Whys and Hows of Traditional Catholicism]
- [http://lumengentleman.com/ Lumen Gentleman Apologetics]
- [http://www.catholic.com Catholic Answers] The largest Catholic Apologetics organization in North America.
- [http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/faq/apologetics.asp Christian Apologetics Questions and Answers - Answers in Genesis] An apologetics organization defending a young-earth form of creationism.
- [http://www.christiantruthanditsdefense.org/ Christian Truth and its Defense] Gives the gospel of Christianity and answers common questions about God, truth, reason, and faith.
- [http://www.apologeticsindex.org/ Apologetics Index] A huge database of apologetics and countercult research resources.
- [http://www.apologeticscourses.com/ Apologetics Courses] A large number of downloadable apologetics courses.
- [http://www.rmiweb.org Reformation Ministries International] The writings of theologian Vincent Cheung.
- [http://www.bethinking.org/ bethinking.org] A colourful site with a large amount of audio and text from many different Christian apologists available for free download. Material is sorted into Introductory, Intermediate and Advanced for ease of use.
- [http://www.BiblicalArcheology.net/ Biblical Archeology] An encyclopedic site on Archeology for apologetics.
- [http://www.catholicapologeticsofamerica.blogspot.com/ Catholic Apologetics of America] A large Catholic blog with several articles and links to help defend and explain the Catholic faith.
- [http://www.uq.net.au/slsoc/bsq/budchr0.htm#cont A Buddhist Critique of Christianity] by A. L. de Silva.
- [http://www.eternalministries.org Eternal Ministries], a Christian apologetics and theology ministry
- [http://www.tektonics.org/ Tekton Apologetics Ministries], a Christian website collecting arguments primarily about biblical apologetics.
- [http://www.spirithome.com/defchurt.html#apologetics A different view of the purpose of Christian apologetics]
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01618a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Apologetics].
- [http://www.answersingenesis.org/ An apologetics organization defending the biblical form of creationism] (Answers in Genesis).
- [http://reasons.org/index.shtml Reasons to Believe] An apologetics organization defending an old-earth form of creationism.
- [http://www.reasons4faith.org/basicapologeticscurriculum.htm Basic Apologetics Curriculum]
- [http://www.Bible4u.Info/ Apologetic Ebooks] Several illustrated ebooks on Christian Apologetics.
- [http://www.rzim.org/ Ravi Zacharias, modern apologist]
- [http://www.apologeticspress.org/ Apologetics Press] Vast amount of apologetics resources.
- [http://www.carm.org Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry]
- [http://www.examinethetruth.com Islamic Apologetics site]
- [http://www.actministry.org/ Academy for Christian Thought, A research & educational ministry for effective apologetic witness in the marketplace of ideas]

Bibliography

1. Reference Works in Christian Apologetics Bush, L. Russ. 1983. Classical Readings in Christian Apologetics AD. 100-1800.Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Geisler, Norman L. 1999. Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics. Baker Books, Grand Rapids, Michigan. [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0801021510/qid=1124168616/sr=1-17/ref=sr_1_17/102-7814635-3480156?v=glance&s=books] 2. Popular Christian Apologists Geisler, Norman L., and Ronald M. Brooks. 1990. When Skeptics Ask: A Handbook of Christian Evidences. Victor Books, Wheaton, Illinois. Lewis, C. S. 1955. Mere Christianity. Fontana, Glasgow. Lewis, C. S. 1960 (1947). Miracles: A Preliminary Study. Fontana, Glasgow. Lewis, C. S. 1957 (1940). The Problem of Pain. Fontana, Glasgow. Little, Paul E. 1968. Know Why You Believe. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove. McDowell, Josh. 1979. Evidence That Demands A Verdict. Revised Edition. Here's Life Publishers, San Bernadino, California. McDowell, Josh. 1981. The Resurrection Factor. Here's Life Publishers, San Bernadino, California. McDowell, Josh., and Don Stewart. 1980. Answers to Tough Questions Skeptics Ask About the Christian Faith. Here's Life Publishers, San Bernadino, California. Montgomery, John Warwick. 2002. History, Law and Christianity. Canadian Institute for Law, Theology & Public Policy, Edmonton, Alberta. [http://www.ciltpp.com/stud_apo.htm#HistLawChristianity] Montgomery, John Warwick. 2003. Tractatus Logico-Theologicus. Verlag für Kultur und Wissenschaft/Culture and Science Publishers. [http://www.ciltpp.com/phil_the.htm#tractatus] Schaeffer, Francis A. 1982. The Complete Works of Francis Schaeffer. 5 Volumes. Crossway Books, Westchester, Illinois. Strobel, Lee. 1998. The Case for Christ: A Journalist's Personal Investigation of the Evidence for Jesus. Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan. 3. Introductory Textbooks on Christian Apologetics Beckwith, Francis J., J. P. Moreland & William Lane Craig (eds). 2004. To Everyone An Answer: A Case for the Christian Worldview: essays in Honor of Norman L. Geisler. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove. [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0830827358/qid=1124168653/sr=1-16/ref=sr_1_16/102-7814635-3480156?v=glance&s=books] Craig, William Lane. 1994. Reasonable Faith: Christian Truth and Apologetics. Crossway Books, Wheaton, Illinois. Dembski, William A., and Jay Wesley Richards (eds). 2001. Unapologetic Apologetics: Meeting the Challenges of Theological Studies. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois. Frame, John M. 1994. Apologetics to the Glory of God: An Introduction. Presbyterian & Reformed Publishing, Phillipsburg, New Jersey. [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0875522432/ref=pd_sim_b_4/102-7814635-3480156?%5Fencoding=UTF8&v=glance] Kreeft, Peter., and Ronald K. Tacelli.1994. Handbook of Christian Apologetics. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois. McGrath, Alister. 1992. Bridge-Building: Effective Christian Apologetics. InterVarsity Press, Leicester, UK. Montgomery, John Warwick (ed). 1991. Evidence for Faith: Deciding the God Question. Probe, Dallas. [http://www.ciltpp.com/stud_jwl.htm] Moreland, J. P. 1987. Scaling the Secular City: A Defense of Christianity. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan. 4. Historical Surveys of Christian Apologetics Barnard, L. W. 1978. "Early Christian Art as Apologetic." Journal of Religious History 10 (1): 20-31. Chadwick, Henry. 1965. "Justin Martyr's Defence of Christianity." Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library 47: 275-297. Clark, M. L. 1974. Paley: Evidences for the Man. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Ontario. Craig, William Lane.1985. The Historical Argument for the Resurrection of Jesus During The Deist Controversy. Texts & Studies in Religion Volume 23. Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston, New York & Queenston, Ontario. Dahan, Gilbert. 1998. The Christian Polemic against the Jews in the Middle Ages. Translated by Jody Gladding. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, Indiana. Dulles, Avery. 1999. A History of Apologetics. Wipf & Stock, Eugene, Oregon. [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1579102247/qid=1124165959/sr=2-1/ref=pd_bbs_b_2_1/102-7814635-3480156] Edwards, Mark., Martin Goodman & Simon Price (eds). 1999. Apologetics in the Roman Empire: Pagans, Jews, and Christians. Oxford University Press, Oxford & New York. [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0198269862/qid=1124166150/sr=1-1/ref=sr_1_1/102-7814635-3480156?v=glance&s=books] Phillips, Walter. 1977. "The Defence of Christian Belief in Australia 1875-1914: The Responses to Evolution and Higher Criticism." Journal of Religious History, 9 (4):402-423. Reid, J. K. S. 1970. Christian Apologetics. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Rurak, James. 1980. "Butler's Analogy: A Still Interesting Synthesis of Reason and Revelation." Anglican Theological Review 52: 365-381. Samir, S. Khalil (ed). 1994. Christian Arabic Apologetics During the Abbasid Period. Studies in the History of Religions. Brill Academic, Leiden, The Netherlands. [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/9004095683/qid=1124196127/sr=1-1/ref=sr_1_1/102-7814635-3480156?v=glance&s=books] Sell, Alan P. F. 1987. Defending and Declaring the Faith: Some Scottish Examples 1860-1920. Paternoster Press, Exeter, UK/Helmers & Howard, Colorado Springs. Sims, John A. 1995. Missionaries to the Skeptics: Christian Apologists for the Twentieth Century. C. S. Lewis, E. J. Carnell and Reinhold Niebuhr. Mercer University Press, Macon, Georgia. 5. Discussion of Methodology in Christian Apologetics Bahnsen, Greg. 1998. Van Til's Apologetic: Readings and Analysis. Presbyterian & Reformed Publishing, Phillipsburg, New Jersey. Boa, Kenneth D., and Robert M. Bowman. 2001. Faith Has Its Reasons: An Integrative Approach to Defending Christianity. NAV Press, Colorado Springs, Colorado. Clark, David K. 1993. Dialogical Apologetics: A Person-Centered Approach to Christian Defense. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Cowan, Steven B. (ed). 2000. Five Views on Apologetics. Counterpoint Series. Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Geehan, E. R. (ed). 1971. Jerusalem and Athens: Critical Discussions on the Philosophy and Apologetics of Cornelius Van Til. Presbyterian & Reformed Publishing, Nutley, New Jersey. Griffiths, Paul J. 1991. An Apology for Apologetics: A Study in the Logic of Interreligious Dialogue. Faith Meets Faith Series. Orbis Books, Maryknoll, New York. Hanna, Mark M. 1981. Crucial Questions in Apologetics. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Johnson, John. 2003. "A Case for 'Reformed Evidentialism'." Churchman 117 (1): 7-32. Lewis, Gordon R. 1976. Testing Christianity's Truth Claims. Moody Press, Chicago. [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0802485952/qid=1124166102/sr=1-1/ref=sr_1_1/102-7814635-3480156?v=glance&s=books] Mayers, Ronald B. 1984. Both/And: A Balanced Apologetic. Moody Press, Chicago. Montgomery, John Warwick. 1978. Faith Founded on Fact: Essays in Evidentialist Apologetics. Thomas Nelson, Nashville & New York. Morris, Thomas V. 1987. Francis Schaeffer's Apologetics: A Critique. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Netland, Harold. 1988. "Toward Contextualized Apologetics." Missiology: An International Review 16 (3): 289-303. Ramm, Bernard. 1962. Varieties of Christian Apologetics: An Introduction to the Christian Philosophy of Religion. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Sproul, R. C., John Gerstner, and Arthur Lindsley. 1984. Classical Apologetics: A Rational Defense of the Christian Faith and a Critique of Presuppositional Apologetics. Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan. 6. Christian Apologetics and Post-Modernity Carson, D. A. 1996. The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism. Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Johnson, Philip. 1998. "Apologetics and Myths: Signs of Salvation in Postmodernity." Lutheran Theological Journal 32 (2): 62-72. Middleton, J. Richard., and Brian J. Walsh. 1995. Truth Is Stranger Than It Used To Be: Biblical Faith in a Postmodern Age. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois. Phillips, Timothy R., and Dennis L. Okholm (eds). 1995. Christian Apologetics in the Postmodern World. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois. Sire, James W. 1994. Why Should Anyone Believe Anything At All? InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois. Stackhouse, John G. 2002. Humble Apologetics: Defending the Faith Today. Oxford University Press, New York. [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0195138074/qid=1117631145/sr=8-1/ref=pd_csp_1/103-8727021-3968629?v=glance&s=books&n=507846] Wilkinson, David. 2002. "The Art of Apologetics in the Twenty-First Century." Anvil 19 (1): 5-17. 7. Historical Apologetics for Christ's Resurrection Craig, William Lane. 1989. Assessing the New Testament Evidence for the Historicity of the Resurrection of Jesus. Studies in the Bible and Early Christianity, Volume 16. Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston, New York/Queenston, Ontario/Lampeter, Wales. Habermas, Gary R. 1980. The Resurrection of Jesus: An Apologetic. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Miethe, Terry L. (ed).1987. Did Jesus Rise From The Dead?: The Resurrection Debate. (Gary Habermas and Antony Flew). Harper & Row, San Francisco. 8. Legal Apologetics Clifford, Ross. 1996. Leading Lawyers' Case for the Resurrection. Canadian Institute for Law, Theology & Public Policy, Edmonton, Alberta. Clifford, Ross. 2004. John Warwick Montgomery's Legal Apologetic: An Apologetic For All Seasons. Verlag für Kultur und Wissenschaft/Culture and Science Publishers, Bonn. Ewen, Pamela Binnings. 1999. Faith on Trial: An Attorney Analyzes the Evidence for the Death and Resurrection of Jesus. Broadman & Holman, Nashville, Tennessee. Johnson, Philip. 2002. "Juridical Apologists 1600-2000 AD: A Bio-Bibliographical Survey." Global Journal of Classical Theology3/1. [http://www.trinitysem.edu/journal/philjohnsonpap.html] Parton, Craig A. 2003. The Defense Never Rests: A Lawyer's Quest for the Gospel. Concordia Publishing House, St. Louis, Missouri. 9. Philosophical Apologetics Beckwith, Francis J. 1989. David Hume's Argument Against Miracles: A Critical Analysis. University Press of America. Lanham, Maryland & London. Brown, Colin. 1984. Miracles and the Critical Mind. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan/Paternoster Press, Exeter, UK. Clark, Kelly James. 1990. Return To Reason: A Critique of Enlightenment Evidentialism and a Defense of Reason and Belief in God. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Craig, William Lane. 1979. The Kalām Cosmological Argument. MacMillan, London. Craig, William Lane., and Quentin Smith. 1993. Theism, Atheism, and Big Bang Cosmology. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Geivitt, R. Douglas., and Gary R. Habermas (eds). 1997. In Defence of Miracles: A Comprehensive Case for God's Action in History. Apollos, Leicester, UK/InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois. Miethe, Terry L., and Antony Flew. 1991. Does God Exist? A Believer and an Atheist Debate. Harper, San Francisco. Morris, Thomas V. 1986. The Logic of God Incarnate. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York & London. Plantinga, Alvin. 1990 (1967). God and Other Minds: A Study of the Rational Justification of Belief in God. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York & London. Plantinga, Alvin C. 1977 (1974). God, Freedom, and Evil. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Plantinga, Alvin., and Nicholas Wolterstorff (eds). 1983. Faith and Rationality: Reason and Belief in God. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame & London. Swinburne, Richard. 1996. Is There A God? Oxford University Press, Oxford & New York. Wolterstorff, Nicholas. 1995. Divine Discourse: Philosophical Reflections on the Claim that God Speaks. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 10. Scientific Apologetics Barclay, Oliver R. (ed). 1985. Creation and Evolution. When Christians Disagree Series. InterVarsity Press, Leicester, UK. Behe, Michael. 1996. Darwin's Black Box. Touchstone, New York. Beilby, James (ed). 2001. Naturalism Defeated? Essays on Plantinga's Evolutionary Argument Against Naturalism. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York & London. Dembski, William A. 1999. Intelligent Design: The Bridge Between Science and Theology. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois. Hummel, Charles E. 1986. The Galileo Connection: Resolving Conflicts between Science and the Bible. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois. Johnson, Phillip E. 1991. Darwin on Trial. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois. Johnson, Phillip E. 1995. Reason in the Balance: The Case Against Naturalism in Science, Law & Education. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois. Larson, Edward J. 1989. Trial and Error: The American Controversy Over Creation and Evolution. Oxford University Press, New York. Moore, James R. 1979. The Post-Darwinian Controversies: A Study of the Protestant Struggle to come to terms with Darwin in Great Britain and America 1870-1900. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Newman, Robert C., and Herman J. Eckelmann. 1981. Genesis One and the Origin of the Earth. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Polkinghorne, John. 1986. One World: The Interaction of Science and Theology. S.P.C.K., London. Ratzsch, Del. 1996. The Battle of the Beginnings. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove. Ross, Hugh. 1993. The Creator and The Cosmos: How the Greatest Scientific Discoveries of the Century Reveal God. NAV Press, Colorado Springs, Colorado. Van de Fliert, J. R. 1968. "Fundamentalism and Fundamentals of Geology." International Reformed Bulletin 32/33: 5-27. Wilder-Smith, A. E. 1970. The Creation of Life: A Cybernetic Approach to Evolution. Master Books, San Diego, California. Youngblood, Ronald F. (ed). 1990. The Genesis Debate: Persistent Questions about Creation and the Flood. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan. 11. Christian Apologetics to New Spiritualities and New Religious Movements Abanes, Richard. 1997. Defending the Faith: A Beginner's Guide to Cults and New Religions. Baker Books, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Geisler, Norman L., and David K. Clark. 1990. Apologetics in the New Age: A Christian Critique of Pantheism. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Hexham, Irving., Stephen Rost & John W. Morehead (eds). 2004. Encountering New Religious Movements: A Holistic Evangelical Approach. Kregel Publications, Grand Rapids, Michigan.[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0825428939/qid=1117631242/sr=8-1/ref=sr_8_xs_ap_i1_xgl14/103-8727021-3968629?v=glance&s=books&n=507846] Johnson, Philip. 2002. "Apologetics, Mission, and New Religious Movements: A Holistic Approach." Sacred Tribes: Journal of Christian Missions to New Religious Movements 1 (1). [http://www.sacredtribes.com/apolog1.htm] Johnson, Philip., and Simeon Payne. 2004. "Evangelical Countercult Apologists versus Astrology: An Unresolved Conundrum." Australian Religion Studies Review 17 (2): 73-97. Martin, Walter Ralston. 2003. The Kingdom of the Cults. Revised Edition, edited by Ravi Zacharias. Bethany House, Bloomington. Mosser, Carl., and Paul Owen. 1998. "Mormon Scholarship, Apologetics and Evangelical Neglect: Losing the Battle and Not Knowing It?" Trinity Journal (New Series) 19: 179-205. Pement, Eric N. (ed). 1992. Contend for the Faith: Collected Papers of the Rockford Conference on Discernment and Evangelism. Evangelical Ministries to new Religions, Chicago. Saliba, John A. 1999. Christian Responses to the New Age Movement: A Critical Assessment. Geoffrey Chapman, London. Sire, James W. 1988. The Universe Next Door: A Guide Book to World Views. Revised Edition. InterVarsity Press, Leicester, UK. 12. Buddhist Approaches to Apologetics Dharmasiri, Gunapala. 1988. A Buddhist Critique of the Christian Concept of God. Golden Leaves Publishing, Antioch, California. De Silva, A. L. 1994. Beyond Belief: A Buddhist Critique of Fundamentalist Christianity. Three Gem Publications, Camperdown, Sydney, Australia. Thelle, Notto R. 1987. Buddhism and Christianity in Japan: From Conflict to Dialogue, 1854-1899. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. Young, Richard Fox., and G.P.V. Somaratna. 1996. Vain Debates. The Buddhist-Christian Controversies of Nineteenth-Century Ceylon. Publications of the De Nobili Research Library, Vienna, Austria. 13. Hindu Approaches to Apologetics Young, Richard Fox. 1981. Resistant Hinduism: Sanskrit Sources on Anti-Christian Apologetics in Early Nineteenth Century India. Publications of the De Nobili Research Library, Vienna, Austria. 14. Islamic Approaches to Apologetics Bucaille, Maurice, 1993. The Bible, The Qur'an and Science: The Holy Scriptures examined in the Light of Modern Knowledge. Taj Publications, Delhi, India. Leirvik, Oddbjørn. 2001. "History as a Literary Weapon: The Gospel of Barnabas in Muslim-Christian Polemics." Studia Theologica 54: 4-26. Watt, William Montgomery. 1991. Muslim-Christian Encounters: Perceptions and Misperceptions. Routledge, London & New York. Westerlund, David. 2003. "Ahmed Deedat's Theology of Religion: Apologetics Through Polemics." Journal of Religion in Africa 33 (3):263-278. 15. Neo-Pagan Approaches to Apologetics DiZerega, Gus. 2001. Pagans and Christians: The Personal Spiritual Experience. Llewellyn Publications, St. Paul, Minnesota. Category:Theology

Shechem

Shechem, Sichem or Shkhem (שְׁכֶם / שְׁכָם "Shoulder", Standard Hebrew Šəḫem / Šəḫam, Tiberian Hebrew Šəḵem / Šəḵām (situated at Tell Balatah , 2 km east of present-day Nablus) was the first capital of the Kingdom of Israel. Kingdom of Israel Kingdom of Israel The old city of Shechem dates back an estimated four thousand years. At Shechem, Abram "built an altar to the Lord who had appeared to him . . . and had given that land to his descendants" (Gen 12:6-7). This Biblical account, considered by some to be the first place Abram stopped when Abraham Sarah, Lot and their party entered Canaan. The Bible states that on this occasion, God confirmed the covenant He had first made with Abraham in Ur, regarding the possession of the land of Canaan. Joshua assembled the Israelites in Shechem and encouraged them to reaffirm their adherence to the Torah. During the Judges period, Abimelech was crowned king in Shechem. Shechem was a commercial center due to its position in the middle of vital trade routes through the region. It traded in local grapes, olives, wheat, livestock and pottery between the middle Bronze Age and the late Hellenic Period (1900-100 BCE). Archeological evidence indicates that the city was razed and reconstructed up to 22 times before its final demise in 200 CE. Within the remains of the city can still be found a number of walls and gates built for defense, a government house, a residential quarter and the ruins of a temple raised to Zeus by the Roman Emperor Hadrian, the latter dating to the second century CE.

History

In the Amarna Letters, ( of about 1350BC), Shachmu (Shechem) was the center of a kingdom carved out by Labaya (or Labayu), a Canaanite warlord who recruited mercenaries from among the Habiru. Labaya was the author of 3 Amarna letters, and his name appears in 11 of the other 382 letters, referred to 28 times, with the basic topic of the letter, being Labaya himself, and his relationship with the rebelling, countryside Habiru. The city fell to the Israelites sometime before 1000 BC. In the Book of Judges, it was the center for the ephemeral Israelite kingdom of Abimelech ben Gideon. Later, it was an administrative center under Solomon and the northern Kingdom of Israel. In Classical times, Shechem was the main settlement of the Samaritans, whose cultic center was on Mount Gerizim, just outside of the town. In Acts 7:16 the place is called Sychem, and in the Gospel of John 4:5 it is called Sychar. Shechem, which lay in a narrow shoulder of land in the narrow valley between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal, approximately 65 km north of Jerusalem, is also the location of Jacob's Well, where John 4:5–6 sets Jesus' meeting with the woman of Samaria, The Ancient Roman and Arab city of Nablus lies 2 km to the west of the site. Josephus, writing in about AD 90 (Jewish Antiquities 4.8.44), placed the city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal, and other ancient writers knew that it was on the outskirts of "Neapolis" (Nablus), but its archaeological site was only stumbled upon in 1903 by a German party of archaeologists led by Dr. Hermann Thiersch at a site known as Tell Balatah, beside the traditional site associated with the tomb of Joseph (Joshua 24:32). Shechem had been a Canaanite settlement, mentioned on an Egyptian stele of a noble at the court of Senusret III (c. 1880–1840 BC). Shechem first appears in the Tanakh in Genesis 12:6–8, which records how Abraham reached the "great tree of Moreh" at Shechem and offered sacrifice nearby. Later Joseph's bones were brought out of Egypt and reburied at Shechem.

External links

- [http://www.robibrad.demon.co.uk/shechem.htm Full archaeological and Biblical discussion of Shechem]
- [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=573&letter=S Jewish Encyclopedia:] Shechem
- [http://www.allaboutarchaeology.org/shechem-faq.htm Shechem] Why was the city of Shechem an important archaeological find? Category:Palestine Category:Torah places Category:Hebrew Bible/Tanakh places Category:Samaritan culture and history Category:100 most endangered sites

Palestine (region)

Palestine (Arabic: فلسطين Filasṭīn or Falasṭīn, Greek: Παλαιστίνη Palaistinē, Latin: Syria Palæstina, Hebrew: פלשתינה Palestina or ארץ ישראל Eretz Yisrael) is the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the banks of the Jordan River, plus various adjoining lands to the east. Many different definitions of the region have been used in the past three millennia (see also definitions of Palestine).

Boundaries and Name

definitions of Palestine Egyptian writings refer to the region as R-t-n-u (for convenience pronounced Rechenu). Several names for the region are found in the Bible: Eretz Yisrael "Land of Israel", Eretz Ha-Ivrim "land of the Hebrews", "land flowing with milk and honey", "land that [God] swore to your fathers to assign to you", "Holy Land", and "land of the Lord". The portion of the land lying west of the Jordan was also called "land of Canaan" during the period in which it fell under the control of Egyptian vassals traditionally descended from Canaan the son of Ham. After the division of the Jewish kingdom into two the southern part was called "land of Judah" and the northern part was called "land of Israel". The name "Palestine" comes from the Philistine people, who are first recorded by the ancient Egyptians as P-r/l-s-t (conventionally Peleset), one of the Sea Peoples who invaded Egypt in Ramesses III's reign. "Palestine" (Hebrew פלשת Pəléšeth, P(e)léshet) is used in the Bible to denote the coastal region inhabited by the Philistines, whose five principal cities were Gaza, Ashdod, Ekron, Gath, and Ashkelon. Usage of the term, usually in the form "Syria Palestina", to denote the inland areas as well was common among Greek writers as early as Herodotus. Josephus, however, apparently intended by the name only the land of the Philistines. The Philistines (meaning "invaders" in Hebrew) were subjugated by David; however, by Amos' time they had regained their independence. They are no longer mentioned by Assyrian times.

5th century B.C.E.

The term "Syria Palaestina" is first recorded by the 5th century B.C.E. Greek historian Herodotus, who wrote of the "district of Syria, called Palaistinêi", and later Ptolemy and Pliny (who alludes to a region of Syria that was "formerly called Palaestina"), to refer to the eastern coast of the Mediterranean; it is generally accepted that the region they referred to extended further inland than the domain of the Philistines.

Roman times

In 135, the Roman emperor Hadrian changed the name of the Roman province of Syria Judea to Syria Palaestina, which is the Latin version of the Greek name, and it became an administrative political unit within the Roman Empire, following the fall of a Jewish revolt led by Bar Kokhba in 132-135. In approximately 390, Palaestina was further organised into three units: First, Second, and Third Palaestina. Palastina Prima consisted of Judea, Samaria, the coast, and Peraea which the governor residing in Caesarea. Palaestina Secunda consisted of the Galilee, the lower Jezreel Valley, the regions east of Galilee, and the western part of the former Decapolis with the seat of government at Scythopolis. Palaestina Tertia included the Negev, southern Jordan — once part of Arabia — and most of Sinai with Petra the usual residence of the governor. Palestina Tertia was also known as Palaestina Salutaris. This reorganization reduced Arabia to the northern Jordan east of Peraea. Roman administration of Palestine ended temporarily during the Persian occupation of 614-28, then permanently after the Arabs conquered the region beginning in 635.

Arab rule

Petra The new Arab rulers divided the province of ash-Sham (Syria) into five districts. Jund Filastin (Arabic جند فلسطين, literally "the army or military district of Palestine") was a region extending from the Sinai to south of the plain of Acre. At times it reached down into the Sinai. Major towns included Rafaḥ, Caesarea, Gaza, Jaffa, Nablus, Jericho, Ramla and Jerusalem. Initially Ludd (Lydda) was the capital, but in 717 it was moved to the new city of ar-Ramlah (Ramla). (The capital was not moved to Jerusalem until much later, when the organization into Junds was already breaking down.) Jund al-Urdunn (literally "Jordan") was a region to the north and east of Filastin. Major towns included Tiberias, Legio, Acre, Beisan and Tyre. The capital was at Tiberias. Various political upheavals led to readjustments of the boundaries several times. After the 10th century, the division into Junds began to break down and the Turkish invasions of the 1070s, soon followed by the Crusades and the establishment of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, completed that process. From the 11th to the 19th centuries we have instances that Filasṭin did not refer to the land of Palestine but to its by then defunct capital ar-Ramla.
- See also the [http://www.mideastweb.org/palcaliph1.htm Mideastweb map of "Palestine Under the Caliphs"], showing Jund boundaries (external link).

Muslim division into districts

After Muslim control over Palestine was reestablished in the 12th and 13th centuries, the division into districts was reinstated, with boundaries that were frequently rewritten. Around the end of the 13th century, Palestine comprised several of nine "kingdoms" of Syria, namely the Kingdoms of Gaza (including Ascalon and Hebron), Karak (including Jaffa and Legio), Safad (including Safad, Acre, Sidon and Tyre) and parts of the Kingdom of Damascus (sometimes extending as far south as Jerusalem). By the middle of the 14th century, Syria had again been divided into five districts, of which Filastin included Jerusalem (its capital), Ramla, Ascalon, Hebron and Nablus, while Hauran included Tiberias (its capital).

Ottoman rule

After the Ottoman conquest, the name disappeared as the official name of an administrative district but remained in popular and semi-official use. Many examples of its usage in the 16th and 17th centuries have survived [Gerber]. During the 19th century, the "Ottoman Government employed the term Arz-i Filistin (the 'Land of Palestine') in official correspondence, meaning for all intents and purposes the area to the west of the River Jordan which became 'Palestine' under the British in 1922" [Mandel, page xx]. Amongst the educated Arab public, Filastin was a common concept, referring either to the whole of Palestine or to the Jerusalem sanjaq alone [Porath].

20th Century

In European usage up to World War I, the name "Palestine" was used informally for a region that extended in the north-south direction typically from Raphia (south-east of Gaza) to the Litani River (now in Lebanon). The western boundary was the sea, and the eastern boundary was the poorly-defined place where the Syrian desert began. In various European sources, the eastern boundary was placed anywhere from the Jordan River to slightly east of Amman. The Negev Desert was not included. [Biger] Under the Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916, most of Palestine was envisioned as an international zone not under direct French or British colonial control. [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~gov46/sykes-picot-1916.gif]

British Mandate

1916 Main article: British Mandate of Palestine Formal use of the English word "Palestine" returned with the British Mandate. During this period , the name "Eretz Yisrael" (Hebrew: ארץ ישראל) was also part of the official name of the territory. Between 1920 and 1922, Palestine was defined by the San Remo Conference as the area bordered by the Mediterranean Sea, Lebanon, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and a short stretch of Red Sea coastline between the latter two. These borders include all of present-day Israel, the West Bank. the Gaza Strip, and Jordan. [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~gov46/pal-mandate-sremo-1922.gif][http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/mideast/palmanda.htm]. However, the final text left the borders unspecified (note in particular Article 25.) After Transjordan was split off from Palestine in 1922, the term Palestine referred to the segment west of the Jordan river [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~gov46/pal-transjrdn-1922.gif] (see History of Palestine, History of Jordan). Even before the Mandate came into legal effect in 1922 (text), British terminology applied the word Palestine to the part west of the Jordan River and Trans-Jordan (or Transjordania) to the part east of the Jordan River. This terminology was applied consistently during the Mandate period and it is difficult to find any official documents that use any name other than "Palestine and Trans-Jordan" when referring to the whole area of the Mandate. Nevertheless, the fact that "Palestine" was once considered to include lands on the east side of the Jordan River continues even today to have significance in political discourse. Between 1922 and 1947, the term "Palestine" referred to the geographical region bordered by (Trans-)Jordan, Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, and the Mediterranean Sea [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~gov46/pal-transjrdn-1922.gif] [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/israel/images/israel03.jpg].

UN Partition

text Main article: 1947 UN Partition Plan Under the 1947 UN Partition Plan, Palestine was to be divided into two states of approximately equal size, one for Jews and one for Arabs, as well as the city of Jerusalem, which was to be administered by the UN [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/israel/images/israel04.jpg]. The Palestinian Arabs and the Arab states rejected the partition plan, and attacked the newly declared state of Israel in 1948. An independent Arab Palestine was declared by a Palestinian National Congress meeting in Gaza in September 1948; it defined its borders as those of the British Mandate, and its capital as Jerusalem[http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/peace%20process/guide%20to%20the%20peace%20process/why%20was%20-independent%20palestine-%20never%20created%20in%201]. A week later, the Jordan-backed rival First Palestinian Congress convened in Amman and denounced the Gaza "government".

Current status

Amman Amman Amman Following the 1949 armistice agreement between Israel and neighboring Arab states, Palestine disappeared as a distinct territory. The territory previously known as Palestine was occupied by Israel, Egypt, Syria and Jordan. [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/israel/images/israel05.jpg] [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~gov46/israel-post-armstice-1949.gif] In the course of 1948 Arab-Israeli War, Israel captured an additional 26% of the Mandate territory west of the Jordan river and annexed it to the new state. Known as al-Nakba (the catastrophe) to Palestinians, the 1948 war resulted in the destruction of over 500 Palestinian villages and the exodus of over 700,000 refugees. Jordan captured about 21% of the Mandate territory (which became known as the West Bank), including parts of Jerusalem that included the old city and eastern environments and separated the city into West and East Jerusalem. The Gaza Strip was captured by Egypt. After 1948, the term "Palestine" was regularly used in political contexts. Various declarations, such as the 1988 proclamation of a State of Palestine by the PLO referred to a country called Palestine, defining its borders with differing degrees of clarity. Most recently, the Palestine draft constitution refers to borders based on the West Bank and Gaza Strip prior to the 1967 Six-Day War. This so-called Green Line follows the 1949 armistice line; the permanent borders are yet to be negotiated. Furthermore, since 1994, there has been a Palestinian Authority controlling varying portions of historic Palestine.

Literature

- Mariam Shahin, Palestine - a Guide, Interlink Books 2005
- Gideon Biger, Where was Palestine? Pre-World War I perception, AREA (Journal of the Institute of British Geographers) Vol 13, No. 2 (1981) 153-160.
- Guy Le Strange, Palestine under the Moslems (1890; reprinted by Khayats, 1965)
- N. J. Mandel, The Arabs and Zionism before World War I (University of Califormia Press, 1976)
- H. Gerber, "Palestine" and other territorial concepts in the 17th century, International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol 30 (1998) pp 563-572
- Y. Porath, The emergence of the Palestinian-Arab national movement, 1918-1929 (Cass, 1974)
- B. Doumani, Rediscovering Palestine: Merchants and Peasants in Jabal Nablus 1700-1900 (UC Press, 1995)

Vespasian

Caesar Vespasianus Augustus (November 17, 9 – June 23, 79), originally known as Titus Flavius Vespasianus and best known as Vespasian, was the emperor of Rome from 69 to 79. He was founder of the Flavian dynasty and ascended the throne in the end of the Year of the four emperors.

Family and early career

He was born in the Sabine country near Reate. His father, Titus Flavius Sabinus, was an equestrian who worked as a customs official in Asia and a money-lender on a small scale in Aventicum, where Vespasian lived for some time; his mother, Vespasia Polla, was the sister of a Senator. After prompting from his mother, Vespasian followed his older brother, also called Titus Flavius Sabinus, into public life. He served in the army as a military tribune in Thrace in 36, and the following year was elected quaestor, serving in Crete and Cyrene. He rose through the ranks of Roman public office, being elected aedile at the second attempt in 39 and praetor at the first attempt in 40, taking the opportunity to ingratiate himself with the Emperor Caligula. In the meantime he had married Flavia Domitilla, the daughter of an equestrian from Ferentium, and they had two sons, Titus Flavius Vespasianus (b. 41) and Titus Flavius Domitianus (b. 51), and a daughter, Domitilla (b. 39). Flavia died before Vespasian became emperor; therafter his mistress, Caenis, was his wife in all but name until she died in 74. Upon the accession of Claudius as emperor in 41, Vespasian was appointed legate of the Legio II Augusta, stationed in Germania, thanks to the influence of the Imperial freedman Narcissus.

Invasion of Britannia

In 43, Vespasian and the II Augusta participated in the Roman invasion of Britain, and he distinguished himself under the overall command of Aulus Plautius. After participating in crucial early battles on the rivers Medway and Thames, he was sent to reduce the southwest, penetrating to the borders of modern Somerset. He fought thirty battles, captured twenty oppida (towns, or more probably hillforts, one of them being Maiden Castle in Dorset), subdued two powerful nations and reduced Vectis (the Isle of Wight), earning a triumph on his return to Rome.

Continued political career

Vespasian was elected consul for the last two months of 51, after which he withdrew from public life. He came out of retirement in 63 when he was sent as governor to Africa, where, according to Tacitus (ii.97), his rule was "infamous and odious"; according to Suetonius (Vesp. 4), "upright and, highly honourable". On one occasion he was pelted with turnips. At this time he found himself in financial difficulties and was forced to mortgage his estates to his brother. To revive his fortunes he turned to the mule trade and gained the nickname mulio (mule-driver). Returning from Africa, Vespasian toured Greece in Nero's retinue, but lost Imperial favour after paying insufficient attention to the Emperor's recitals on the lyre, and found himself in the political wilderness.

Great Jewish Revolt

lyre to celebrate the victory in the Jewish Rebellion. The legend on the reverse says: IVDAEA CAPTA, Judea captured.]] However, in 66, Vespasian was appointed to conduct the war in Iudaea, which was threatening unrest throughout the East. A revolt there had killed the previous governor and routed Licinius Mucianus, the governor of Syria, when he tried to restore order. Vespasian was dispatched with two legions to add to the one already there. His elder son, Titus, served under him. During this time he became the patron of Flavius Josephus, a Jewish resistance leader turned Roman agent who would go on to write his people's history in Greek.

The Year of Four Emperors

After the death of Nero in 68, Rome saw a succession of short-lived emperors and a year of civil wars. Galba was murdered by Otho, who was defeated by Vitellius. Otho's supporters, looking for another candidate to support, settled on Vespasian. According to Suetonius, a prophecy ubiquitous in the Eastern provinces claimed that from Iudaea would come the future rulers of the world. Vespasian eventually believed that this prophecy applied to him, and found a number of omens, oracles, and portents that reinforced this belief. He also found encouragement in Mucianus, the governor of Syria; and although a strict disciplinarian and reformer of abuses, Vespasian's soldiers were thoroughly devoted to him. All eyes in the East were now upon him; Mucianus and the Syrian legions were eager to support him; and while he was at Caesarea, he was proclaimed emperor (July 1, 69), first by the army in Egypt, and then by his troops in Iudaea (July 11). Nevertheless, Vitellius, the occupant of the throne, had on his side the veteran legions of Gaul and the Rhineland, Rome's best troops. But the feeling in Vespasian's favour quickly gathered strength, and the armies of Moesia, Pannonia, and Illyricum soon declared for him, and made him in fact master of half of the Roman world. While Vespasian himself was in Egypt securing its grain supply, his troops entered Italy on the northeast under the leadership of M. Antonius Primus, defeated Vitellius's army (which had awaited him in Mevania) at Bedriacum (or Betriacum), sacked Cremona and advanced on Rome, which they entered after furious fighting and a frightful confusion, in which the Capitol was destroyed by fire. On receiving the tidings of his rival's defeat and death at Alexandria, the new emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently needed grain to Rome, along with an edict or a declaration of policy, in which he gave assurance of an entire reversal of the laws of Nero, especially those relating to treason. While in Egypt he visited the Temple of Serapis, where reportedly he experienced a vision, and later was confronted by two laborers who were convinced that he possessed a divine power which could work miracles.

Vespasian as Emperor

Leaving the war in Judaea to his son Titus, he arrived at Rome in 70. He at once devoted his energies to repairing the evils caused by civil war. He restored discipline in the army, which under Vitellius had become utterly demoralized, and, with the cooperation of the Senate, put the government and the finances on a sound footing. He renewed old taxes and instituted new ones, increased the tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury officials. By his own example of simplicity of life, he put to shame the luxury and extravagance of the Roman nobles and initiated in many respects a marked improvement in the general tone of society. As censor he reformed the Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing unfit and unworthy members and promoting good and able men, among them Gnaeus Julius Agricola. At the same time, he made it more dependent upon the Emperor, by exercising an influence upon its composition. He altered the constitution of the Praetorian Guard, in which only Italians, formed into nine cohorts, were enrolled. In 70, a formidable rising in Gaul, headed by Gaius Julius Civilis, was suppressed by Vespasian's brother-in-law, Quintus Petillius Cerialis, and the German frontier made secure; the Jewish War was brought to a close by Titus's capture of Jerusalem, and in the following year, after the joint triumph of Vespasian and Titus, memorable as the first occasion on which a father and his son were thus associated together in the Western world, the temple of Janus was closed, and the Roman world had rest for the remaining nine years of Vespasian's reign. "The peace of Vespasian" passed into a proverb. In 78 Agricola went to Britain, and both extended and consolidated the Roman dominion in that province, pushing his way into what is now Scotland. In the following year Vespasian died, on June 23.

Views on Vespasian

The avarice with which both Tacitus and Suetonius stigmatize Vespasian seems really to have been an enlightened economy, which, in the disordered state of the Roman finances, was an absolute necessity. Vespasian could be liberal to impoverished Senators and equestrians, to cities and towns desolated by natural calamity, and especially to men of letters and rhetors, several of whom he pensioned with salaries of as much as 1,000 gold pieces a year. Quintilian is said to have been the first public teacher who enjoyed this Imperial favor. Pliny the Elder's great work, the Natural History, was written during Vespasian's reign, and dedicated to Vespasian's son Titus. Some of the philosophers who talked idly of the good old times of the Republic, and thus indirectly encouraged conspiracy, provoked him into reviving the obsolete penal laws against this profession, but only one, Helvidius Priscus, was put to death, and he had affronted the Emperor by studied insults. "I will not kill a dog that barks at me," were words honestly expressing the temper of Vespasian. Vespasian was indeed noted for mildness and a healthy sense of justice. For example, he helped his late adversary Vitellius' daughter find a suitable husband and even provided her with the dowry. Much money was spent on public works and the restoration and beautifying of Rome: a new forum, the splendid Temple of Peace, the public baths and the vast Colosseum. To the last, Vespasian was a plain, blunt soldier, with a demonstrated strength of character and ability, and with a steady purpose to establish good order and secure the prosperity and welfare of his subjects. In his habits he was punctual and regular, transacting his business early in the morning, and enjoying a siesta in the afternoon. He did not quite have the distinguished bearing looked for in an emperor. He was free in his conversation, and his humour, of which he had a good deal, was apt to take the form of rather coarse jokes. He could jest even in his last moments. "Alas, I think I'm turning into a God," he whispered to those around him. There is something very characteristic in the exclamation he is said to have uttered in his last illness, "An emperor ought to die standing."

Sources

- Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars
- Tacitus, Histories
- Dio Cassius, Roman History

External links

- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian
- .html Life of Vespasian] (Suetonius; English translation and Latin original)
- Biography on [http://www.roman-emperors.org/vespasia.htm De Impertoribus Romanis]. This entry was based on the entry from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. ---- Category:9 births Category:79 deaths Category:Roman emperors Category:Ancient Jewish Roman history Category:Romans in Britain Category:Flavian Dynasty Category:Year of Four Emperors ko:베스파시아누스 ja:ウェスパシアヌス

70

Centuries: 1st century BC - 1st century - 2nd century Decades: 20s 30s 40s 50s 60s - 70s - 80s 90s 100s 110s 120s Years: 65 66 67 68 69 - 70 - 71 72 73 74 75 ----

Events

- The building of the Colosseum starts (approximate date).
- Pliny the Elder served as procurator in Gallia Narbonensis.
- The Roman general and future Roman Emperor, Titus Flavius, destroys the Temple in Jerusalem, leaving erect only the famous Western Wall. Rome stations troops in Jerusalem and abolishes the Jewish high priesthood and Sanhedrin. This becomes known as the Fall of Jerusalem. Following this event, the Jewish religious leadership moves from Jerusalem to Jamnia (present day Yavne).
- Roman legions V Alaudae and XV Primigeniae are destroyed during the Batavian rebellion. Later, Potillius Cerealis puts down the Batavian rebellion of Civilis.
- Frontinus is praetor of Rome.
- Legions I and IV Macedonica are disbanded, II Audiutrix is created.
- Neapolis (Nablus) is founded in Judea.
- Avignon becomes the seat of a bishopric.
- Emperor Domitian, then an imperial prince, marries Domitia Longina
- Romans make a punitive expedition against Garamantes - they are forced to have an official relationship with the Empire

Births

Deaths

- Hero of Alexandria (approximate date). Category:70 ko:70년

Martyr

:Apart from the religious meaning, Martyr is also a metal band (see Martyr (band)). Historically, a martyr is a person who dies for his or her religious faith. Sometimes, it is for a different "noble cause", like patriotically dying for a nation's glory in a war (usually known under other names such as "fallen warriors"). Occurrences of such a death are known as martyrdom.

History

Martyr is from marty (earlier martys), the Greek word for "witness". During the early Roman Empire, the independent cities of Asia Minor made efforts to reward benefactors for their services, and to promote further civic generosity by means of public acclamations, eulogistic honorific decrees were addressed to the Roman authorities and read in public places before an audience. Such commendations are usually referred to in epigraphic sources as martyriai. Christians adopted the phrase for the "testimonies" of the acts and sufferings of the persecuted, who became "martyrs".

In Christianity

Eastern and western liturgical Christians revere Saint Stephen as the first martyr, or protomartyr. Christians in the first three centuries A.D. were crucified in the same manner as Roman political prisoners or eaten by lions as a circus spectacle. They are recognized as martyrs because they preferred dying for their faith to apostasy (renunciation of faith). The Christian writer Tertullian (200 AD) asserted that "the blood of martyrs is the seed of the Church". With the Constantinian shift and the identification of the term Christianity with the Roman Empire, the tables were turned and pagans sometimes became martyrs if they refused the Roman Emperor when ordered to change their beliefs to the Roman Empire's version of Christianity. It didn't take long before Augustine of Hippo authorized the use of force against heretics and Christians who refused to fall in line with Roman orthodoxy. Persecution of heretics and the martyrdom that sometimes went with it became institutionalised in the office of the inquisition of the Roman Catholic Church, and in the political systems of the State, such as that of the English Queen Mary I (who became known as Bloody Mary), when she had nearly three hundred Christians tortured and killed (recorded in Foxe's Book of Martyrs) for refusing to denounce their reformist beliefs and for refusing to revert to Roman Catholicism. Some Christian sects such as Anabaptists as well as non-Christian sects, who began as Christians yet changed their beliefs, trace their origins to widespread persecution and martyrdom at the hands of the Catholic Church trying to suppress their break away sects. The Anabaptists have embraced this part of their heritage to such an extent that the book Martyrs Mirror, which describes the deaths of Anabaptist Martyrs in the 16th and 17th century, is still widely owned and read in Mennonite and Amish households (see