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KC-135

KC-135

KC-135 Stratotanker
Description
RoleMid-air refueling
Crew4, pilot, copilot, navigator, boom operator
Dimensions
Length136 ft 3 in41.53 m
Wingspan130 ft 10 in39.88 m
Height41 ft 8 in12.70 m
Wing area2,433 ft²226 m²
Weights
Empty98,466 lb44,663 kg
Loaded297,000 lb134,700 kg
Maximum take-off316,000 lb143,300 kg
Powerplant
Engines(R/T) - Four CFM International CFM-56 turbofan engines; (E) - Four Pratt & Whitney TF-33-PW-102 turbofan engines
Thrust(R) - 21,634 lbf
(E) - 18,000 lbf		(R) - 96 kN
(E) - 80 kN
Performance
Maximum speed580 mph933 km/h
Combat range3,450 mi5,550 km
Ferry range9,200 mi14,800 km
Service ceiling50,000 ft15,200 m
Rate of climb4,900 ft/min1,490 m/min
The Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker is an aerial refueling tanker aircraft, first manufactured in 1956 and expected to remain in service into the 2020s It is a derivative of the Boeing 707 jetliner. Developped in the late 1950's this basic airframe is characterized by its four under wing mounted engine pods, a traditional inverted T tail configuration (positive di-hedral on the two horizontal planes) and a protruding "lancette" antenna - a tip which vectors forward from the vertical plane (top of the forward-facing leading-edge of the vertical fin or stabilizer - the vertical component of this inverted T tail configuration) of the KC-135 stratotanker and its morphological equivalent Boeing 707 civilian jetliner cousin.

In detail

Boeing's 367-80 was the basic design for the commercial Boeing 707 passenger aircraft as well as the KC-135A Stratotanker. In 1954 the USAF's Strategic Air Command ordered the first 29 of its future fleet of 732. The first aircraft flew in August 1956 and the initial production Stratotanker was delivered to Castle Air Force Base, California, in June 1957. The last KC-135 was delivered to the Air Force in 1965. In Southeast Asia, KC-135 Stratotankers made the air war different from all previous aerial conflicts. Midair refueling brought far-flung bombing targets within reach. Combat aircraft, no longer limited by fuel supplies, were able to spend more time in target areas. Air Mobility Command (AMC) manages more than 546 total aircraft inventory Stratotankers, of which the Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard fly 292 in support of AMC's mission.

Modifications

Of the original KC-135A's, more than 410 have been modified with new CFM56 engines produced by CFM-International. The re-engined tanker, designated either the KC-135R or KC-135T, can offload 50 percent more fuel, is 25 percent more fuel efficient, costs 25 percent less to operate and is 96 percent quieter than the KC-135A. Under an earlier modification program, 157 Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard tankers were re-engined with the Pratt & Whitney TF-33-PW-102 engines from retired 707 airliners. The re-engined tanker, designated the KC-135E, is 14 percent more fuel efficient than the KC-135A and can offload 20 percent more fuel. Through the years, the KC-135 has been altered to do other jobs ranging from flying command post missions to reconnaissance. The EC-135C was U.S. Strategic Command's flying command post. One EC-135C, codenamed Looking Glass, was continually airborne throughout the Cold War, ready to control bombers and missiles if ground control was lost. RC-135 Rivet Joints are used for special reconnaissance and Air Force Material Command's NKC-135A's are flown in test programs. The Air Combat Command operates the OC-135 Open Skies as an observation platform in compliance with the Open Skies Treaty.

Future development

Open Skies TreatyOver the next few years (as of 2003), the aircraft will undergo upgrades to expand its capabilities and improve its reliability. Among these are improved communications, navigation and surveillance equipment to meet future civil air traffic control needs. The Multi-Point Refueling System Program will add hose and drogue refueling pods near the wingtips, allowing it to service multiple aircraft, and to service probe-carrying aircraft without an adapter. Four turbofans, mounted under 35-degree swept wings, power the KC-135 to takeoffs at gross weights up to 322,500 pounds (146,300 kg). Nearly all internal fuel can be pumped through the tanker's flying boom, the KC-135's primary fuel transfer method. A special shuttlecock-shaped drogue, attached to and trailing behind the flying boom, may be used to refuel aircraft fitted with probes. An operator stationed in the rear of the aircraft controls the boom while lying on his (or her) stomach. A cargo deck above the refueling system can hold a mixed load of passengers and cargo. Depending on fuel storage configuration, the KC-135 can carry up to 83,000 pounds (37,600 kg) of cargo. It seems likely that the KC-135 fleet will be replaced by the Boeing KC-767 Tanker Transport, which was selected in competition with the Airbus A330 MRTT. The EC-135 is slated to be replaced (along with the E-3 Sentry and the E-8 Joint STARS) by the E-10 MC2A, also based upon the 767 airframe.

General characteristics


- Primary Function: Aerial refueling and airlift
- Prime Contractor: The Boeing Company
- Power Plant: KC-135R/T, CFMI CFM56 turbofan engines; KC-135E, Pratt & Whitney TF-33-PW-102 turbofan engines
- Thrust: KC-135R, 21,634 lbf (96.233 kN) each engine; KC-135E, 18,000 lbf (80 kN) each engine
- Wingspan: 130 ft 10 in (39.88 m)
- Length: 136 ft 3 in (41.53 m)
- Height: 41 ft 8 in (12.7 m)
- Speed: 530 statute miles per hour (850 km/h) at 30,000 ft (9,100 m)
- Ceiling: 50,000 ft+ (15,200 m+)
- Range: 1,500 statute miles (2,400 km) with 150,000 lb (68,000 kg) of transfer fuel; ferry mission, up to 17,766 km (11,039 statute miles)
- Maximum takeoff weight: 322,500 lb (146,300 kg)
- Maximum transfer fuel load: 200,000 lb (90,700 kg)
- Maximum fuel transfer rate: appr. 6500 lb/min (3000 kg/min) using the boom; appr. 1500 lb/min (700 kg/min) with drogue attached
- Maximum cargo capability: 83,000 lb (37,600 kg), 37 passengers
- Pallet positions: 6
- Crew: four: pilot, co-pilot, navigator, boom operator. Aircraft equipped with PACER CRAG do not have a navigator on most missions. The US Air Force procured a limited number of navigator suites that can be installed for unique missions.
- Unit cost: US$39.6 million (FY98 constant dollars)
- Date deployed: August 1956
- Inventory: active duty, 253; Air National Guard, 222; Air Force Reserve, 70

External links


- [http://fmc.dotnet-services.nl/operation_iraqi_freedom.htm Audiofiles of USAF B-52 refuelled by KC-135 during Operation Iraqi Freedom monitored by the Frequency Monitor Centre]
- [http://aeroweb.brooklyn.cuny.edu/specs/boeing/nkc-135a.htm NKC-135 specs] Category:Military aircraft

Boeing

The Boeing Company is leading: American aircraft and aerospace manufacturer, headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, with its largest production facilities in Everett, Washington, about 30 miles north of Seattle, Washington. It is also the second-largest defense contractor in the world [http://www.defensenews.com/content/features/2005chart1.html], and the largest civil aircraft manufacturer in the world in terms of aircraft sales this year (825 compared with 687 for Airbus as of November 2005), and the largest exporter in the United States. Airbus, which first delivered more planes than Boeing in 2003, will maintain that lead for 2005 as it expects to deliver 370 planes compared with 290. Boeing's stock is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average. Boeing's two principal divisions are Boeing Integrated Defense Systems (IDS), responsible for military and space products, and Boeing Commercial Airplanes (BCA), responsible for civil airliners. (A full list of subsidiaries is included below.)

History

Before 1950s

The company was founded in Seattle by William E. Boeing on July 15, 1916, together with George Conrad Westervelt, a U.S. Navy engineer, and was named "B&W" after their initials. Soon the name was changed to "Pacific Aero Products" and, in 1917, the company became the "Boeing Airplane Company." William E. Boeing had studied at Yale University and worked initially in the timber industry, where he became a rich man. There he also acquired knowledge about wooden structures which was later revealed to be of value for the design and assembly of airplanes. In 1927, Boeing created an airline, named Boeing Air Transport (BAT). A year later, BAT, as well as Pacific Air Transport and Boeing Airplane Company merge into a single corporation. The company changed its name to United Aircraft - Transport Corp. in 1929 and acquired Pratt & Whitney, Hamilton Standard Propeller Company, and Chance Vought. United Aircraft then purchased National Air Transport in 1930. The Air Mail Act of 1934 prohibited airlines and manufacturers from being under the same corporate umbrella, so the company split into three smaller companies - Boeing Airplane Company, United Airlines, and United Aircraft Corporation, the precursor to United Technologies. As a result, Bill Boeing sold off his shares. United Technologies Shortly after, an agreement with Pan American World Airways was reached, to develop and build a commercial flying-boat able to carry passengers on transoceanic routes. The first flight of the Boeing 314 Clipper was in June 1938. It was the largest civil aircraft of its time, with a capacity of 90 passengers on day flights, and of 40 passengers on night flights. One year later, the first regular passenger service from the US to the UK was inaugurated. Subsequently other routes were opened, so that soon Pan American flew with the Boeing 314 to destinations all over the world. In 1938, Boeing completed work on the Model 307 Stratoliner. This was the world's first pressurized-cabin transport aircraft, and it was capable of cruising at an altitude of 20,000 feet. — above most weather disturbances. During World War II, Boeing built a huge number of bombers. Many of the workers were women whose spouses had gone to war. In the beginning of March 1944, production had been scaled up in such a manner that over 350 planes were built each month. To prevent an attack from the air, the plants had been covered with greenery and farmland items. During these years of war the leading aircraft companies of the US cooperated. The Boeing-designed B-17 bomber was assembled also by Lockheed Aircraft Corp. and Douglas Aircraft Co., while the B-29 was assembled also by Bell Aircraft Co. and by Glenn L. Martin Co. After the war, most orders of bombers were canceled and 70,000 people lost their jobs at Boeing. The company aimed to recover quickly by selling its Stratocruiser, a luxurious four-engine commercial airliner developed from a military aircraft. However, sales of this model were not as expected and Boeing had to seek other opportunities to overcome the situation. The company successfully sold military aircraft adapted for troop transportation and for aerial refueling. aerial refueling

1950s

In the mid-1950s technology had advanced significantly, which gave Boeing the possibility to develop and manufacture totally new products. One of the first was the guided short-range missile used to intercept enemy aircraft. At that time the Cold War had become a fact to live with, and Boeing used its short-range missile technology to develop and build an intercontinental missile. In 1958, Boeing began delivery of its B707, the United States' first commercial jet airliner, in response to the British De Havilland Comet and the French Sud Caravelle, the world's first commercial jet aircraft. With the B707, a four-engine, 156-passenger airliner, the US became leaders in commercial jet manufacture. A few years later, Boeing added a second version of this aircraft, the B720. A few years later, Boeing introduced the B727, another commercial jet airliner of similar size, which had however three engines and was designed for medium-range routes. The B727 was immediately well accepted as a comfortable and reliable aircraft by passengers, crews, and airlines. Although production was discontinued in 1984, at the turn of the millennium nearly 1,300 B727s were still in service at airlines around the world.

1960s

The Piasecki Helicopter company was acquired by Boeing in 1960, and this became Boeing Vertol. The twin-rotor CH-47 Chinook, produced by Vertol, took its first flight in 1961. This heavy-lift helicopter remains a work-horse vehicle up to the present day. In 1964, Vertol also began production of the CH-46 Sea Knight. CH-46 Sea Knight In 1967, Boeing introduced another short- and medium-range airliner, the twin-engine B737. It has become since then the best-selling commercial jet aircraft in aviation history. The B737 is still being produced, and continuous improvements are made. Several versions have been developed, mainly to increase seating capacity and range. The roll-out ceremonies for the first 747-100 took place in 1968, at the massive new factory in Everett. The aircraft made its first flight a year later, and its first commercial flight occurs in 1970.

1970s

In the beginning of the 1970s Boeing faced a new crisis. The Apollo program in which Boeing had participated significantly during the preceding decade was almost entirely cancelled. Once more, Boeing hoped to compensate sales with its commercial airliners. At that time, however, there was a heavy recession in the airlines industry so that Boeing did not receive one single order during more than one year. Boeing's bet for the future, the new B747 Jumbo Jet was delayed in production and originated much higher costs than forecasted. Another problem was that, in 1971, the U.S. Congress decided to stop the financial support for the development of the supersonic 2707, Boeing's answer to the British-French Concorde, forcing the company to discontinue the project. The company had to reduce the number of employees from over 80,000 to almost half, only in the Seattle area. In 1970 the first B747, a four-engine long-range airliner, finally entered service. This famous aircraft changed completely the way of flying, with its 450-passenger seating capacity and its upper deck. Until 2001, Boeing had been the only aircraft manufacturer to offer such an airliner and has delivered near to 1,400 units. (Airbus now offers the A380, which when delivered will be the largest operational airliner). The B747 has undergone continuous improvements to keep it technologically up-to-date. Larger versions have also been developed by stretching the upper deck. A380

1980s

In 1983, the economic situation began to improve. Boeing assembled its 1,000th B737 passenger airliner. During the following years, commercial aircraft and their military versions became the basic equipment of airlines and air forces. As passenger air traffic increased, competition was harder, mainly from a European newcomer in commercial airliner manufacturing, Airbus. Boeing had to offer new aircraft, and developed the single-aisle B757, the larger, twin-aisle B767, and upgraded versions of the B737. An important project of these years was the Space Shuttle, to which Boeing contributed with its experience in space rockets acquired during the Apollo era, in which the company also participated. Boeing participated also with other products in the space program, and was the first contractor for the International Space Station. At the same time, several military projects went into production, like the RAH-66 Comanche helicopter, the Avenger air defense system and a new generation of short-range missiles. During these years, Boeing was very active upgrading existing military equipment and developing new ones. RAH-66 Comanche

1990s

In 1994, Boeing introduced its most modern commercial jet aircraft, the twin-engine B777, with a seating capacity of 390 passengers, in between the B767 and the B747. The longest range twin in the world, the B777 is one of a number of aircraft certified to fly routes over oceans and deserted zones (see ETOPS), and is being sold very successfully. This aircraft, affectionately known as the "triple seven," reached an important milestone by being the first airliner to be designed "entirely by computer," i.e. by using CAD techniques. Also in the mid-1990s, the company developed the revamped version of the B737, known as the "Next-Generation 737." It has since become the fastest-selling version of the B737 in history. The "Next-Generation 737" includes the 737-600, the 737-700, the 737-800, and the 737-900. In 1996, Boeing merged with Rockwell International Corp.’s aerospace and defense units. The Rockwell products became a subsidiary of Boeing, named Boeing North American, Inc. One year later, Boeing merged with McDonnell Douglas Corp. Following the merger between Boeing and McDonnell Douglas, the McDonnell Douglas MD-95 was renamed the Boeing 717. and the production of the MD-11 was stopped.

2000s

In recent years Boeing has faced an increasingly competitive Airbus, which offers some commonality between models and the latest fly-by-wire technology. From the 1970s Airbus has increased its family of aircraft to the point where they can now offer an aircraft in almost every class Boeing does. Indeed Airbus is now competing in markets that Boeing once had a monopoly over, e.g. the A320 has been selected by two low-cost operators (the aircraft used by these airlines has traditionally been the 737) and the very large aircraft market, the A380. The 747 is being cannibalized by healthy sales of Boeing's own competitor, the 777-300 Series. Currently, Boeing is planning to introduce four new aircraft, the 787 "Dreamliner", the ultra-long-range 777-200LR, the 737-900ER and the 747-800. The Boeing 787 was formerly known as the Boeing 7E7, but the designation has since been changed. The Boeing 777-200LR has the longest range of any commercial aircraft, and is the first airliner to able to fly halfway across the planet with a commercially viable payload. The 777-200LR has already entered flight-testing, with the first aircraft due to be delivered to Pakistan International Airlines in 2006. The 737-900ER, previously designated as the 737-900X is an improvement to the 737-900. The current 737-900 model has limited range, and is limited in capacity such that it can not be flown in a high-density configuration, rather requiring a solidly two-class configuration. The 737-900ER will extend the range of the 737-900ER to a similar range as the successful 737-800 with the capability to fly more passengers. The 747-800 will offer better effiency and longer range. The passenger and cargo versions will be 12ft and 18ft longer respectively. In 2004, Boeing canceled production of the 757 after more than a thousand were produced, with the last airplane going to Shanghai Airlines, in China. More advanced versions of the 737 were beginning to compete against the older design. Boeing also soon canceled the production of 717 due to slow sales, and the 767 is likely to cease production soon. However, if Boeing manages to win the contract for new USAF tankers, the 767 program might be saved. Boeing also is building an advanced version of the 747, the 747-8 [http://www.newairplane.com/], which will compete more closely with the Airbus A380. The aircraft was informally announced at the 2005 Paris Airshow. Paris Airshow

Recent history

After several decades of numerous successes, Boeing lost ground to Europe's Airbus and subsequently lost its leadership of the market in 2003. It responded by running a huge advertising campaign to promote its new motto, "Forever New Frontiers," and rehabilitate its image. Hopes are now focused on the newly-launched 787 as a platform of total fleet rejuvenation. On October 10 2001, against fierce competition for the contract to the JSF, Boeing lost to rival Lockheed Martin in the multi-billion dollar contract. Boeing's competitor was the X-32, which lost out to Lockheed's F-35 entrant. The X-32 may have been hampered by the requirement for a redesign after several flaws were found in the original concept. On August 2 2005 Boeing sold its Rocketdyne rocket engine division to Pratt & Whitney. In May 2005 Boeing announced its intent form a new company, United Launch Alliance with its competitor Lockheed Martin. The new company will be the sole provider of rocket launch services to the US government. The joint venture is expected to be gain regulatory approval and be complete near the end of 2005.

"Unethical conduct"

In May 2003 the US Air Force announced it would lease 100 KC-767 tankers to replace the oldest 136 of its KC-135s. The 10 year lease would give the USAF the option to purchase the aircraft at the end of the contract. In September 2003, responding to critics who argued that the lease was vastly more expensive than an outright purchase, the DOD announced a revised lease of 74 aircraft and purchase of 26. In December 2003 the Pentagon announced the project was to be frozen while allegations of corruption by one if its former procurement staffers, Darleen Druyun (who had moved to Boeing in January) was investigated. The fallout of this resulted in the resignation of Boeing CEO Philip M. Condit and the termination of CFO Michael M. Sears. Harry Stonecipher, former McDonnell Douglas CEO, replaced Condit. Druyun pleaded guilty to inflating the price of the contract to favor her future employer and to passing information on the competing Airbus A330 MRTT bid (from EADS). In October 2004 she was sentenced to nine months in jail for corruption, fined $5,000, given three years of supervised release and 150 hours of community service. In March 2005 the Boeing board forced President and CEO Harry Stonecipher to resign. Boeing said an internal investigation revealed a "consensual" relationship between Stonecipher and a female executive that “violated the company's Code of Conduct” and "would impair his ability to lead the company." James A. Bell served as interim CEO (in addition to his normal duties as Boeing's CFO) until the appointment of Jim McNerney as the new Chairman, President, and CEO on June 30, 2005.

Industrial espionage

In June 2003 Lockheed Martin sued Boeing alleging the company had resorted to industrial espionage in 1998 to win the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) competition. Lockheed alleged that a former employee; Kenneth Branch, who went to work for McDonnell Douglas and Boeing, passed 25,000 proprietary documents to his new employers. Lockheed argued that these documents allowed Boeing to win 21 of the 28 tendered military satellite launches. In July 2003 Boeing was penalized, with the Pentagon stripping $1 billion worth of contracts away from the company and awarding them to Lockheed. Furthermore, the company was forbidden to bid for rocket contracts for a 20 month period which expired in March 2005. In early September 2005 it was reported that Boeing was negotiating a settlement with the U.S. Department of Justice in which it would pay up to $500 million to cover this and the Darleen Druyun scandal. [http://www.bizjournals.com/stlouis/stories/2005/09/05/daily53.html?from_rss=1]

Airbus subsidy dispute

In October 2004, Boeing filed a complaint at the World Trade Organization, claiming that Airbus had violated a 1992 bilateral accord when it received what Boeing deems as "unfair" subsidies from several European governments. Airbus retaliated by filing another complaint, contesting that Boeing had also violated the accord when it received tax breaks from the U.S. Government. Moreover, the E.U. also complained that the investment subsidies from Japanese airlines violated the accord. In January 11, the two parties (Boeing and Airbus) agreed that they would attempt to find a solution to the dispute outside of the WTO. However, in June 2005, Boeing and the United States government reopened the trade dispute with the WTO, claiming that Airbus had received illegal subsidies from European governments. Airbus has also retaliated against Boeing, reopening the dispute and also accusing Boeing of receiving subsidies from the US government.

Product developments

Finally, Boeing achieved several consecutive successes, beginning with the formal launch of the 787 for delivery to All Nippon Airways and Air New Zealand. Currently, the 787 orderbook stands at over 250 airframes with orders from Northwest Airlines, Continental Airlines, Japan Airlines, Icelandair and a conglomeration of Chinese carriers. Boeing also received the launch contract from the US Navy for the Multimission Maritime Aircraft, an anti-submarine warfare patrol aircraft. Several orders for the Wedgetail AEW&C aircraft are expected as well. In November 2004, Boeing announced it will offer a cargo version of the popular 777 model. The freighter will be based on the 777-200LR. Customers rumored to be interested include Lufthansa, EVA Airways, ILFC, GECAS, Air Canada and Emirates. Expectations for the year 2005 ran high for Boeing. Although Boeing lost to Airbus in total orders at a recent Paris airshow, which comes as no supprise as Airbus is known for saving orders for major airshows, it continued to impress analysts with orders for its 787 Dreamliner, which outnumber those for Airbus's A350, and an overall rebound in orders that promised to allow Boeing to outproduce Airbus in the near future. Boeing officially announced in November, 2005 that it would produce a larger version of the 747, the 747-8, in two models, commencing with a model for two cargo carriers with firm orders for the aircraft. The second model, slightly shorter than the cargo version but still longer than the 747-400, dubbed the Intercontinental, would be produced for passenger airlines that Boeing expected would place orders in the near future. Both models of the 747-8 would feature a lengthened fuselage, new, advanced engines and wings, and the incorporation of other technologies developed for the 787. Boeing's most successful new aircraft measured by recent orders remained the 737, for which it received orders totaling 387 new units in 2005 as reported on August 7. The 737-900ER is the latest version of the venerable craft offered by Boeing and is the largest model of the 737 line at a length of 138 feet. The 777-200LR Worldliner embarked on a well-received global demonstration tour in the second half of 2005, showing off its capacity to fly farther than any other commercial aircraft. On November 10 2005, the 777-200LR set a world record for the longest non-stop flight. The plane, which departed from Hong Kong traveling to London, took a longer route, which included flying over the U.S. It flew 11,664 nautical miles (21,601km) during its 22-hour 42-minute flight. Realizing that increasing numbers of passengers have become reliant on their computers to stay in touch, Boeing is offering Connexion by Boeing, an Internet connectivity service that promises air travelers unprecedented access to the World Wide Web. The company debuted the product to journalists in 2005, receiving generally favorable reviews. Boeing has also been in the works of developing an airplane made out of 100% composite material. The 787 dreamliner is set to debut in 2008. Due to the high amount of publicity Boeing has recieved as a result of their recent push to promote the 787, Boeing has recruited some of the finest minds in America including Dr. Charles Wan, a prominent engineering professor from Carnegie Mellon as well as Daniel Maycock, a highly respected Information Technology resource from Washington State University.

Divisions

The two largest divisions are Boeing Commercial Airplanes and the Integrated Defense Systems group.
- AviationPartnersBoeing, a 50/50 joint venture with Aviation Partners, Inc.
- Boeing Australia, Ltd.
- Boeing Capital
- Boeing Commercial Airplanes
  - Aeroinfo Systems
  - Airspace Safety Analysis Corporation
  - Alteon Training, formerly FlightSafetyBoeing
  - Continental Datagraphics
  - Jeppesen Sanderson
  - SBS International
- Boeing Integrated Defense Systems
  - Phantom Works
  - United Launch Alliance (with Lockheed Martin)
  - United Space Alliance (with Lockheed Martin)
  - Boeing Satellite Systems
  - Sea Launch (40%)
- Boeing Realty
- Boeing Shared Services Group
- Boeing Travel Management Company
- Connexion by Boeing
- Preston Aviation Solutions

Employment Numbers

Employment By Location

As of 10/06/2005

Employment by Group (Division)

As of 10/06/2005

Corporate governance

Current members of the board of directors of Boeing are: John H. Biggs, John Bryson, Linda Cook, Ken Duberstein, John McDonnell, W. James McNerney, Jr., Richard Nanula, Rozanne Ridgway, John Shalikashvili, and Mike Zafirovski.

Chief executive officer

Chairman of the board

President

Miscellaneous

The Boeing company culture has long had a tradition of strong community support. The Boeing employee community fund is the largest employee-owned and managed fund in the world.

See also


- Airbus
- Arianespace
- Boeing Aircraft Holding Company
- Lockheed Martin
- Northrop Grumman
- Phillip G. Johnson

References


- Greider, William (1997). One World, Ready or Not. Penguin Press. ISBN 0-713-99211-5.

External links


- [http://www.boeing.com/ The Boeing Company]
  - [http://www.boeing.com/commercial/orders/ Boeing order sheet, year-to-date]
- [http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/10/10221.html Yahoo! - The Boeing Company Company Profile]
- [http://www.buffalo.edu/reporter/vol35/vol35n40/articles/Boeing.html Boeing and WTO]
- [http://www.aircraft-info.net/aircraft/jet_aircraft/boeing/ Aircraft-Info.net - Boeing]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3722888.stm BBC]
- [http://www.generalatomic.com/jetmakers/chapter7.html Boeing's Triumph: The American Jetliner]
- Category:International aircraft manufacturers Category:Companies based in Washington Category:Fortune 500 companies ko:보잉 사 ms:Boeing ja:ボーイング th:โบอิง

Aerial refueling

Aerial refueling, also called in-flight refueling (IFR) or air-to-air refueling (AAR), is the practice of transferring fuel from one aircraft to another during flight. This allows the receiving aircraft to remain airborne longer, and to take off with a greater payload. Usually, the aircraft providing the fuel is especially designed for the task. The requirement to refuel during a flight is primarily a military requirement, and there are no known regular civilian in-flight refueling operations.

History and development

Some of the earliest experiments in aerial refueling took place in the 1920s, when it was as simple as two slow-flying aircraft flying in formation, with a hose run down from a handheld gas tank on one airplane and placed into the usual fuel filler of the other. It was a very dangerous process until 1935 when brothers Fred and Al Key demonstrated the first spill-free refueling nozzle, designed by A. D. Hunter. Nowadays, specialized tanker aircraft have equipment specially designed for the task of offloading fuel to the receiver aircraft, based on Hunter's design, even at the higher speeds modern jet aircraft typically need to remain airborne.

Aerial refueling systems

The two most common approaches for making the union between the two aircraft are the boom and receiver system and the probe and drogue system. Much less popular was the wing-to-wing system, which is no longer used.

Boom and receiver

The boom is a long, rigid, hollow shaft, usually fitted to the rear of the aircraft. (It almost connects the two lower aircraft in the picture at right.) It usually has a telescoping extension, a valve at the end to keep fuel in and permit it to flow, and small wings, sometimes known as ruddevators depending on design particulars (visible in picture below, in the "V" shape), to enable it to be "flown" into the receiver of the aircraft to be refueled. This receiver is fitted onto the top of the aircraft, on its centerline and usually either behind or close in front of the cockpit. The receiver is a round opening which connects to the fuel tanks, with a valve to keep the fuel in when not being refueled, and dust and debris out. The boom has a nozzle which fits into this opening. During refueling operations, a tanker aircraft will fly in a straight and level attitude at constant speed, while the receiver takes a standard position behind and below the tanker. Modern tankers have lights which illuminate the areas outside this range, so that if the pilot can see them, he is directed to fly back towards the desired spot. Once in position, the receiver pilot flies formation with the tanker, although this can be complicated by wake turbulence. The crewman operating the boom, called a boomer or boom operator (in the USAF, usually an enlisted sergeant), then unlatches the boom from its stowage position, and directs it towards the receiver by "flying" it with the attached wings. The telescoping section is then hydraulically extended until the nozzle fits into the receiver. When an electrical signal is passed between the boom and receiver, both valves are hydraulically opened, and pumps on the tanker drive fuel through the shaft of the boom, and into the receiver. Once the two are mated up, additional lights on the tanker will be turned on if the receiver flies too far to one side, too low or too high, or too near or too far away, activated by sensing switches in the boom. When fueling is complete, the valves are closed and the boom is automatically retracted. In addition to being used by the US Air Force, the boom method is used by the Netherlands (KDC-10) and Israel (modified Boeing 707). Both nations operate US designed aircraft.

Probe and drogue

The drogue (or para-drogue), sometimes called a basket, is a fitting resembling a plastic shuttlecock, attached to a flexible hose at its narrow end, with a valve where the two meet. The receiver has a probe, which is a rigid, but sometimes jointed and retractable, arm placed usually on the side of the airplane's nose. Again, the tanker flies straight and level, and the drogue is allowed to trail out behind and below it. The drogue is not controllable other than by flying the tanker, so the receiver pilot must fly his probe directly into the basket, at which point wind drag on the basket forces the probe into the valve, which opens to allow fuel to be pumped through. The receiver maintains his position during refueling, keeping an eye on the hose to make sure he remains in a suitable position. When fueling is complete, he decelerates hard enough to yank the probe out of the basket. Some boom-carrying tankers have special hoses which can be attached to the nozzle of the boom to allow them to also refuel probe-equipped aircraft. Others may have both a boom and one or more hose-and-drogue assemblies equipped. The U.S. Navy, Marine Corps, and other NATO nations use this system, rather than the boom system. This system was first used on late models of the KB-29M Superfortress. Its first use in combat occurred on May 29 1952 when twelve F-84s were refueled during a mission from Itazuke, Japan to Sariwon, North Korea.

Wing-to-wing

In this method, the tanker aircraft released a flexible hose from its wingtip. An aircraft, flying beside it, had to catch the hose with a special lock under its wingtip. After the hose was locked, and the connection was established, the fuel was pumped. It was used on a small number of Soviet Tu-4 and Tu-16 only (the tanker variant was Tu-16Z).

Strategic and tactical implications

Strategic uses and considerations

The early development of the KC-97 and KC-135 Stratotankers was inspired by the desire of the United States to be able to keep fleets of B-47 Stratojet and B-52 Stratofortress strategic bombers aloft during the Cold War, either to retaliate against a Soviet strike and ensure Mutual Assured Destruction, or to bomb the U.S.S.R. first had it proven necessary. The bombers would fly orbits around their assigned positions from which they were to enter Soviet airspace if they received the order, and the tankers kept the bombers' fuel tanks full so that they could keep a force in the air 24 hours a day, and still have enough fuel to reach their targets in the Soviet Union. This also ensured that a first strike against the bombers' airfields could not obliterate the U.S.'s ability to retaliate. A famous example of refueling used in this manner in movies can be seen in the opening credits of Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb (a fictional movie, but the scenes are from actual B-52 refueling). A byproduct of this development effort and the building of large numbers of tankers was that these tankers were also available to refuel cargo aircraft, fighter aircraft, and ground attack aircraft, in addition to bombers, for ferrying to distant theaters of operations. This was much used during the Vietnam War, when many aircraft could not have covered the transoceanic distances without aerial refueling, even with intermediate bases in Hawaii and Okinawa. In addition to allowing the transport of the aircraft themselves, the cargo aircraft could also carry matériel, supplies, and personnel to Vietnam without landing to refuel.

Tactical uses and considerations

The capability of refueling after takeoff conveys two considerable tactical advantages to those with tankers. Most obviously, it allows attack aircraft, fighters, and bombers to reach distances they couldn't otherwise, and patrol aircraft to remain airborne longer. Additionally, since an aircraft's maximum takeoff weight is generally less than the maximum weight with which it can stay airborne, this allows an aircraft to take off with only a partial fuel load, and carry additional payload weight instead. Then, after reaching altitude, the aircraft's tanks can be topped off by a tanker, bringing it up to its maximum flight weight.

Vietnam War

In addition to ferrying aircraft across the Pacific Ocean, Aerial refueling made it possible for damaged fighters to hook up to the tankers and be towed to the point where they could glide to the base and land. This saved countless lives, and is one of the greatest uses of tanker aircraft in that theater.

Falklands War

Aerial refueling during the Falklands War was carried out almost exclusively by the Handley Page Victor. These aircraft aided deployments from the UK to the Ascension Island staging post in the South Atlantic and further deployments south of attack, transport and maritime patrol aircraft. The most famous refueling missions were the "Operation Black Buck" sorties which involved Victor tankers refueling Avro Vulcan bombers to attack Argentine forces on the Falkland Islands. These missions had the effect of deterring the Argentine Air Force from deploying aircraft on the Falklands, these jets were held back in defence of the Argentine mainland.

Gulf War

During Operation Desert Shield, the military build up to the Persian Gulf War, US Air Force KC-135's and KC-10's were deployed to forward air bases in England, Diego Garcia, and Saudia Arabia. Aircraft stationed in Saudi Arabia normally maintained an orbit in the Iraq-Saudi Arabia neutral zone, informally known as "Frisbee", and refueled Coalition Aircraft whenever necessary. This 24-hour air-refueling zone helped make the intense air campaign during Operation Desert Storm possible. On January 16/17th, 1991, the first combat sortie of Desert Storm and the longest combat sortie in history at that time was launched from Barksdale AFB, Louisianna. Seven B-52G's flew a thirty-five hour mission to the Persian Gulf and back. All made possible by in-flight refueling.

Kosovo War

Media

Tanker aircraft by refueling system

Boom and receiver

Kosovo War
- KB-29P
  - adapted from the B-29 Superfortress
- KC-97 Stratotanker
  - adapted (heavily) from the B-29 Superfortress
- KC-135 Stratotanker
  - adapted from the Boeing 707
  - can also use drogue adapter
  - MPRS models will have two drogue hose reels (pods) at the wingtips
- KC-10 Extender
  - adapted from the McDonnell Douglas DC-10
  - (also has a retractable hose and drogue)
- KC-767
  - adapted from the Boeing 767
  - used by Italy and Japan; not yet in U.S. military service
- Airbus A330 MRTT
  - development of Airbus A330 - 5 Australian aircraft will be equipped with both a flying boom and probe and drogue units. (UK aircraft probe and drogue only.)

Probe and drogue


- Airbus A330
  - RAF Future Strategic Tanker Aircraft, due in service around 2008.
- Airbus A310 MRTT
  - 4 for Luftwaffe
  - 2 for Canadian Forces (as CC-150 Polaris)
- Avro Vulcan
  - specially modified for operations during the Falklands War
- Blackburn Buccaneer
  - Equipped for buddy tanking
- Boeing 707
  - Used by the South African Air Force and others
- KB-29M
  - adapted from the B-29 Superfortress; earlier versions used a "grappling hose" system, later models used a true probe-and-drogue
- KB-50
  - also adapted from the B-29 Superfortress
- HC-130 Hercules and KC-130 Hercules
  - variants of the C-130 Hercules
- Lockheed L-1011 Tristar
  - K1 and KC1 variants deployed by the Royal Air Force and Canadian Forces Air Command
- Vickers Valiant
- Vickers VC-10
- Handley Page Victor
- KA-3
- KA-4
  - Equipped for buddy tanking
- KA-6
- KA-7 KA-7
- S-3 Viking
  - Current primary carrier-based tanker
- F/A-18E/F
  - equipped for buddy refueling as "Strike tankers"
- Il-78 Midas
  - Standard Russian tanker, adapted from Il-76
  - the MKI variants currently deployed by the Indian Air Force (IAF)
- Myasishchev M-4-2
  - adapted from the M-4 bomber
- Myasishchev 3MS-2
  - adapted from the 3M bomber
- Tu-16N (and Tu-16Z with wing-to-wing system)
- Su-24M
  - equipped for buddy refueling with the UPAZ container as "Strike tankers"

See also

Regarding spacecraft: see Docking maneuver. Category:Aviation ja:空中給油

1956

1956 (MCMLVI) was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.

Events

January-April


- January 1 - End of Anglo-Egyptian Codominium in Sudan.
- January 16 - President Gamal Abdal Nasser of Egypt vows to reconquer Palestine.
- January 26 - 1956 Winter Olympic Games open in Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy.
- January 26 - The United Kingdom bans heroin.
- January 25-January 26 - Finnish troops reoccupy Porkkala after Soviet troops vacate its military base. Civilians can return February 4.
- February 6 - Paul Harvey arrested for trying to break into Argonne National Laboratory.
- February 15 - Urho Kekkonen is elected President of Finland.
- February 22 - Elvis Presley enters the music charts for the first time, with "Heartbreak Hotel."
- February 23 - Nikita Khrushchev attacks the veneration of Joseph Stalin as a "cult of personality."
- March 1 - the International Air Transport Association finalises a draft of the Radiotelephony spelling alphabet for the International Civil Aviation Organization.
- March 2 - Morocco declares its independence from France.
- March 9 - British deport Archbishop Makarios from Cyprusto Seychelles.
- March 12 - United Kingdom abolishes death penalty for murder
- March 15 - The Broadway musical My Fair Lady opens in New York City.
- March 20 - Tunisia gains independence from France.
- March 23 - Pakistan becomes the first Islamic republic.
- April 7 - Spain relinquishes its protectorate in Morocco.
- April 9 - Habib Bouirgiba is elected prime minister of Tunisia.
- April 19 - British diver Lionel Crabb dives into the Portsmouth harbor to investigate visiting Soviet cruiser and vanishes.
- April 19 - Actress Grace Kelly marries Prince Rainier III of Monaco.

May-June


- early May - The Methodist Church in America decides at its General Conference to grant women full ordained clergy status.
- May 8 - Austria and Israel form diplomatic relations.
- May 8 - Constitutional union between Indonesia and Netherlands is dissolved.
- May 9 - First ascent of Manaslu, eighth highest mountain in the world.
- May 18 - First ascent of Lhotse (main), fourth highest mountain.
- May 21 - Nuclear testing: In the Pacific Ocean, Bikini Atoll is nearly obliterated by the first airborne explosion of a hydrogen bomb.
- May 23 - French minister Pierre Mendes-France resigns due to government's policy on Algeria.
- June 1 - Vyacheslav Molotov resigns as a foreign minister of Soviet Union; he later becomes ambassador in Mongolia.
- June 6 - In Singapore, chief minister David Marshall resigns after breakdown of talks about internal self government in London.
- June 10 - 1956 Summer Olympics: Equestrian events open in Stockholm, Sweden.
- June 14 - President Dwight D. Eisenhower authorizes the phrase "under God" should be added to the Pledge of Allegiance
- June 18 - Last foreign troops leave Egypt.
- June 23 - Gamal Abdel Nasser becomes the second president of Egypt.
- June 28 - MP Sydney Silverman's bill for abolition of death penalty passes the British House of Commons.
- June 28 - Labour riots at Poznan, Poland, are crushed with heavy loss of life. Soviet troops fire at crowd that protests high prices - 53 dead.
- June 29 - Actress Marilyn Monroe marries the playwright Arthur Miller.
- June 30 - A TWA Lockheed Constellation and United Airlines Douglas DC-7 collide in mid-air over the Grand Canyon in Arizona and crash. All 128 people aboard the two aircraft are killed in the disaster. The accident prompts tighter air traffic control to be implemented in the United States.

July-August


- July 2 - Two passengers planes collide and fall into Grand Canyon - 127 dead
- July 8 - First ascent of Gasherbrum II.
- July 10 - British House of Lords defeats the abolition of death penalty.
- July 24 - At New York City's Copacabana Club, Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis perform their last comedy show together which started on July 25, 1946.
- July 25 - 45 miles south of Nantucket Island, the Italian ocean liner SS Andrea Doria sinks after colliding with the Swedish ship SS Stockholm in heavy fog, killing 51.
- July 26 - Egyptian leader Gamal Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal sparking international condemnation.
- July 30 - A Joint Resolution of the U.S. Congress is signed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, authorizing "In God We Trust" as the U.S. national motto.
- July 31 - Jim Laker sets extraordinary record at Old Trafford in the fourth Test of taking nineteen wickets in a first class match (the previous best was seventeen).
- August 8 - Fire and explosion kills 263 miners at Marcinelle, Belgium.
- August 17 - West Germany bans communist party

September-October


- September 25 - Submarine telephone cable across the Atlantic opened
- October 10 - Finland joins UNESCO
- October 14 - Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, Indian Untouchable leader, converts to Buddhism along with 385,000 followers. See Neo-Buddhism.
- October 15 - RAF retires its last Lancaster bomber
- October 15 - Fidel Castro and Che Guevara depart from Tuxpan, Mexico enroute to Santiago de Cuba aboard ship Granma with 82 men. After the ship passes a storm, it lands on Belici, Cuba, December 2
- October 23 - Hungarian revolution against the pro-Soviet government. Soviet Union intervenes. Hungary attempts to leave the Warsaw Pact.
- October 26 - Warsaw Pact troops invade Hungary.
- October 29 - Suez Crisis begins: Israel invades the Sinai Peninsula and push Egyptian forces back toward the Suez Canal.
- October 29 - Tangier Protocol signed: The international city Tangier is reintegrated into Morocco.
- October 31 - Suez Crisis: The United Kingdom and France begin bombing Egypt to force the reopening of the Suez Canal.

November-December


- November 4 - 1956 Hungarian Revolution: Soviet troops invade Hungary to crush a revolt that started on October 23. Thousands are killed, more are wounded and nearly a quarter million leave the country.
- November 6 - U.S. presidential election, 1956: Republican incumbent Dwight D. Eisenhower is reelected by defeating Democrat challenger Adlai E. Stevenson in a rematch of their contest four years earlier.
- November 6 - Enoch A. Holtwick defeated as presidential candidate of Prohibition Party.
- November 7 - Suez Crisis: The United Nations General Assembly adopts a resolution calling for the United Kingdom, France and Israel to withdraw their troops from Egypt immediately.
- November 14 - Fighting ends in Hungary.
- November 16 - Suez canal blocked.
- November 20 - In Yugoslavia, former prime minister Milovan Sjilas is arrested after he critisized Josip Broz Tito
- November 22 - Beginning of the Summer Olympic Games in Melbourne, Australia.
- November 23 - Suez Crisis causes petrol rationing in Britain.
- December 2 - Fidel Castro and his followers land on Cuba in the boat Granma.
- December 2 - A pipe bomb explodes at a movie theater in Brooklyn (work of George Metesky), injuring six people.
- December 5 - Rose Heilbron becomes Britain's first female judge
- December 12 - Japan becomes member of the United Nations.
- December 23 - British and French troops leave Suez Canal region

Unknown date


- Eindhoven University of Technology founded in Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- First hard disk (5MB) invented by IBM.
- Minamata disease discovered

Births

January-February


- January 3 - Mel Gibson, Australian actor and director
- January 4 - Bernard Sumner, British guitarist (Joy Division and New Order)
- January 5 - Chen Kenichi, Japanese chef
- January 7 - David Caruso, American actor
- January 10 - Shawn Colvin, American singer
- January 14 - Ben Heppner, Canadian tenor
- January 16 - Martin Jol, Dutch football manager
- January 17 - Paul Young, English musician
- January 20 - Bill Maher, American actor, comedian, and political analyst
- January 21 - Geena Davis, American actress
- January 27 - Mimi Rogers, American actress
- January 31 - Johnny Rotten, British singer (Sex Pistols)
- February 3 - Nathan Lane, American actor
- February 11 - Didier Lockwood, French jazz violinist
- February 13 - Peter Hook, British bassist (Joy Division and New Order)
- February 14 - Tom Burlinson, Australian actor
- February 14 - Ron Shore, American film and television composer and producer
- February 15 - Desmond Haynes, West Indian cricketer
- February 18 - Thomas Gradin, Swedish hockey player
- February 19 - Roderick MacKinnon, American biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
- February 24 - Paula Zahn, American television journalist
- February 26 - Keisuke Kuwata, Japanese musician
- February 29 - Randy Jackson, American musician
- February 29 - Bob Speller, Canadian politician
- February 29 - Aileen Carol Wuornos, American serial killer (d. 2002)

March-April


- March 11 - Rob Paulsen, American voice actor
- March 21 - Ingrid Kristiansen, Norwegian runner
- April 3 - Ray Combs, American game show host and comedian
- April 4 - Kerry Chikarovski, Australian politician
- April 4 - David E. Kelley, American writer and television producer
- April 6 - Dilip Vengsarkar, Indian cricketer
- April 12 - Andy Garcia, American actor
- April 13 - Peter 'Possum' Bourne, Australian race car driver (d. 2003)
- April 13 - Alison Wheeler, British political activist
- April 14 - Barbara Bonney, American soprano
- April 16 - David M. Brown, United States Naval Captain, NASA astronaut (d. 2003)
- April 16 - Lise-Marie Morerod, Swiss skier
- April 19 - Sue Barker, British tennis player and television presenter
- April 23 - Judy Davis, Australian actress
- April 26 - Koo Stark, British actress
- April 28 - Jimmy Barnes, Australian musician
- April 30 - Jorge Chaminé, Portuguese baritone
- April 30 - Lars von Trier, Danish film director

May-June


- May 4 - David Guterson, American writer
- May 4 - Ulrike Meyfarth, German high jumper
- May 7 - Jan Peter Balkenende, Prime Minister of the Netherlands
- May 13 - Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, Indian guru
- May 13 - Steve Blackwood, American actor and musician
- May 15 - Dan Patrick, American sportscaster
- May 16 - Olga Korbut, Russian gymnast
- May 17 - Sugar Ray Leonard, American boxer
- May 17 - Bob Saget, American actor
- May 19 - James Gosling, Canadian software engineer
- May 20 - Ingvar Ambjørnsen, Norwegian author
- May 21 - Judge Reinhold, American actor
- May 23 - Buck Showalter, baseball player and manager
- June 6 - Björn Borg, Swedish tennis player
- June 9 - Patricia Cornwell, American novelist
- June 11 - Joe Montana, American football player
- June 23 - Glenn Danzig, American musician (Danzig)
- June 25 - Boris Trajkovski, President of the Republic of Macedonia (d. 2004)
- June 27 - Heiner Dopp, German field hockey player
- June 30 - Ronald Winans, American musician (d. 2005)

July-August


- July 2 - Jerry Hall, American model and actress
- July 9 - Tom Hanks, American actor
- July 14 - Ran Andrews, Canadian painter
- July 15 - Ian Curtis, British musician (Joy Division) (d. 1980)
- July 15 - Barry Melrose, Canadian hockey player, coach, and commentator
- July 15 - Marky Ramone American drummer (The Ramones)
- July 16 - Tony Kushner, American playwright
- July 31 - Michael Biehn, American actor
- August 5 - Maureen McCormick, American actress
- August 14 - Rusty Wallace, American race car driver
- August 20 - Joan Allen, American actress
- August 21 - Kim Cattrall, Canadian actress
- August 22 - Paul Molitor, baseball player
- August 23 - Andreas Floer, German mathematician (d. 1991)
- August 24 - John Culberson, American politician
- August 31 - Masashi Tashiro, Japanese television performer

September-December


- September 11 - Phil Bissett, American politican
- September 12 - Ricky Rudd, American race car driver
- September 14 - Costas Caramanlis, Greek politician
- September 14 - Ray Wilkins, English footballer and coach
- September 20 - Gary Cole, American actor
- September 22 - Masayuki Suzuki, Japanese singer (Rats & Star)
- September 26 - Linda Hamilton, American actress
- September 30 - Fran Drescher, American actress
- October 11 - Nicanor Duarte Frutos, President of Paraguay
- October 17 - Mae Jemison, astronaut
- October 18 - Martina Navratilova, Czech-born tennis player
- October 19 - Carlo Urbani, Italian physician (d. 2003)
- November 18 - Warren Moon, American football player
- November 23 - Shane Gould, Australian swimmer
- November 23 - Steve Harvey, American actor and comedian
- November 26 - Dale Jarrett, American race car driver
- November 27 - William Fichtner, American actor
- November 28 - Lucy Gutteridge, British actress
- November 28 - Andreas Augustin, Austrian author
- November 29 - Leo Laporte, Candian author and television host
- December 5 - Krystian Zimerman, Polish pianist
- December 5 - Brian Backer, American actor
- December 7 - Larry Bird, American basketball player
- December 7 - Mark Rolston, American actor
- December 8 - Warren Cuccurullo, American musician (Missing Persons and Duran Duran)
- December 12 - Johan Van der Velde, Dutch cyclist
- December 18 - Ron White, American comedian
- December 23 - Michele Alboreto, Italian race car driver
- December 23 - Dave Murray, British guitarist
- December 26 - David Sedaris, American essayist
- December 28 - Nigel Kennedy, English violinist

Deaths

January-April


- January 3 - Alexander Grechaninov, Russian composer (b. 1864)
- January 5 - Mistinguett, French singer (b. 1875)
- January 13 - Lyonel Charles Feininger, German painter (b. 1871)
- January 24 - Sir Alexander Korda, Hungarian-born film director (b. 1893)
- January 27 - Erich Kleiber, German conductor (b. 1890)
- January 29 - H. L. Mencken, American writer (b. 1880)
- January 31 - A. A. Milne, English author (b. 1882)
- February 8 - Connie Mack, baseball executive and manager (b. 1862)
- February 18 - Gustave Charpentier, French composer (b. 1860)
- March 17 - Irène Joliot-Curie, French physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (b. 1897)
- March 20 - Fanny Durack, Australian swimmer
- March 25 - Robert Newton, English film actor (b. 1905)
- March 30 - Edmund Clerihew Bentley, English inventor (b. 1875)
- March 31 - Ralph DePalma, Italian-born race car driver (b. 1884)
- April 30 - Alben Barkley, Vice-President of the United States (b. 1877)

May-December


- May 12 - Louis Calhern, American actor (b. 1895)
- May 17 - Austin Osman Spare, English magician (b. 1886)
- May 18 - Maurice Tate, English cricketer (b. 1895)
- May 20 - Max Beerbohm, English theater critic (b. 1872)
- May 26 - Al Simmons, baseball player (b. 1902)
- May 31 - Diedrich Hermann Westermann, German linguist (b. 1875)
- June 17 - Paul Rostock, German official, surgeon, and university professor (b. 1892)
- June 23 - Reinhold Glière, Russian composer (b. 1875)
- July 7 - Gottfried Benn, German poet (b. 1886)
- August 2 - Albert Woolson, last surviving Union veteran of the American Civil War (b. 1847)
- August 11 - Jackson Pollock, American painter (b. 1912)
- August 14 - Bertolt Brecht, German playwright (b. 1898)
- August 16 - Bela Lugosi, Hungarian-born film actor (b. 1882)
- August 23 - Peaches Browning, American actress (b. 1910)
- August 25 - Alfred Kinsey, American sex researcher (b. 1894)
- September 21 - Anastasio Somoza García, President of Nicaragua (b. 1896)
- September 22 - Frederick Soddy, English chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877)
- September 27 - Babe Didrikson Zaharias, American athlete and golfer (b. 1911)
- October 12 - Don Lorenzo Perosi, Italian composer (b. 1872)
- October 19 - Isham Jones, American musician (b. 1894)
- October 26 - Walter Gieseking, French conductor (b. 1895)
- November 24 - Guido Cantelli, Italian conductor (b. 1920)
- December 6 - Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, Indian untouchable leader (b. 1891)
- December 7 - Huntley Gordon, Canadian actor (b. 1887)
- December 16 - Nina Hamnett, Welsh artist (b 1890)

Unknown dates


- James Alexander Allan, Australian poet (b. 1889)

Nobel Prizes


- Physics - William Bradford Shockley, John Bardeen, Walter Houser Brattain
- Chemistry - Sir Cyril Norman Hinshelwood, Nikolay Nikolaevich Semenov
- Physiology or Medicine - André Frédéric Cournand, Werner Forssmann, Dickinson W. Richards
- Literature - Juan Ramón Jiménez
- Peace - not awarded Category:1956 ko:1956년 ms:1956 ja:1956年 simple:1956 th:พ.ศ. 2499

2020s

Millennia: 2nd millennium - 3rd millennium - 4th millennium Centuries: 20th century - 21st century - 22nd century Decades: 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s - 2020s - 2030s 2040s 2050s 2060s 2070s Years: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 ----

The Decade as a Whole

This decade is expected to be called the "twenty-twenties". The roman decennia number is XX. Category:Years in the future Category:3rd millennium Category:21st century Category:2020s ja:2020年代

Boeing 707

in 1964]] The Boeing 707 is a four engined commercial passenger jet aircraft developed by Boeing in the early 1950s. Although it was not the first commercial jet airliner in service (that distinction belongs to the De Havilland Comet), it was the first to be commercially successful, and is credited by many as ushering in the Jet Age, as well as being the first of Boeing's 7x7 range of airliners.

History

The 707 was based on a prototype Boeing aircraft known as the Boeing 367-80. The "Dash 80", as it was called within Boeing, cost $16 million to develop and took less than two years from project launch in 1952 to rollout on May 14, 1954. The prototype was the basis for both the KC-135, an air tanker used by the United States Air Force, and the 707. To enable the fitting of six-abreast seats, the 707's fuselage was widened by 6 inches (150 mm) compared to the original 367-80. Pan Am was the first airline to operate the 707; the aircraft's first commercial flight was from New York to Paris on October 26, 1958. American Airlines operated the first transcontinental 707 flight on January 25, 1959. Many other airlines followed, and the 707 quickly became the most popular jetliner of its time, edging out its main competitor, the Douglas DC-8. As the 1960s drew to a close, the exponential growth in air travel led to the 707 being a victim of its own success. It had become obvious that the 707 was now too small to handle the passenger densities on the routes for which it was designed. Stretching the fuselage was not a viable option because the 707's limited ground clearance made the installation of a larger undercarriage almost impossible. Boeing's answer to the problem was the first twin aisle airliner - the 747. The 707's first-generation engine technology was also rapidly becoming obsolete in the areas of noise and fuel economy. Production of the passenger 707 ended in 1978 (the 767 acted as its partial replacement). In total, 1,010 707s were built for civil use. The military versions remained in production until 1991. Traces of the 707 are still in many of Boeing's current products, most notably the 737, which uses a modified version of the 707's fuselage. In fact, if the 707 were still in production it would have probably evolved into what is now the 737-900, which is arguably a modernized 707 with two Turbofan high bypass ratio engines replacing the original four Turbojet noisy engines. The Chinese government sponsored development of the Shanghai Y-10 during the 1970s, which was a near carbon-copy of the 707.

Subtypes

Shanghai Y-10 The original 707, the 707-120 was designed for transcontinental routes and often required a refuelling stop when used on the North Atlantic route. It was originally fitted with four Pratt and Whitney JT3C turbojets, civilian versions of the military J57 model. The later Model 707-120B version used JT3D turbofans, which were quieter, more powerful, and more fuel efficient. The 707-220 (also designated 707-227) was a 707-120 airframe fitted with more powerful JT4A turbojets, for hot and high operations on Braniff International's South American routes. Only 5 of these were built, due to extremely high fuel consumption. This marque was anyway rendered redundant by the arrival of the turbofan. The later 707-320 Intercontinental and 707-420 Intercontinental models had larger wings, heavier weight and more fuel capacity to operate as true transoceanic aircraft. The original -320 version came equipped with JT4A turbojets, while the 707-320B Intercontinental version came with JT3D turbofans. The 707-320C Convertible, also turbofan-engined, had a large cargo door allowing it to serve as a dual-purpose transport aircraft; a pure 707-320C Freighter was also built. The 707-420 version, produced originally for BOAC, was powered by Rolls-Royce Conway engines. The 707-320 freighter was used by USAF and was given the designation C-18. The 707-700 was a one off test aircraft used to study the feasibility of using CFM International CFM56 powerplants on a 707 airframe and possibly retrofitting them to existing aircraft. After a testing in 1979 N707QT, the last commercial 707 airframe, was refitted to 707-320C configuration and delivered to the Moroccan Air Force as a tanker aircraft. (This purchase was considered a "civilian" order and not a