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Juvenile Delinquency

Juvenile delinquency

Juvenile delinquency refers to antisocial or criminal acts performed by juveniles. It is an important social issue because juveniles are capable of committing serious crimes, but most legal systems prescribe specific procedures and punishments for dealing with such crimes.

Nature and causes

Juvenile Delinquency may refer to either violent or non-violent crime committed by persons who are (usually) under the age of 16 years. However, there is much debate about whether or not a child should be held responsible for his or her own actions. There are many different outside influences that affect the way a child acts both negatively and positively, some of those influences are as follows:
- Physical abuse
- Sexual abuse
- Psychological abuse
- Abandonment
- Social institutions
- Peer pressure

Theoretical Perspectives on Juvenile Delinquency and Crime

Travis Hirschi

A scholar in the field of crime and juvenile delinquency as well as other areas, has numerous theories about juvenile delinquency. A few of his most praised theories are social control theory which is any illegal behavior that occurs within the moment, not planned. Also, self control theory which is any behavior that uses force or fraud in pursuit of self interest. Both are similar theories that attempt to explain juvenile delinquency and suggest that all people are naturally bad. Hirshi believes that youth in particular who use drugs and commit crime do it because they lack self control. Hirschi believes that poor parenting and families that are unable or unwilling to monitor their child's behaviors lack self control. For these theories to play out in an effective manner, self-control would need to work before social control can work. Hirschi believes that whoever is the most conformist in society, not necessarly the smartest will have the most self-control. Travis Hirshi is saying that too much autonomy is not a good thing when dealing with interpersonal relationships among children.

Robert Merton

Merton believes that there is a serious relationship between poverty and crime. His theory suggests that if you are poor you will commit crime and become a criminal. He feels that there are institutionalized paths to happiness in our society. He believes in a society of equilibrium where goals = means. A society of disequlibrium would be adaptation. Merton's infamous strain theory suggests four attributes. # Innovation: individuals who buy into those socially approved goals. # Retreatism: those who reject goals and means for getting there. # Ritualism: people who buy into system but lose sight of the goal (Merton believes that drug users are actually in this category). # Conformity: those who conform to the system.

Bibliography

- Siegel, J Larry. Juvenile Delinquency with Infotrac: theory, practices and law. (2002) Category:Childhood Category:Juvenile law

Antisocial

Antisocial personality disorder (APD or ASPD), or dissocial personality disorder, is a psychiatric diagnosis that interprets antisocial and impulsive behaviours as symptoms of a personality disorder. Psychiatry defines only pathological antisocial behavior and does not address potential benefits of positive antisocial behavior, or define the meaning of 'social' in contrast to 'antisocial'. Professional psychiatry generally compares APD to sociopathic disorders and psychopathic disorders (not to be confused with psychosis). Approximately 3% of men and 1% of women are thought to have some form of antisocial personality disorder according to DSM-IV. Formal psychiatric definitions make a distinction between APD and social anxiety disorder. Although criminal activity is not a necessary requirement for the diagnosis, these individuals often encounter legal difficulties due to their disregard for societal standards and the rights of others. Therefore, many of these individuals can be found in prisons. However, it should be noted that criminal activity does not automatically warrant a diagnosis of APD, nor does a diagnosis of APD imply that a person is a criminal. It is hypothesized that many high achievers exhibit APD characteristics. This, however, brings much criticism upon the diagnostic criteria specified for those exhibiting Antisocial Personality Disorder and the PCL-R. Both of these tests depend upon the person in question being a criminal or having participated in criminal activities. Research has shown that individuals with APD are indifferent to the possibility of physical pain or many punishments, and show no indications that they experience fear when so threatened; this may explain their apparent disregard for the consequences of their actions, and their lack of empathy when others are suffering. Central to understanding psychopaths is that they do not appear to experience true human emotions, or at least, they do not appear to experience a full range of human emotions. This can explain the lack of empathy for the suffering of others, since they cannot experience emotion associated with either empathy or suffering. Risk-seeking behavior and substance abuse may be attempts to fill the emotional void. The rage exhibited by psychopaths and the anxiety associated with certain types of ASPD may represent the limit of emotion experienced, or they may be physiological responses without analogy to emotion experienced by others. Emotions which the true psychopath exhibits are the fruits of watching and mimicking other people's emotions. This is to mask their sociopathic tendencies from others. One approach to explaining APD behaviors is put forth by sociobiology, a science that attempts to understand and explain a wide variety of human behavior. One route to doing so is by exploring evolutionarily stable strategies; that is, strategies that being successful will tend to be passed on to the next generation, thus becoming more common in the gene pool. For example, in one well-known 1995 paper by Linda Mealey, chronic antisocial/criminal behavior is explained as a combination of two such strategies. According to the older theory of Freudian psychoanalysis, a sociopath has a strong id and ego that overpowers the superego. The theory proposes that internalized morals of our unconscious mind are restricted from surfacing to the ego and consciousness.

Establishing the diagnosis

Antisocial personality disorder and the closely related construct of psychopathy can be assessed and diagnosed through clinical interview, self-rating personality surveys, and ratings from coworkers and family. For diagnosing psychopathy in forensic male populations, the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) is definitive.

Diagnostic criteria (DSM-IV-TR)

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, a widely used manual for diagnosing mental and behavioral disorders (see also: DSM cautionary statement), defines antisocial personality disorder as a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others occurring since age 15 years, as indicated by three (or more) of the following: # failure to conform to social norms with respect to lawful behaviors as indicated by repeatedly performing acts that are grounds for arrest # deceitfulness, as indicated by repeated lying, use of aliases, or conning others for personal profit or pleasure # impulsivity or failure to plan ahead # irritability and aggressiveness, as indicated by repeated physical fights or assaults # reckless disregard for safety of self or others # consistent irresponsibility, as indicated by repeated failure to sustain steady work or honor financial obligations # lack of remorse, as indicated by being indifferent to or rationalizing having hurt, mistreated, or stolen from another The manual lists the following additional necessary criteria:
- The individual is at least age 18 years.
- There is evidence of Conduct Disorder with onset before age 15 years.
- The occurrence of antisocial behavior is not exclusively during the course of Schizophrenia or a Manic Episode.

Criticism of the DSM-IV criteria

The DSM-IV confound: some argue that an important distinction has been lost by including both sociopathy and psychopathy together under APD. As Hare et al write in their abstract, "The Axis II Work Group of the Task Force on DSM-IV has expressed concern that antisocial personality disorder (APD) criteria are too long and cumbersome and that they focus on antisocial behaviors rather than personality traits central to traditional conceptions", concluding, "... conceptual and empirical arguments exist for evaluating alternative approaches to the assessment of psychopathy .… our hope is that the information presented here will stimulate further research on the comparative validity of diagnostic criteria for psychopathy; although too late to influence DSM-IV". [http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/~peterson/psy430s2001/Hare%20RD%20Psychopathy%20JAP%201991.pdf]

Diagnostic criteria (ICD-10)

Chapter V of the tenth revision of the International Classification of Diseases offers a set of criteria for diagnosing the related construct of dissocial personality disorder. Dissocial Personality Disorder (F60.2), usually coming to attention because of a gross disparity between behaviour and the prevailing social norms, and characterized by:
- callous unconcern for the feelings of others;
- gross and persistent attitude of irresponsibility and disregard for social norms, rules and obligations;
- incapacity to maintain enduring relationships, though having no difficulty in establishing them;
- very low tolerance to frustration and a low threshold for discharge of aggression, including violence;
- incapacity to experience guilt or to profit from experience, particularly punishment;
- marked proneness to blame others, or to offer plausible rationalizations, for the behaviour that has brought the patient into conflict with society. There may also be persistent irritability as an associated feature. Conduct disorder during childhood and adolescence, though not invariably present, may further support the diagnosis.

Diagnostic criteria (PCL-R test)

In contemporary research and clinical practice, psychopathy is most commonly assessed with the Hare Psychopathy Checklist- Revised (PCL-R), which is a clinical rating scale with 20 items. Each of the items in the PCL-R is scored on a three-point scale according to specific criteria through file information and a semi-structured interview. The items are as follows: Factor 1: Aggressive narcissism
- Glibness/superficial charm
- Grandiose sense of self-worth
- Pathological lying
- Cunning/manipulative
- Lack of remorse or guilt
- Shallow affect
- Callous/lack of empathy
- Failure to accept responsibility for own actions Factor 2: Socially deviant lifestyle
- Need for stimulation/proneness to boredom
- Parasitic lifestyle
- Poor behavioral controls
- Early behavioral problems
- Lack of realistic, long-term goals
- Impulsivity
- Irresponsibility
- Juvenile delinquency
- Revocation of conditional release
- Continual acceptance antisocial behaviour Traits not correlated with either factor
- Promiscuous sexual behavior
- Many short-term marital relationships
- Criminal versatility Score 0 if the trait is absent, 1 if it is possibly or partially present and 2 if it is present. The item scores are summed to yield a total score ranging from 0 to 40 which is then considered to reflect the degree to which they resemble the prototypical psychopath. A score higher than 30 supports a diagnosis of psychopathy. Forensic studies of prison populations have reported average scores of around 22 on PCL-R; control "normal" populations show an average score of around 5. A note of caution: the test must be administered by a trained mental health practitioner under controlled conditions for it to have any validity.

A Three-Factor Model of Psychopathy

Cooke and Michie eliminated criteria related to criminal incarceration and juvenile delinquency and statistically analyzed three factors of psychopathy. This allows for a conception of the psychopathic personality that is better applicable outside forensic populations. Arrogant/Deceitful Interpersonal Style
- Glibness/superficial charm
- Egocentricity/Grandiose sense of self-worth
- Pathological lying
- Cunning/Manipulative Deficient Affective Experience
- Lack of remorse or guilt
- Callous/Lack of empathy
- Shallow affect
- Failure to accept responsibility for own actions Impulsive/Irresponsible Behavioral Style
- Need for stimulation/Proneness to boredom
- Parasitic lifestyle
- Lack of realistic, long-term goals
- Impulsivity
- Irresponsibility Cooke D.J., Michie C. "Refining the construct of psychopathy: Towards a hierarchical model." Psychological Assessment (2001), 13 (2): 171-188.

Additional Diagnostic criteria

- malapropism (may be medical folklore)

Portrayal of psychopaths in the media

Psychopaths in popular fiction and movies generally possess a number of standard characteristics which are not necessarily as common amongst real-life psychopaths. The traditional "Hollywood psychopath" is likely to exhibit some or all of the following traits which make them ideal villains.
- High intelligence, and a preference for intellectual stimulation (music, fine art etc.)
- A somewhat vain, stylish, almost "cat-like" demeanor
- Prestige, or a successful career or position
- A calm, calculating and always-in-control attitude It is this last feature which is probably most at odds with the typical real-life psychopath: an individual with APD is much more likely to be impulsive, disorganised and short-tempered rather than the smooth-talking, self-disciplined characters portrayed by Anthony Hopkins (Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs), Christian Bale (Patrick Bateman in American Psycho), and Kiefer Sutherland (in Phone Booth). Perhaps more accurate portrayals of psychopaths are Don Logan (Ben Kingsley in Sexy Beast), Doyle Hargrave (Dwight Yoakam in Sling Blade), and Frank Booth (Dennis Hopper in Blue Velvet), all of whom are crude, impulsive characters who relentlessly torment other people. In popular culture, "psychopath" is often used interchangeably with "serial killer" (such as the characters in slasher films) though the terms are not synonymous. It is, however, true that most serial killers are also sociopaths. See List of fictional psychopaths

Psychopathy's Relationship with Other Mental Disorders

Psychopathy, as measured on the PCL-R, is negatively correlated with all DSM-IV Axis I disorders except substance-abuse disorders. Psychopathy is most strongly correlated with DSM-IV antisocial personality disorder. PCL-R Factor 1 is correlated with narcissistic personality disorder and histrionic personality disorder. PCL-R Factor 2 is particularly strongly correlated to antisocial personality disorder and criminality. PCL-R Factor 2 is associated with reactive anger, anxiety, increased risk of suicide, criminality, and impulsive violence. PCL-R Factor 1, in contrast, is associated with extroversion and positive affect. Factor 1, the so-called core personality traits of psychopathy, may even be beneficial for the psychopath (in terms of nondeviant social functioning).

Potential Warning Signs

As a child, three warning signs are often found in individuals with Antisocial Personality Disorder when diagnosed by a psychiatrist. These are a longer-than-usual period of bedwetting, cruelty to animals, and pyromania. Obviously, not all children who exhibit these signs grow up to be psychopaths, but these signs are found in significantly higher proportions than in the general population.

External links

- [http://psychcentral.com/disorders/sx7.htm Definition from PsychCentral.com]
- [http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/p960239.html Another opinion]
- [http://www.bbsonline.org/Preprints/OldArchive/bbs.mealey.html The Sociobiology of Sociopathy, Mealey, 1995]
- [http://www.aidsmap.com/news/newsdisplay2.asp?newsId=2514 Antisocial personality disorders frequent in 'core' STI transmitters, says US study]
- [http://www.slate.com/id/2099203/ The Depressive and the Psychopath--Slate investigation into Columbine killers]
- [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/03/040311072248.htm USC Study Finds "Faulty Wiring" In Psychopaths]
- [http://www.mental-health-matters.com/disorders/dis_details.php?disID=8 Mental Health Matters: Antisocial Personality Disorder]
- [http://www.psychforums.com/forums/viewforum.php?f=128 Psych Forums: Antisocial Personality Forum]
- [http://www.geocities.com/lycium7/psychopathy.html The Sociopathic or Psychopathic Personality Disorder]
- [http://samvak.tripod.com/serialkillers.html Antisocial Personality Disorder in serial killers]
- [http://www.abc.net.au/rn/talks/bbing/stories/s1158704.htm "Psychopaths in Suits"] on Australia's ABC Radio
- [http://faculty.ncwc.edu/toconnor/428/428lect16.htm Antisocial personality, Sociopathy, and Psychopathy] Category:Personality disorders

Criminal act

: crime

Social issue

Articles on social issues are broken down by country. See: Social issues in the United States Social issues in Germany Social issues in the United Kingdom

Juvenile

The word juvenile has several meanings:
- A juvenile is an individual organism that has not yet reached its adult form, maturity or size. A human is called a child.
- Juvenile is a rap artist.
- A juvenile is a legal term referring in most jurisdictions to a person under the age of 18. A juvenile delinquent in this context is a juvenile who commits a criminal act.

Legal system

:This article is about law in society. For other possible meanings, see law (disambiguation). Law (a loanword from Old Norse lag), in politics and jurisprudence, is a set of rules or norms of conduct which mandate, proscribe or permit specified relationships among people and organizations, provide methods for ensuring the impartial treatment of such people, and provide punishments of/for those who do not follow the established rules of conduct. Law is typically administered through a system of courts, in which judges hear disputes between parties and apply a set of rules in order to provide an outcome that is just and fair. The manner in which law is administered is known as a legal system, which typically has developed through tradition in each country. Legal practitioners, most often, must be professionally trained in the law before they are permitted to advocate for a party in a court of law, draft legal documents, or give legal advice.

Legal traditions

There are generally four broad legal traditions that are practiced in the world today.

Civil law

The Civilian system of law is a codified law that sets out a comprehensive system of rules that are applied and interpreted by judges. It is by and large the most commonly practiced system of law in the world, with almost 60 % of the world's population living in a country ruled on the civilian system. The most important difference to common law is that normally, only legislative enactments are considered to be legally binding, but not precedent cases. However, as a practical matter, courts normally follow their previous decisions. Furthermore, in some civil law systems (e.g. in Germany), the writings of legal scholars have considerable influence on the courts. In most jurisdictions the core areas of private law are codified in the form of a civil code, but in some, like Scotland it remains uncodified. The civil law system has its origins in Roman law, which was adopted by scholars and courts from the late middle ages onwards. Most modern systems go back to the 19th century codification movement. The civil codes of many, particularly Latin countries and former French and Spanish colonies closely trail the Code de Napoléon in some fashion. However, this is not true for most Central and Eastern European, Scandinavian and East Asian countries. Notably, the German BGB was developed from Roman law with reference to German legal tradition. The importance of the Code Napoléon should also not be overemphasized as it covers only the core areas of private law, while other codes and statutes govern fields such as corporate law, administrative law, tax law and constitutional law.

Common law

The Common law is an Anglo-Saxon legal tradition, based on unwritten laws developed through judicial decisions that create binding precedent. The common law system is currently in practice in Australia, Canada (excluding Quebec), United Kingdom, and the United States (excluding Louisiana). In addition to these countries several others have adapted the common law system into a mixed system. For example, India and Nigera operate largely on a common law system but incorporate a good deal of customary law and religious law.

Customary law

Customary law are systems of law that has evolved largely on their own within a given country and have been adapted to meet the needs of the particular culture. Note that customary law may also be relevant within jurisdictions following another legal tradition in fields or subfields of law where no legislative enactment exists. For example, in Austria, scholars of private law often claim that customary law continues to exist, whereas public law scholars dispute this claim. (In any case, it is hard to find any practically relevant examples.)

Religious law

Many countries base their system of law on religious tenants. The most dominant system of this form of law is Muslim law (or "Sharia") which is a codified law that is found within the Koran. These laws deal primarily with the personal rights and dispute resolution between individuals. It is used in some Middle Eastern nations; such as in the Iran and Saudi Arabia. On a smaller level there are still regions of the world that practice canon law, which is followed by Catholics and Anglicans, and a similar legal system is used by the Eastern Orthodox Church. The same can be said for Jewish law (halakha or halacha), which is followed by Orthodox and Conservative Jews, in substantially different forms.

Bodies of law

In the broadest sense, bodies of law can be subdivided on the basis of who the parties to an action are. It is frequent that practiced fields of law overlap into several of these bodies of law.

Private law

The area of private law in a legal system concerns law that oversees disputes between private individuals. This area is, to a large extent, the most comprehensive area of law, dealing with all non-criminal harm one person does to another.

Public law

The area of public law, in a general sense, is the law in a given legal system that concerns disputes between the government and private individuals residing within the country. The state can bring actions against people for criminal acts, as well as breach of regulatory laws. Equally, individuals can bring actions against the government for harm it has done. This includes grounds on the basis of a breach of regulations, legislate on matters beyond their competence, or violation of an individuals rights. These last two points are often protected under a countries’ constitution.

Procedural law

Procedural law concerns the areas of law that regulate how all actions are dealt with. This includes who can have access to the court system, how complaints are submitted, and what are the rights of the parties involved. Procedural law is often known as "adjective" law as it is the law that concern how other laws are to be applied. Typically, this is broadly covered by a government’s civil and criminal procedure rules. But equally this includes the law of evidence which determines what means are used to prove facts, as well as, the law regarding remedies.

International law

International law governs the relations between states, or between citizens of different states, or international organizations. Its two primary sources are customary law and treaties.

Philosophy of law

Philosophy of law is a branch of philosophy and jurisprudence which studies basic questions about law and legal systems, such as "what is the law?", "what are the criteria for legal validity?", "what is the relationship between law and morality?", and many other similar questions. In the western tradition there are several schools of thought on the philosophical basis of law. First, there is natural law, which attempts to describe law as an inherent quality in humans that is derived from natures. Second, there is the positivism which believes that law is a purely human-made construct that society uses to maintain social order. Third, there is legal realism which believes that law is an arbitrary set of rules that are largely established through the tastes and preferences of judges.

Anthropology of law

:See main discussion at Honour Law has an anthropological dimension. It has been recognized from Montesquieu to the present that law is shaped by the kind of society in which it is practised. One continuum into which various societies can be placed contrasts the "culture of law" with the "culture of honour". In order to have a culture of law, people must dwell in a society where a government exists whose authority is hard to evade and generally recognised as legitimate. People take their grievances before the government and its agents, who arbitrate disputes and enforce penalties. This behaviour is contrasted with the culture of honour, where respect for persons and groups stems from fear of the revenge they may exact if their person, property, or prerogatives are not respected. Cultures of law must be maintained. They can be eroded by declining respect for the law, achieved either by weak government unable to wield its authority, or by burdensome restrictions that attempt to forbid behaviour prevalent in the culture or in some subculture of the society. When a culture of law declines, there is a possibility that an culture of honor will arise in its place.
History

Practice of law
Practice of law is typically overseen by either a government organization or independent regulating body such as a bar association or barrister society. To practice law – i.e. appear in front of a judge on behalf of someone, draft legal documents, etc. – the practitioner must be certified by the regulating body. This usually entails a two or three year program at a university’s faculty of law or a law school, followed by an entrance examination (eg. bar admissions). Once accredited, a legal practitioners will often work in law firm, as well as in government, a private corporation, or even work as sole practitioner. A significant component to the practice of law in the common law tradition involves legal research in order to determine the current state of the law. This usually entails exploring case reporters, legal periodicals, and legislation.
See also

- Law topics overview
- List of areas of law
- List of legal topics
- List of legal terms
- List of jurists
- List of legal abbreviations
- List of case law lists
- List of law firms
Further reading

- Cheyenne Way: Conflict & Case Law in Primitive Jurisprudence, Karl N. Llewellyn and E. Adamson Hoebel, University of Oklahoma Press, 1983, trade paperback, 374 pages, ISBN 0806118555
- The Bilingual LSP Dictionary. Principles and Practice for Legal language, Sandro Nielsen, Gunter Narr Verlag 1994.
- [http://browse.addall.com/Browse/Author/2088479-1 Other books by Karl N. Llewellyn]
- David, René, and John E. C. Brierley. Major Legal Systems in the World Today: An Introduction to the Comparative Study of Law. 3d ed. London: Stevens, 1985 (ISBN 0420473408).
External links

- [http://www.legalmatch.com LegalMatch] Legal Resource
- [http://ausicl.com The Australian Institute of Comparative Legal Systems]
- [http://www.lpig.org Law and Policy Institutions]
- [http://www.llbee.com/news.php?p=news Laws External Education- Legal News By Subject]
- [http://www.4lawschool.com 4LawSchool- Legal Reference]
- [http://ww3.definitions-legal.com:8567/ Law, Legal Definitions & Reference]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-3/law.htm Essentials of Law-Related Education. ERIC Digest.]
- [http://www.law.cornell.edu LII - Topical overviews, US Supreme Court decisions, US Code (Acts of Congress)]
- [http://www.worldlii.org WorldLII - The World Legal Information Institute]
- [http://www.lawmoose.com LawMoose Legal Reference Library]
- [http://legallinks.jenkinslaw.org Legal Research Links]
- [http://www.findlaw.com FindLaw]
- [http://ausicl.com The Australian Institute of Comparative Legal Systems]
- [http://www.nolo.com/glossary.cfm Everybody's Legal Glossary] - From Nolo
- [http://www.alllaw.com/ AllLaw]
- [http://legal.wikicities.com/ WikiCities Legal Site]
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
- [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/law-ideology/ Law and Ideology]
- [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/law-language/ Law and Language]
- [http://en.jurispedia.org/ The shared law] in Jurispedia
- [http://www.avocatura.com Romanian Law]
- [http://www.thedailylaw.com Daily Law news]
- [http://members.fortunecity.com/victorcauchi/lex/lexindex.htm Laws of Malta] Chapter summaries and a general Glossary of definitions.
- [http://LawyerIntl.com LawyerIntl.com] Legal Resource and Law Dictionary
- [http://LawGuru.com LawGuru.com] Legal Portal
- [http://forumprawne.org Prawo i porady prawne] - web discussion board about Polish law Category:Core issues in ethics ja:法 (法学) simple:Law th:กฎหมาย

Physical abuse

Physical abuse is abuse involving contact intended to cause pain, injury, or other physical suffering or harm. Basic forms include:
- striking
- punching
- pushing, pulling
- pinching
- kicking
- having someone fall
- strangling
- drowning
- sleep deprivation
- exposure to cold, freezing
- exposure to heat or radiation, burning
- exposure to electric shock
- placing in "stress positions" (tied or otherwise forced)
- cutting or otherwise exposing somebody to something sharp
- exposure to a dangerous animal
- throwing or shooting a projectile
- exposure to a toxic substance
- infecting with a disease

Sexual abuse

Sexual abuse is a relative cultural term used to describe sexual relations and behavior between two or more parties which are considered criminally and/or morally offensive. Different types of sexual abuse involve:
- Non-consentual, forced physical sexual behavior such as rape or sexual assault
- Psychological forms of abuse, such as verbal sexual behavior or stalking.

The issue of consent

In the majority of cultures and countries, sex is legal and acceptable only if both parties give informed consent. In most western countries, the term "informed consent" is doubled as a legal term as well; one which applies to mainstream ideals. In some cases, some forms of sexual behavior are still considered illegal even though both parties are able to give informed consent, such as specific practices involved with BDSM (due to it being legally defined as assault, regardless of informed consent). Most societies have strict laws, edict, and moral beliefs as to who may consent to sex. In most jurisdictions, disadvantaged classes of people such as minors and mentally retarded people have limited or no rights to give legal, informed consent, even though the parties involved may truly be consenting and willing to such actions. The debate about who can truly consent to sex is a controversial subject which crosses borders of law and culture. For this reason, many of the terms and phrases used can be blurred between the two as to what is truly abusive sexual behavior and what isn't.

Spousal sexual abuse

:Main article: spousal abuse Spousal abuse is the term applied to the specific form of domestic violence, where physical or sexual abuse is perpetuated by one spouse upon another. This is typically perpetuated by a male upon a female in a heterosexual relationship, although females and homosexuals also inflict abuse sometimes.

Student and patient sexual exploitation

Students are sometimes victims of sexual exploitation by teachers and professors, see Academic abuse. Even if the sexual contact is consented to (or even initiated) by the student, it may be considered a form of abuse on the presumption that the teacher or professor is apt to exploit his or her position of authority in a subtle form of psychological coercion. Whether this is a sound presumption in all cases may be disputed. For a famous example of a teacher-student relationship, see Mary Kay Letourneau. Patients of psychotherapists are another common category of sexual exploitation; see Psychotherapist abuse.

Minor sexual abuse as it relates to law

:Main article: Child sexual abuse According to United States law, minors under the age of consent can only give "simple consent", but not informed consent, to sexual activity. State laws generally differentiate between an adult engaging in sexual activities with minors. Generally speaking, the two categorizations of charges faced are:
- Sex between a minor child/prepubescent teen and an adult is "child sexual abuse".
- Sex between a minor adolescent/teen/youth and an adult is "statutory rape". According to some state laws in the U.S., if two or more minors under the age of consent engage in sex with each other, they may both be (somewhat paradoxically) classified as victims of sexual abuse. Cases in which both participants are minors have historically not been prosecuted, although a shift in the direction of prosecuting minors for consensual sex with other minors seems to have occurred in the last several decades. (See [http://www33.brinkster.com/ethical Ethical Treatment for All Youth] for examples.) Category:Abuse Category:Sociology

Psychological abuse

Psychological abuse refers to the humiliation or intimidation of another person, but is also used to refer to the long-term effects of emotional shock. Psychological abuse can take the form of physical intimidation, controlling through scare tactics and oppression. It is often associated with situations of power imbalance, such perhaps as the situations of abusive relationships and child abuse; however, it can also take place on larger scales, such as Group psychological abuse, racial oppression and bigotry. A more "mild" case might be that of workplace abuse. Workplace abuse is a large cause of workplace-related stress, which in turn is strong cause of illness, both physical and mental. Another specialized form of abuse, known as 'gaslighting,' derives its name from two movies of the early 1940s, in which an attempt is made to cause a woman to question her sanity, due to tricks and reality distortion caused by trusted people around her. More detail can be found under gaslight. There need not be an agitator for psychological abuse to occur — one can undergo self-abuse, as in the case of someone who is a depressive, or self-mutilation. Any situation in which the repeated and extreme impact of a situation affects a person's emotional and rational thinking, in such a way as to adversely impact their later lives, could be termed as psychological abuse at some level. Psychotherapy and psychiatric methods can help some people overcome the negative effects of abuse, given time and a healing environment. See also: Emotional abuse Category:Abuse

Abandonment

The term abandonment has a multitude of uses which can generally be broken into legal and extra-legal uses. This "signpost article" provides a guide to the various uses of the word via links to articles that deal with each of the distinct concepts at length.

Uses in law

Abandonment in law, the relinquishment of an interest, claim, privilege or possession. This broad meaning has a number of applications in different branches of law.
- Abandonment of an action (see Judicature Acts), relates to a plaintiff's discontinuance of proceedings ongoing before the High Court of Justice of England and Wales and which procedure changed substantially as a result of reforms to the judiciary of the United Kingdom in 1875.
- In marine insurance parlance, abandonment involves the surrender of a ship or goods to the insurer.
- In the domain of copyrights, abandonment is recognized as the explicit release of material by a copyright holder into the public domain. However, statutory abandonment is a relatively unclear area of copyright law and the more common approach is to license work under a scheme that provides for public use rather than strictly abandoning copyright. For more information consult "disclaimer of interest".
- In the military practice and law, abandonment of a military post by a soldier can be called desertion, and the condition of being away from that post can be called being "Away Without Leave".
- In family circumstances, child abandonment is often recognized as a crime, in which case the child is usually not physically harmed directly as part of the abandonment; distinct from this is the widely recognized crime of infanticide.
- Abandonment of domicile is the ceasing to reside permanently in a former domicile coupled with the intention of choosing a new domicile. The presumptions which will guide the court in deciding whether a former domicile has been abandoned or not must be inferred from the facts of each individual case. In the United States, a tenant is generally understood to have abandoned a property if he or she has fallen behind in rent and shown a lack of interest in continuing to live there. The landlord must then send notice of the intent to sell the property and wait a certain number of days to take action on it. How long the landlord has to wait depends on the value of the property; the landlord can keep the money up to the costs incurred as a result of the abandonment; the rest must be set aside for the former tenant, should she or he eventually return.
- Abandonment of an easement is the relinquishment of some accommodation or right in another's land, such as right of way, free access of light and air, etc. See easement.
- Abandonment of railways has a legal signification in England recognized by statute, by authority of which the Board of Trade may, under certain circumstances, grant a warrant to a railway authorizing the abandonment of its line or part of it.
- Abandonment of trademark is understood to happen when a trademark is not used for three or more years, or when it is deliberately discontinued; trademark law protects only trademarks being actively used and defended. An example of an abandoned trademark is aspirin, once a mark of the Bayer company, now considered a generic term.

Extra-legal uses

Outside of legal circles, abandonment has additional meanings and uses:
- Abandonment is a play about love, death, identity and evolution. It is a complex mixture of social comedy and family drama, reminding us that the past is not as far away as we think. Written by Kate Atkinson.
- Child abandonment in film and literature:
- Bachelor Mother (Garson Kanin; US, 1939)
- Abandonment of a patient, in medicine, is where a health care professional (usually a physician, nurse, dentist, or paramedic) has already begun emergency treatment of a patient and then suddenly walks away while the patient is still in need, without securing the services of an adequate substitute, or giving the patient adequate opportunity to find one. It is a crime in many countries and can result in the loss of one's license to practice. Also, because of the public policy in favor of keeping people alive, the professional cannot defend himself or herself by pointing to the patient's inability to pay for services, the possibility of exposure to malpractice liability beyond one's insurance coverage, or the patient's inability to stop screaming (because of extreme pain). Category:Legal terms

Social institutions

This article is about a sociological concept. For zoosemiotics term, see Social animal Social organisation or social institution is a group of social positions, connected by social relations, perfoming a social role. It can be also defined in a narrow sense as any institution in a society that works to socialize the groups or people in it. Common examples include universities, governments, families, and any people or groups that you have social interactions with. The term institution is in sociology sometimes used interchangeably with the term organisation, as when referring to a formal organisation like a hospital or a prison. In other parts of sociology, like sociology of organisations and especially new institutionalism (also new institutional economics in economics and historical institutionalism in political science, 'organisation' and 'institution' refer to two different phenomena. Organisations are social entities that have members, resources, structures, authority, boundaries, etc. Institutions are ideas about how something should be done, look or be constituted in order to be viewed as legitimate. the issue is complicated by the fact that one may talk of institutions that govern organisations and the organisation as an institution. Following new institutionalism, one can talk of the family as an organisation, meaning an entity that is made up of members (parents, children), have resources (household possesions and incomes), authority (parents are responsible for and decide over children), etc. But one can also talk of the famliy as an institution, meaning the idea of how a social entity should be constituted to be considered a family: two (no more, no less) grown up heterosexual persons of opposite sex that live together, preferably are married, and have at least one of their biological children living at home. any social entity not consistent with the institution of the family risk losing legitimaxy and be sanctioned. Social organisations can take many form, depending on a social context. For example, for family context the corresponding social organisation is of course the family. For business context - an enterprise, company, corporation, etc. For educational context - school, university, etc. For political context - government, political party, and others. Max Weber concluded that in the history of mankind, organisations evolved towards rationalisation in form of a rational-legal organisation, like bureaucracy. ---- See Also: Functionalism (sociology) ---- Category:Social institutions

Crime

A crime in a broad sense is an act that violates a political or moral law of any one person or social grouping. In the narrow sense, a crime is a violation of criminal law; in many nations, there are criminal standards of bad behaviour. However, not all violations of the law are considered crimes, for example most traffic violations or breaches of contract.

Definition of crime in general

:This section describes usual criminal classifications applicable at present in Western countries. They may differ significantly with those applicable in other cultures; also, they may differ significantly with earlier practices. Most people who use this word are not "crime" specialists. Generally the word indicates a social concept of the person, where a specific social act is generally considered a deliberate and conscious choice of the choices known to be available to the user of the word. For instance, historically left-handedness, epileptic fits and emotional tantrums have been considered "crimes".

General rules

A crime can be the action of violating or breaking a law. According to Western jurisprudence, there must be a simultaneous concurrence of both actus reus ("guilty action") and mens rea ("guilty mind") for a crime to have been committed; except in crimes of strict liability. In order for prosecution, some laws require proof of causation, relating the defendant's actions to the criminal event in question. In addition, some laws require that attendant circumstances have occurred, in order for a crime to have occurred. Also, in order for a crime to be prosecuted, corpus delicti (or "proof of a crime") must be established. It may also be a crime to conspire in order to commit other crimes, or helping others to commit crimes (which makes one an accomplice); in some systems the simple association for organizing a crime is punished. The attempt to commit a crime (including attempted murder) may to be punished when the actus reus of the full crime is not completed (in California, USA e.g., the punishment can be half of that for the crime itself [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cacodes/pen/654-678.html]).

Trial

It is commonly believed that preconceived notions are dominant in all areas of presumed fact. These notions can be based on ethnicity and skin colour, sectarianism, sexual orientation, gender, apperance, occupation and education. Participants in a criminal trial may make use these biases in order to achieve their own goals. (For example, a prosecutor in a case of child murder may want to have more women with young children on the jury.) Since mistakes can be made by the courts and legal process, many appeal mechanisms are available to most legal decisions. The death penalty, which cannot be corrected after the fact if a mistake has occured, has been on the decline for the past several decades. In general, in most western systems, the definition of a crime requires the existing intention of committing it (voluntas necandi) in the author, therefore it is usually not officially "punished" when this intention is missing or when the author has not a complete mental sanity or is under a certain age. Depending on the level of psychological education of the Law Enforcement groups, some underage defendants (of varying ages around the world) can sometimes be tried "as an adult" because their character is considered adult, whatever the rationale is behind this. In another example, there generally exists an insanity defense: a assumed deviant person may not officially be penally responsible for his or her actions. A defendent who uses with the insanity defense may be judged guilty like a normal criminal. It is less common to succeed with psychiatric condemnation, and then to be "involuntarily committed" to treatment or corrections. See also Corrections.

Reasons

Crimes are viewed as offenses against society, and as such are punished by the state. They can be scholastically distinguished, depending on the passive subject of the crime (the victim), or on the offended interest, in crimes against:
- Personality of the State
- Rights of the citizen
- Public administration
- Administration of justice
- Religious sentiment and the pity for dead
- Public order
- Public faith
- Public economy, industry and commerce
- Public morality
- Person and honour
- Patrimony Or they can be distinguished depending on the related punishment (then, on the degree of offense that the forbidden behaviour caused), in delicts and violations. The definition of a crime generally reflects the current attitudes prevalent in a society. For example, possession of drugs was not always a crime, while the Prohibition Era made alcohol illegal.

Classification

Crimes can be divided into several (overlapping) categories: computer offenses[http://news.pc-news.org/2005/08/10/microsoft_to_fight_crime_with_spammers_money/], crimes against persons, crimes against property, crimes against state security, drug offenses, sexual offenses, and weapon offenses. Crimes are also be grouped by severity, some common categorical terms being: felonies, indictable offenses, misdemeanors, and summary offences. For convenience, infractions are also usually incuded in such lists, although they are not subject of the criminal law, but rather of the civil law. An inchoate offense is a planned or attempted crime, which the offender was not able to carry out prior to arrest. The following are crimes in many jurisdictions:

Aiding and abetting

It may be a crime to aid someone else in committing a crime, or induce him or her to commit one.

Study

Matters related to criminal behavior in society are studied in the field of sociology in the sub-field of criminology, and a person who studies this is called a criminologist. The mental state and acuity of criminals is assessed by psychologists, especially in cases wherein the insanity defense is being utilized. The study of crime, in general, across a number of functional diciplines is often known as crime science. This draws on statistics, environmental design, forensics, policing, sociology and other sciences to analyse the crimes, rather than the offenders, and provides ways and means to prevent, detect and solve crimes.

History

The first civilizations had codes of law, though these codes were not always recorded. The first known written codes were written by the ancient Sumerians, and it was probably their king Ur-Nammu (reigning on Ur in the 21st century BC) the first legislator of which we received a formal system in 32 articles; it has to be recalled that this is not among the eldest laws, since not all the ancient laws are penal rules. In the antiquity, in fact, codes mostly contained both civil and penal rules together. Sumerians however later issued other codes as the one known as "code of Lipit-Istar" (last king of the 3rd dynasty of Ur, Isin - 20th century BC). This code contains some 50 articles and has been reconstructed by the comparison among several sources. In Babylon the code of Esnunna before, and the code of Hammurabi (one of the richest ones of ancient times) after, were used and reflected society's belief that law was derived from the will of the gods. Similarly, some codes of conduct of religious origins or reference have been included in penal codes, forbidden behaviours resulting in real crimes in the states ruled by theocracy even in more recent times. In India, the British had notified 150 tribes such as the Phase Pardhi as criminal in 1871. Though this was repealed in 1952, the criminal stigma still surrounds these groups, and are usually rounded up on suspicion of crime.

Natural law theory

An alternative view of crime is derived from the theory of natural law. In this view, crime is the violation of individual rights. Since rights are considered as natural, rather than man-made, what constitutes a crime is also natural, in contrast to laws, which are man-made. Adam Smith illustrates this view, saying a smuggler would be an excellent citizen, "had not the laws of his country made that a crime which nature never meant to be so." Natural law theory thus distinguishes between criminality and illegality, the former being derived from human nature, the latter being derived from the interests of those in power. The two concepts are sometimes expressed with the phrases "malum in se" and "malum prohibitum". This view leads to a seeming paradox, that an act can be illegal that is no crime, while a criminal act could be perfectly legal. Many Enlightenment thinkers such as Adam Smith and the American Founding Fathers subscribed to this view to some extent, and it remains influential among so-called classical liberals and libertarians. A crime malum in se is argued to be inherently criminal; whereas a crime malum prohibitum is argued to be criminal only because the law has decreed it so.

Other uses of the word worldwide

In other cultures (and legal systems) the word crime is used specifically to designate a homicide (the killing of a human being by another). The use of the word crime in any other situations is perceived merely as a means to emphasise the gravity of the specific offence to the law (such as in aggravating circumstances).

External links

- [http://www.nationmaster.com/graph-T/cri_tot_cri Crime incidence by country] Category:Criminal law
- ja:犯罪 simple:Crime

Social control

Social control refers to social mechanisms that regulate individual and group behavior, in terms of greater sanctions and rewards. It may also designate the processes of informal social control such as custom and formal social control such as law of deviant behavior which falls beyond the bounds set by social norms. Social control is present in all societies, if only in the control mechanisms used to prevent its establishment in anarchic situations. Formal social control is expressed through law as statutes, rules, and regulation. It is conducted by government and organizations using law enforcement mechanisms and other formal sanctions such as fines and imprisonment. Informal social control is exercised by a society without explicitly stating these rules and is expressed through custom, norms, and mores using informal sanctions such as criticism, disapproval, guilt and shaming. This implied social control usually has more control over individual minds because they become ingrained in their personality. Traditional society uses mostly informal social control embedded in its customary culture relying on socialization of its members to establish social order. More rigidly-structured societies place increasing reliance on formal mechanisms. In democratic societies the goals and mechanisms of social control are determined through legislation by elected representatives and thus enjoy a measure of support from the population and voluntary compliance. According to the Propaganda model, the leaders of modern corporate dominated societies employ indoctrination as a means of social control. The marketing, advertising, and public relations industries utilize mass communications to aid the interests of the business elite. Powerful economic and religious leaders use the school system and centralised electronic communications to carefully craft public opinion. Democracy is restricted since the majority is not given the information necessary to make rational decisions about ethical, social, or economic issues. Given a more diverse or accurate representation of the world, members of society would hold vastly different and probably more personally beneficial opinions. The main example of a propaganda society is the United States. However, many communities in America appear largely free from the influence of propaganda, and members of other modern states are often more thoroughly entrenched in the ideology given by dominant interests. In order to maintain control and regulate their subjects, authoritarian organizations and governments promulgate rules and issue decrees. However, due to a lack of popular support for enforcement, these entities must rely more on force and other severe sanctions such as censorship, expulsion and limits on freedom. In extreme cases, totalitarian governments such as the late Soviet Union (or currently North Korea) rely on the mechanisms of the police state. Sociologists consider informal means of social control vital in maintaining public order, but also recognize the necessity of formal means as societies become more complex and for responding to emergencies. The study of social control falls within the academic disciplines of anthropology, economics, history, law, political science, psychology, sociology, and theology.

External links

- [http://www.vacilando.org/index.php?x=3072 Social control] Category:Surveillance

Behavior

Behavior (or behaviour) refers to the actions or reactions of an object or organism, usually in relation to the environment. Behavior can be conscious or unconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary. Behavior is controlled by the endocrine system, and the nervous system. The complexity of the behavior of an organism is related to the complexity of its nervous system. Generally, organisms with complex nervous systems have a greater capacity to learn new responses and thus adjust their behavior. of people (and other organisms or even mechanisms) falls within a range with some behaviors being common, some unusual, some acceptable, and some outside acceptable limits. The acceptablity of behavior is evaluated relative to social norms and regulated by various means of social control. For behavior of people see human behavior. In sociology, behavior is considered as having no meaning, being not directed at other people and thus is the most basic human action. Behavior should not be mistaken with social behavior, which is more advanced action, as social behavior is behavior specifically directed at other people. Animal behavior is studied in comparative psychology, ethology, behavioral ecology and sociobiology.

External link

- [http://www.colorado.edu/epob/epob3730rlynch/01introduction.html Brain and behavior – (EPOB 3730) - University of Colorado]
-

Child

] A child (plural: children) is a young human. Depending on context it may mean someone who is not yet an adult, or someone who has not yet reached puberty (someone who is prepubescent). Child is also the opposite of parent: adults are the children of their parents despite their maturation beyond infancy; for example "Benjamin, aged 26, is the child of Tobias, aged 63". Similarly in a generalized sense, see child node.

Gender

A female child is called a girl and a male child is a boy (though a small percentage of humans are intersexual, this is a distinction of biological sex, not necessarily social or psychological gender). Apart from the reproductive system, young children do not differ much by sex. Whether cultural and parental practices emphasize or weaken gender identity is subject to debate. In general, the extent to which gender identity is formed during childhood or congenital is a matter of much debate within psychology and genetics. See also nature vs. nurture.

Development

Child development is the study or examination of processes and mechanisms that operate during the physical and mental development of an infant into an adult. Pediatrics is the branch of medicine relating to the care of children. It encompasses ages from prenatal to teenagers and even young adults (ages 0-21 years). Terms for stages of age-related physical development include, with their approximate age ranges: medicine
- Zygote, the point of Conception, fertilization
- Embryo; in the later stages also called fetus
- Birth
- Child
- Infant (baby, newborn) (0-1.5)
- Toddler (1.5-4)
- Primary school age (also called prepubescence) (4-12)
- Elementary school age (also called middle childhood) (4-8)
- Preadolescence (preteen, or late childhood. The child in this and the previous phase are called schoolchild (schoolboy or schoolgirl), when still of primary school age.) (9-12)
- Adolescence and puberty (teenage) (13-19)
- Young adult (16-25)
- Adult (16-21 or older; exact minimum age may vary)
- Early adulthood (20-39)
- Middle age (40-59)
- Advanced adult/Senior citizen (60+)
- Death (occurs at various ages depending on person) Also sometimes used are terms that specify one's age in decades, such as:
- Twenty something (20-29)
- Thirty something (30-39)
- Quadragenarian (40-49) (rarely used since 1980)
- Quinquagenarian (50-59)
- Sexagenarian (60-69)
- Septuagenarian (70-79)
- Octogenarian (80-89)
- Nonagenarian (90-99)
- Centenarian (100-109)
- Supercentenarian (110+)

Cognitive development

- Learning
- Music lessons
- Infant Education
- Language acquisition
- Developmental psychology
- Child art

Notable child prodigies

- Christian Friedrich Heinecken (The Infant of Lübeck)
- Isaac Albeniz
- Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
- Sarah Chang See also: Child prodigy

Human development

Human development refers to all forms of development above, often in the context of clinical or developmental psychology, or as human development theory (in economics, an outgrowth of welfare economics). Both the psychological and economic fields share a special concern with education and language fluency including literacy and numeracy, and with identification and development of more unique talents into the economic variable known as individual capital. Earlier branches of economics see humans in terms of labour for production, means of persuasion or protection, which tend to be skills acquired only in adolescence and adulthood. The human development view is more evident in sports, music and other performing arts, such as acting where the child begins training often as early as three years of age. Think of Tiger Woods and his early practice golfing. While there are problems with such early "streaming", child murder, child abandonment, military use of children and other major social ills are thought to be reduced by a human development approach – as there is a high value assigned to children by the state. The UN Human Development Index is a means of measuring well-being used to rank states by these criteria. Although child abuse is thought to be lower in countries with a high ranking on this Index, that is not easily proven.

References

External links

- [http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=42029 Children according to Judaism] Category:Humans Category:Human development Category:Children ja:子供

Poverty

shows his find.]] Poverty is the state of being without the necessities of daily living, often associated with need, hardship and lack of resources across a wide range of circumstances. For some, poverty is a subjective and comparative term; for others, it is moral and evaluative; and for others, scientifically established. The principal uses of the term include:
- Descriptions of material need, including deprivation of essential goods and services, multiple deprivation, and patterns of deprivation over time.
- Economic circumstances, describing a lack of wealth (usually understood as capital, money, material goods, or resources, especially natural resources). The meaning of "sufficient" varies widely across the different political and economic parts of the world. In the European Union, poverty is also described in terms of "economic distance", or inequality.
- Social relationships, including social exclusion, dependency, and the ability to live what is understood in a society as a "normal" life: for instance, to be capable of raising a healthy family, and especially educating children and participating in society. society A person living in the condition of poverty is said to be poor or impoverished.
- In economics, conventional discourse focuses on two kinds of poverty: absolute and relative. Absolute poverty refers to a set standard which is consistent over time and between countries. Relative poverty views poverty as socially defined and dependent on social context. Poverty is measured either by indices of consumption or of income. Some countries, like the US measure poverty by identifying a minimum dietary or basket of goods; the US poverty line is based on a multiplier of dietary costs. The main conventional measure used in the OECD and the European Union, however, is based on "economic distance", a level of income set at 50% or 60% of the median household income.
- In politics, the fight against poverty is usually regarded as a social goal and many governments have — secondarily at least — some dedicated institutions or departments. Active interventions may include housing plans, social pensions, special job opportunities, or requirements.
- In law, there has been a movement to seek to establish universal "human rights" which aim to eliminate poverty.
- In education, poverty affects a student's ability to effectively profit from the learning environments. Especially for younger students coming from poverty, their primary needs as described in Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs; the need for a safe and stable home, clothes on their backs, and regular meals clouds a student's ability to learn. Furthermore, in education circles there is a term used to characterize the phenomenon of the rich getting richer and the poor getting poorer (as it relates to education but easily transfers to poverty in general) called the Matthew effect. Related debates on a states' human capital and a person's individual capital tend likewise to focus on access to the instructional capital and social capital available only to those educated in such formal systems.

World poverty

The Copenhagen Declaration describes absolute poverty as "a condition characterised by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information." The World Bank identifies "extreme poverty" as being people who live on less than USD $1 a day, and "poverty" as less than $2 a day. On that standard, 21% of the world's population was in extreme poverty, and more than half the world's population were poor in 2001. [http://www.developmentgoals.org/Poverty.htm#percapita] The World Bank states that in 2001 worldwide about 1.1 billion humans (which is 21% of the worldpopulation) had less than $1 in local purchasing power per day. (In comparison: 1981 there were 1.5 billion humans, which made up 40% of the worldpopulation; in 1987 1.227 billion humans equaling 30%; 1993 1.314 billion humans equaling 29% of the worldpopulation). USD [http://www.borgenproject.org/ The Borgen Project] points out that while U.S. leaders give $230 billion a year to military contractors, only $19 billion a year is needed to achieve the U.N. Millennium Development Goals [http://www.borgenproject.org/Ending_poverty.html] of ending severe poverty by 2025. Poverty may be seen as the collective condition of poor people, or of poor groups, and in this sense entire nation-states are sometimes regarded as poor. To avoid stigma these are usually called developing nations, but this too is considered derogatory by some. Maps of world poverty can be found at [http://www.povertymap.net/ povertymap.net]. There is evidence of poverty in every region. In developed countries, this condition results in wandering homeless people and poor suburbs (with so-called bidonvilles or favelas) in which poor people are—more or less—restricted to a ghetto. See List of countries by poverty.

Causes of poverty

Poverty has been attributed to:
- Individual, or "pathological" causes, behavior or choices of individuals;
- Structural causes, poverty is the result of the social preconditions such as: :: Unequal income distribution :: Geographic factors :: Lack of Globalization :: Education and skills :: Age discrimination :: Gender discrimination :: Racial discrimination
- Familial causes, which attribute poverty to upbringing;
- Subcultural causes, which attribute poverty to common patterns of life, learned or shared within a community;
- Agency causes, which see poverty as the result of the actions of others, including war, government and the economy;
- Political Corruption

Eliminating poverty

The main responses to poverty are:
- Poor Relief, or giving aid direct to poor people. This has been part of the approach of European societies since the middle ages. For example, the relief of poverty was recognised as a legal charitable purpose by the English Statute of Charitable Uses (Statute of Elizabeth) in 1601.
- Responses to individual circumstances. A variety of measures have been taken to change the situation of poor people on an individual basis, including e.g. punishment, education, social work, employment, and workfare.
- Provision for contingencies. Rather than providing for poor people directly, many welfare states have provided for categories of people who are likely to be poor, such as old people or people with disabilities, or circumstances which may impoverish people, like the need for health care.
- Strategic intervention. Many people have argued that poor people can be helped to change their circumstances through focusing on selected, specific measures. Examples have included political participation, community organizing, urban regeneration and the development of social capital.
- Economic development. The anti-poverty strategy of the [http://www.worldbank.org/poverty World Bank] depends heavily on preventing poverty through the promotion of economic growth. It is often argued that "a rising tide lifts all boats," though as critics comment, it can also sink those that are held down. Most developing countries have produced Poverty Reduction Strategy papers or PRSPs [http://www.imf.org/external/np/prsp/prsp.asp]. In addition to broader approaches the Sachs report (for the UN Millennium Project)[http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/reports/] proposes a series of "quick wins", approaches identified by development experts that would cost relatively little but could have a major effect on world poverty. The quick wins are:
- Eliminating school fees
- Providing soil nutrients to farmers in sub-Saharan Africa
- Free school meals for schoolchildren
- Supporting breast-feeding
- Deworming school children in affected areas
- Training programmes for community health in rural areas
- Providing mosquito nets
- Ending user fees for basic health care in developing countries
- Access to information on sexual and reproductive health
- Drugs for AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria
- Upgrading slums, and providing land for public housing
- Access to electricity, water and sanitation
- Legislation for women’s rights, including rights to property
- Action against domestic violence
- Appointing government scientific advisors in every country
- Planting trees In his book [http://www.earthinstitute.columbia.edu/endofpoverty/ “The End of Poverty"], world renowned economist Jeffrey Sachs laid out a lucid plan to eradicate global poverty by the year 2025. Following his doctrine, international organizations such as the [http://www.globalsolidaritynetwork.org Global Solidarity Network] are helping end poverty working with governments and partners to help eradicate poverty worldwide with known, proven, reliable, and appropriate interventions in the areas of housing, food, education, basic health, agricultural inputs, safe drinking water, transportation and communications. Noteable Figures in Poverty Reduction Bono - Rock Star Activist involved in lobbying for poverty reduction. Clint Borgen - Head of the Borgen Project and one of the world's most recognized figures in poverty reduction. Jeffrey Sachs - Economist and leading figure in poverty reduction.

Debates about poverty

Poverty is a highly political issue. People with right wing views often see it as related to laziness, a lack of family planning or too much interference of government. People with left wing views see it more in terms of social justice and lack of opportunity in education. It is a highly complex issue in which various factors often play a part. The condition in itself is not always considered negatively, even if this is the prevalent interpretation: some cultural or religious groups consider poverty an ideal condition to live in, a condition necessary in order to reach certain spiritual or intellectual states. Poverty in this sense is understood as the lack of material possessions. For some orders this is equivalent to voluntary simplicity: Mother Teresa said that the vow "frees us from all material possessions". However the vow of poverty traditionally goes beyond that: the Dominicans "lived a life of voluntary poverty, exposing themselves to innumerable dangers and sufferings, for the salvation of others." (Honorius III, 1217). There are also several different ways to measure poverty. See income inequality metrics. The German social scientist Richard Albrecht recently gave a theoretical overview on "pauper/ism" within advanced capitalist societies according to that "late modern age" (Anthony Giddens) as sketched as a grounded concept by Karl Marx named "relative Übervölkerung" (relative overpopulation). Moreover, this essay sketches within current German society an empirical "poverty line" which also includes "working poor". The scholarly piece has an English summary: "Pauper(ismus) bei Marx"; http://www.grin.de/grin/hausarbeit/sok/24673.html; abriged version (without English summary): "Pauperismus: Mit uns zieht die neue Zeit". Die Sozialpolitik der SPD und die Wiederkehr eines überwunden geglaubten Phänomens [http://www.jungewelt.de/2005/02-07/003.php]

External links

- [http://www.povertyzero.org/ PovertyZero] International organization whose mission is to help eradicate global poverty by the year 2025.
- [http://www.borgenproject.org/ The Borgen Project] Global effort to make poverty the number one priority of U.S. political leaders.
- [ http://www.makepovertyhistory.org/ Make Poverty History] — Campaign dealing with fighting poverty.
- [http://www.eldis.org/poverty/ Eldis Poverty Resource Guide] Free online research and other resources on poverty in Africa, Asia and Latin America
- [http://www.eldis.org/healthsystems/dossiers/v_poor/ Meeting the health-related needs of the very poor] Online dossier synthesising research knowledge and experience on the delivery of health care to the very poor in developing countries
- [http://topics.developmentgateway.org/poverty Poverty] — The Development Gateway community portal on Poverty is a comprehensive collection of articles, reports, data, statistics, projects and other resources.
- [http://www.povertynet.org/ PovertyNet] — PovertyNet from The World Bank Group provides an introduction to key issues as well as in-depth information on poverty measurement, monitoring, analysis, and on poverty reduction strategies for researchers and practitioners.
- [http://www.cgdev.org Center for Global Development] — The Center for Global Development is a Washington, D.C. policy center pursuing research-based, actionable ideas for the fight against global poverty.
- [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us65566/us63968/ LookSmart — Poverty Issues] directory category
- [http://dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Poverty/ Open Directory Project — Poverty Issues] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Society_and_Culture/Issues_and_Causes/Poverty/ Yahoo! — Poverty Issues and Causes] directory category
- [http://www.antipovertycampaign.org The Anti-Poverty Campaign]
- [http://www.liberaassociazioneilpopolo.it/inglese/index.html 2010: Poverty Elimination] proposes a nine-step poverty elimination plan. The first global campaign for poverty elimination which changed the common goal of "poverty reduction" to "poverty elimination". A work published for free in internet with a similar Wikipedia method with the contibution and the approval of more of 200.000 people, translated in several languages and that more than 25 milion people read.
- [http://www.iddc.org.uk International Disability and Development Consortium] Network of NGOs and disability organisations
- [http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/povertyrate.html Graph of US Poverty] US Census
- [http://www.oct17.org UN International Day for the Eradication of Poverty] commemorated annually, throughout the world on 17 October
- [http://portal.unesco.org/shs/en/ev.php-URL_ID=3905&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html UNESCO Anti-Poverty Programme]
- [http://64.233.161.104/search?q=cache:dv9fX4jJ4zoJ:topics.developmentgateway.org/poverty/rc/filedownload.do National and International Poverty Lines: An Overview] Category:Socioeconomics Category:Social justice Category:Development Category:Development Studies Category:Spirituality ja:貧困

Institutionalization

Institutionalization is a term used to describe both the treatment of, and damage caused to, vulnerable human beings by the oppressive or corrupt application of inflexible systems of social, medical, or legal controls by publicly owned or not-for-profit organisations originally created for beneficial purposes and intents. Some modern thinkers argue that many people who work within large established organisations can become Institutionalised. The supportive structure and routines can lead to a narrowing or reduction in individual critical judgement and reasoning. This accepting mental outlook, can lead to oversight and slowed reaction to changes outside the organisation thus hindering adaptation to new circumstances. Public and civic organisations acquired great authority and wealth during and in the century following the Industrial Revolution in the UK and other rapidly developing nation states. The growing demands of industry for high volume labour supplies in the nineteenth century also created an ethos in which the needs and rights of the unproductive or vulnerable individual were deemed less important than the needs of society as a whole. Large numbers of beggars and high rates of crime and disease were a consequence of the massive social and economic changes experienced in the period following the victory at the battle of Waterloo. Social unrest from the Peterloo riots onwards resulted in a significant Chartist challenge to established authority on the streets of major cities like Sheffield, Manchester, and Glasgow in the 1840s. During the period from 1850 - 1930 many types of institutions were created by public subscription, parliament and local authorities to provide housing, healthcare, education, and financial support for individuals in need. At the upper end of the scale, public boarding schools such as Eton and Harrow were founded or greatly extended to meet the growing demand for the education of the children of those in colonial service overseas. These were seen as models of social improvement, and many inferior imitations followed for the lower social orders. Virtually every borough in the UK was required by legislation to make provision for paupers, criminals, orphans, disabled war veterans, older people with no means of support, deaf and blind schools, and lifelong asylums for those with learning disabilities or mental health problems. Distinguishing features of such institutions were:
- communal dormitories
- communal kitchens and dining facilities
- rural, isolated locations
- restrictions on personal liberty and possessions
- uniforms
- oppressive, authoritarian regimes
- strict systems of rules and codes of conduct
- boards of visitors or trustees, usually drawn from the ranks of the upper middle classes, the so called "great and good"
- hierarchical systems of management
- compulsory religious attendance
- involvement of inmates as unpaid or poorly-rewarded labour in return for small privileges
- widespread abuse of human rights, dignity
- rigid separation of the sexes
- excessive reliance on medication and physical restraints Many of these organisations, whilst originally expressing idealistic aspirations and aims, became "total" institutions within a generation or two of their foundation, providing in some cases cradle to grave housing, occupation and social control. Inmates were often trapped in a system that provided no obvious route of escape or promotion. As late as the 1950s, in Britain, several hundred thousand people lived in Victorian asylums and "colonies". The dangers of institutions were chronicled and criticised by reformers almost since their foundation. Charles Dickens was an outspoken and high profile early critic, and several of his novels, in particular Oliver Twist and Hard Times demonstrate his insight into the damage that institutions can do to human beings. Enoch Powell, when Minister for Health in the early 1960s, was a later opponent who was appalled by what he witnessed on his visits to the asylums, and his famous "water tower" speech in 1961 called for the closure of all NHS asylums and their replacement by wards in general hospitals. "There they stand, isolated, majestic, imperious, brooded over by the gigantic water-tower and chimney combined, rising unmistakable and daunting out of the countryside - the asylums which our forefathers built with such immense solidity to express the notions of their day. Do not for a moment underestimate their powers of resistance to our assault. Let me describe some of the defences which we have to storm." [http://www.mdx.ac.uk/www/study/xPowell.htm] Scandal after scandal followed, with many high profile public inquiries. These involved the exposure of abuses such as unscientific surgical techniques such as lobotomy, the experimental use of powerful drugs such as LSD, and the widespread neglect and abuse of vulnerable patients in the USA and Europe. The gro