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KXGN

KXGN

KXGN-TV operates as NTSC TV channel 5 in Glendive, Montana, a primarily agricultural (cattle, sheep, pigs, grain, cereal) region in eastern Montana which is the smallest of the 210 US Nielsen-designated broadcast television market areas ([http://tv.backchannelmedia.com/dmas/798 market data]) in the United States. KXGN carries a portion of the CBS network feed, along with some NBC programming. The only other station serving Glendive is KWZB, a WB affiliate, with a total potential home-market audience of a mere five thousand households. Like many other Montana stations, KXGN relies heavily on a mix of broadcast repeaters and cable TV systems to extend its reach to more viewers.

Radio

KXGN operates on AM radio (1400kHz, oldies) and also runs KZDN (96.5MHz, country music) on FM. KXGN TV and radio are based at 210 S Douglas Glendive, MT 35801 +1-406-377-3377

Transition to ATSC digital

KXGN was allocated ATSC TV channel 10 by the FCC in September 2004 [http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DA-04-3051A1.txt] after receiving multiple extensions (on the grounds of financial hardship) of the original May 1, 2002 deadline to go digital. [http://www.umt.edu/journalism/MJR/MJR_2002/stories/digital.html] Obstacles to the digital transition include cost (estimated as of 2002 at slightly over $1 million for KXGN and two other stations owned by the same person), the limited number of households which would be able to receive the digital signal (as many depend on repeaters to receive TV at all) and the small number of ATSC-digital TV sets in use. If as of 2002 new analogue TV's outsold the expensive digital sets 50 to 1, few will be watching ATSC even where the signal is physically available. The major obstacles which apply to the adoption of terrestrial digital TV elsewhere (limited amount of HD content, high cost relative to competition from free-to-air DVB satellite or subscription TV services) still apply, but are magnified by the small and widely geographically-distributed audience of a small-market station.

External links

- http://www.glendivebroadcasting.com/
- Category:NBC network affiliates Category:CBS network affiliates

NTSC

NTSC is the analog television system in use in Korea, Japan, United States, Canada and certain other places, mostly in the Americas (see map). It is named for the National Television System(s) Committee, the industry-wide standardization body that created it.

History

The National Television System Committee was established in 1940 by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to resolve the conflicts which had arisen between companies over the introduction of a nationwide analog television system in the U.S. The committee in March 1941 issued a technical standard for black and white television. This built upon a 1936 recommendation made by the Radio Manufacturers Association (RMA) that used 441 lines. With the advancement of the vestigial sideband technique for broadcasting that increased available bandwidth, there was an opportunity to increase the image resolution. The NTSC compromised between RCA's desire to keep a 441-line standard (their NBC TV network was already using it) and Philco's desire to increase it to between 600 and 800, settling on a 525-line transmission. Other technical standards in the final recommendation were an frame rate (image rate) rate of 30 frames per second consisting of 2 interlaced fields per frame (2:1 interlacing) at 262 1/2 lines per field or 60 fields per second along with an aspect ratio of 4 by 3, and frequency modulation for the sound signal. In January 1950 the Committee was reconstituted, this time to decide about color television. In March 1953 it unanimously approved what is now called simply the NTSC color television standard, later defined as RS-170a. The updated standard retained full backwards compatibility with older black and white television sets. Color information was added to the black and white image by adding a color subcarrier of 3.58 Mhz to the video signal. Due to certain technical considerations, the addition of the color subcarier also required a slight reduction of the frame rate from 30 frames per second to 29.97 frames per second. The FCC had briefly approved a different color television system starting in 1950. It was developed by CBS and was incompatible with black and white broadcasts. That system used a rotating color wheel, reduced the number of scanlines from 525 to 405, and increased the field rate from 60 to 144 (but had an effective frame rate of 24 frames per second). Delay tactics by rival RCA kept the system off the air until mid-1951, and regular broadcasts only lasted a few months before manufacture of CBS-compatible systems was banned by the National Production Authority (NPA). Most of the existing devices were soon destroyed and only two receivers are known to exist today. The CBS system was rescinded by the FCC in 1953 and was replaced later that year by the NTSC color standard, which had been developed with the cooperation of several companies including RCA and Philco. A variant of the CBS system was later used by NASA to broadcast pictures of astronauts from space. A third "line sequential" system from Color Television Inc. (CTI) was also considered. The CBS and final NTSC systems were called "field sequential" and "dot sequential" systems, respectively. The first commercially available color NTSC television camera was the RCA TK-40A, introduced in March 1954. It was replaced later that year by an improved version, the TK-41, which became the standard camera used through much of the 1960s. The NTSC standard has since been adopted by many other countries, for example most of the Americas and Japan.

Technical details

Refresh rate

The NTSC format—or more correctly the M format; see broadcast television systems—consists of 29.97 interlaced frames of video per second. Each frame consists of 480 lines out of a total of 525 (the rest are used for sync, vertical retrace, and other data such as captioning). The NTSC system interlaces its scanlines, drawing odd-numbered scanlines in odd-numbered fields and even-numbered scanlines in even-numbered fields, yielding a nearly flicker-free image at its approximately 59.94 hertz (nominally 60 Hz/1.001) refresh frequency. This compares favorably to the 50 Hz refresh rate of the 625-line PAL and SECAM video formats used in Europe, where 50 Hz alternating current is the standard; flicker is more likely to be noticed when using these standards. Interlacing the picture does complicate editing video, but this is true of all interlaced video formats, including PAL and SECAM. The NTSC refresh frequency was originally exactly 60 Hz in the black and white system, chosen because it matched the nominal 60 Hz frequency of alternating current power used in the United States. It was preferable to match the screen refresh rate to the power source to avoid wave interference that would produce rolling bars on the screen. Synchronization of the refresh rate to the power cycle also helped kinescope cameras record early live television broadcasts, as it was very simple to synchronize a film camera to capture one frame of video on each film cell by using the alternating current frequency as a shutter trigger. In the color system the refresh frequency was shifted slightly downward to 59.94 Hz to eliminate stationary dot patterns in the color carrier, as explained below in "Color encoding." The mismatch in frame rate between NTSC and the other two video formats, PAL and SECAM, is the most difficult part of video format conversion. Because the NTSC frame rate is higher, it is necessary for video conversion equipment converting to NTSC to interpolate the contents of adjacent frames in order to produce new intermediate frames; this introduces artifacts, and a trained eye can quickly spot video that has been converted between formats. (See also stutter frame.)

Color encoding

For backward compatibility with black and white television, NTSC uses a luminance-chrominance encoding system invented in 1938 by Georges Valensi. Luminance (derived mathematically from the composite color signal) takes the place of the original monochrome signal. Chrominance carries color information. This allows black and white receivers to display NTSC signals simply by ignoring the chrominance. In NTSC, chrominance is encoded using two 3.579545 MHz signals that are 90 degrees out of phase, known as I (intermodulation) and Q (quadrature). The phase relationship of the I and Q signals with the 3.579545 MHz subcarrier corresponds to the instantaneous color hue captured by a TV camera; its amplitude corresponds to the color saturation (purity) of the original signal. For a TV or a display to recover color information from the varying phase and amplitude signals just described, a constant phase reference 3.579545 MHz signal is needed. A short sample of this reference signal is included in the NTSC signal as color burst, located on the back porch of each horizontal line, the time between the end of the horizontal synchronization pulse and the of the blanking pulse on each line. The color burst consists of a minimum of eight cycles of the unmodulated (fixed phase and amplitude) color subcarrier. By comparing the reference signal derived from color burst to the color signal's amplitude and phase, color hue and saturation information are recovered. When NTSC is broadcast, a radio frequency carrier is amplitude modulated by the NTSC signal just described, while an audio signal is transmitted by frequency modulating a carrier 4.5 MHz higher. If the signal is affected by non-linear distortion, the 3.58 MHz color carrier may beat with the sound carrier to produce a dot pattern on the screen. The original 60 Hz field rate was adjusted down by the factor of 1000/1001, to 59.94 fields per second, so that the resulting pattern would be less noticeable. Another important factor in choosing the new field rate was to make sure that interference between the luminance and chrominance signals would be shifted exactly 180 degrees for each scanline. There are two reasons why this is important. First, the chrominance signal was interpreted as luminance by TV sets that were in use at the time of the introduction of color TV and which didn't have notch filters to filter out the chrominance information, causing dots to appear on strongly contrasting edges (which is high-frequency video information). The field rate choice causes the dots to appear to move, which makes them harder for the human eye to follow. The effect is still noticeable on close examination, however, and is referred to as dot crawl. A second benefit to the chosen field rate was realized much later: The phase difference of the interference pattern on successive lines makes it very easy to design a simple comb filter to separate chrominance and luminance information to a greater degree.

Transmission modulation scheme

An NTSC television channel as transmitted occupies a total bandwidth of 6 MHz. A guard band, which does not carry any signals, occupies the lowest 250 kHz of the channel to avoid interference between the video signal of one channel and the audio signals of the next channel down. The actual video signal, which is amplitude-modulated, is transmitted between 500 kHz and 5.45 MHz above the lower bound of the channel. The video carrier is 1.25 MHz above the lower bound of the channel. Like any modulated signal, the video carrier generates two sidebands, one above the carrier and one below. The sidebands are each 4.2 MHz wide. The entire upper sideband is transmitted, but only 750 kHz of the lower sideband, known as a vestigial sideband, is transmitted. The color subcarrier, as noted above, is 3.579545 MHz above the video carrier, and is quadrature-amplitude-modulated with supressed carrier. The highest 250 kHz of each channel contains the audio signal, which is frequency-modulated, making it compatible with the audio signals broadcast by FM radio stations in the 88-108 MHz band. The main audio carrier is 4.5 MHz above the video carrier. Sometimes a channel may contain an MTS signal, which is simply more than one audio signal. This is normally the case when stereo audio and/or second audio program signals are used.

Quality problems

Video professionals and television engineers do not hold NTSC video in high regard, joking that the abbreviation stands for "Never The Same Color," or "Never Twice the Same Color." Cabling problems tend to degrade an NTSC picture (by changing the phase of the color signal), so the picture often loses its color balance by the time the viewer receives it. This necessitates the inclusion of a tint control on NTSC sets, which is not necessary on PAL or SECAM systems. Some complain that the 525 line resolution of NTSC results in a lower quality image than the hardware is capable of. Additionally, the large mismatch between NTSC's 30 frames per second and cinema's 24 frames per second cannot be overcome by a simple small speedup during telecine of cinematic movies for display on NTSC equipment; unlike PAL a more complex process called "3:2 pulldown" is needed, which duplicates parts of frames. This induces noticeable judder during slow pans of the camera. See telecine for more details. There is no question the NTSC system reflects the limitations and technology of a bygone era; indeed, its compatibility has been the key to its longevity and ubiquity over seven decades. The coming of digital television and high-definition television may spell its doom. There is, however, no way to predict just how many more years its characteristic notched trace may continue to flicker across television station waveform monitors and its basic but effective scheme continue to beam into living rooms over much of the globe.

Variants of NTSC

Unlike PAL, with its many and varied underlying broadcast television systems in use throughout the world, NTSC color encoding is invariably used with broadcast system M, giving NTSC-M. Britain once contemplated introducing a 405-line NTSC-A system on top of its old black-and-white television system, but the proposal was eventually scrapped in favor of the incompatible PAL-I. Only Japan's variant "NTSC-J" is very slightly different: in Japan, black level and blanking level of the signal are identical, as they are in PAL, while in American NTSC, black level is slightly higher than blanking level. Since the difference is quite small, a slight turn of the brightness knob is all that is required to enjoy the "other" variant of NTSC on any set as it is supposed to be; most watchers might not even notice the difference in the first place. The Brazilian PAL-M system uses the same broadcast bandwidth, frame rate, and number of lines as NTSC, but using PAL encoding. It is therefore NTSC-compatible in sources such as video cassettes and DVDs, but its color picture cannot be received on a standard NTSC television set.

History of the NTSC signal

- NTSC I is the original monochromatic 525/60 signal that first became standard in the U.S. in 1941 and later in Canada.
- NTSC II is the color system with some but not all aspects of the signal rigorously defined. NTSC II has a minor change in its temporal structure, becoming a 525/59.94 system. From this point 525/60 [RGB] becomes a separate production standard that interoperates with NTSC via a 1000/1001 drop frame solution.
- NTSC III came about due to digital television routing during the 1980s; all aspects of NTSC III are rigidly mathematically defined.

The current state of NTSC III

The North American analog transmission chain is strictly NTSC III now. Many NTSC II devices feed into existing transmission chains, with NTSC III compatibility being achieved by signal processing in the digital domain. Typical terrestrial TV transmitters or cable company distribution units send out NTSC III signals, especially if the originating signal comes from a TVRO or ATSC source. All free-to-air analog satcom transmissions are NTSC III. Video scrambling systems such as VideoCipher cannot acheve full NTSC III compability due to end-to-end analog processing issues. There are no known compatibility problems between NTSC II and NTSC III. Older NTSC II sets should handle NTSC III signals without any problems, even with respect to minor frequency variances the color sync subcarrier that exist in NTSC II.

Vertical Interval Reference

The standard NTSC video image contains some lines (lines 1-21 of each field) which are not visible; all are beyond the edge of the viewable image, but only lines 1-9 are used for the vertical-sync and equalizing pulses. The remaining lines were deliberately blanked in the original NTSC specification to provide time for the electron beam in CRT-based screens to return to the top of the display. VIR (or Vertical Interval Reference), widely adopted in the 1980's, attempts to correct some of the color problems with NTSC video by adding studio-inserted reference data for luminance and chrominance levels on line 19. [http://sipi.usc.edu/~weber/ee459/datasheets/LM1881.pdf] Suitably-equipped television sets could then employ this data in order to adjust the display to a closer match of the original studio image. A less-used successor to VIR also added ghost (multipath interference) removal capabilities. The remaining vertical blanking interval lines are typically used for datacasting or ancillary data such as video editing timestamps (vertical interval timecodes or SMPTE timecodes on lines 12-14 [http://www.philrees.co.uk/articles/timecode.htm] [http://www.poynton.com/notes/video/Timecode/]), test data on lines 17-18, a network source code on line 20 and closed captioning and V-chip data on line 21. Early teletext applications also used vertical blanking interval lines 14-18 and 20, but teletext over NTSC was never widely adopted by viewers [http://www.experimentaltvcenter.org/history/tools/ttext.php3?id=16].

Countries and territories that use NTSC

teletext

North America

- Canada
- Mexico
- United States

Central America and the Caribbean

- Antigua and Barbuda
- Aruba
- Bahamas
- Barbados
- Belize
- Bermuda
- British Virgin Islands
- Cayman Islands
- Costa Rica
- Cuba
- Dominica
- Dominican Republic
- El Salvador
- Guatemala
- Grenada
- Honduras
- Jamaica
- Leeward Islands
- Montserrat
- Netherlands Antilles
- Nicaragua
- Panama
- Puerto Rico
- St. Kitts and Nevis
- St. Lucia
- St. Vincent and the Grenadines
- Trinidad and Tobago
- U.S. Virgin Islands

South America

- Bolivia
- Chile
- Colombia
- Ecuador
- Guyana
- Peru
- Suriname
- Venezuela
- Brazil (PAL-M system, based on NTSC-M standard but using PAL color encoding)

Asia

- Cambodia (Historic; all of Cambodia now uses SECAM)
- Japan
- Myanmar
- Philippines
- South Korea
- Taiwan
- North Korea (Propaganda station aimed at South Korea; domestic broadcasts use PAL)
- South Vietnam (Historic; all of Vietnam now uses PAL)

The Pacific

- American Samoa
- Australia (Historic; all of Australia now uses PAL)
- Fiji
- Guam
- Marshall Islands
- Micronesia
- Midway Atoll
- Northern Mariana Islands
- Palau
- Samoa

Indian Ocean

- Diego Garcia

Middle East

- South Yemen (Historic; all of Yemen now uses PAL)
See also

- Broadcast television systems
- RCA
- PAL
References

- A standard defining the NTSC system was published by the International Telecommunication Union in 1998 under the title "Recommendation ITU-R BT.470-6, Conventional Television Systems." It isn't publicly available on the Internet, but it can be purchased from the ITU.
- Ed Reitan (1997). [http://www.novia.net/~ereitan/Color_Sys_CBS.html CBS Field Sequential Color System.]
External links

- [http://www.paradiso-design.net/videostandards_en.html Representation of the NTSC refresh rate on a television and on a DVD]
- [http://google.com/groups?selm=CHJ9wG.7CH@fc.hp.com A thorough explanation of the reasons why the field rate was changed to 59.94 Hz when color was introduced to the NTSC standard, including all the magic numbers and mathematics] Category:Video and movie technology Category:Standards ja:NTSC

Nielsen Media Research

:For people with the last name Nielsen, see Nielsen (disambiguation). Nielsen Media Research (NMR) is a U.S. firm, headquartered in New York City, and operating primarily from Oldsmar, FL, which measures media audiences, including television, radio and newspapers. NMR is best-known for the Nielsen Ratings, a measurement of television viewership. NMR began as a division of ACNielsen, a marketing research firm. In 1996, NMR was split off into an independent company, and in 1999, was purchased by the Dutch conglomerate VNU. In 2001, VNU also purchased ACNielsen, thereby bringing both companies under the same corporate umbrella. NMR is also a sister company to Nielsen//NetRatings, which measures Internet and digital media audiences.

External link

- [http://www.nielsenmedia.com/DMAs.html Designated Market Area]
- [http://www.nielsenmedia.com/ Nielsen Media Research]
- [http://www.nielsenfloridacampus.com/ Nielsen Media Research Global Technology and Information Center] Category:Companies based in New York City Category:Public opinion research companies

CBS

CBS (formerly an acronym for Columbia Broadcasting System) is a major television network and radio broadcaster in the United States. One of the pioneer radio networks, from its earliest days CBS established a reputation for quality; prior to the fracturing of the market under cable television, CBS's television network was one of three which dominated broadcasting in the United States. The network is indirectly owned by the media conglomerate Viacom (itself once a subsidiary of CBS). It and other traditional broadcasting assets will be part of the new CBS Corporation following a split of Viacom expected by the end of 2005. Les Moonves is chairman of CBS and vice-chairman of parent company Viacom, and will be president of CBS Corporation. Prior to 1998, Moonves was president of CBS Entertainment.

History

Early years

CBS can trace its origins to the creation, in 1927 of the "United Independent Broadcasters" network. Begun by New York talent agent Arthur Judson, it went on the air in October of that year with 47 affiliates. The first year was a struggle, and United soon looked for additional investors; the Columbia Phonographic Manufacturing Company (also owners of Columbia Records), rescued the company in 1928, and as a result, the network was renamed "Columbia Phonographic Broadcasting System." Later in 1928, another investor, Paramount Pictures, bought shares in Columbia stock, and for a time it was thought the network would be re-named "Paramount Radio". Any chance of further Paramount involvement ended with the 1929 stock-market crash; the near-bankrupt studio sold its shares back to CBS in 1932. With the infusion of cash from these investors, in November of 1928 Columbia paid $390,000 to A.H. Grebe's Atlantic Broadcasting Company for a small Brooklyn station, WABC, which would become the network's flagship station. WABC was quickly upgraded, and the signal relocated to a stronger frequency, 860 kHz. (In 1946 WABC was re-named WCBS; the station moved to a new frequency, 880kHz, in the FCC's 1941 re-assignment of stations.) As the network's flagship, WCBS was where much of CBS's programming originated; other owned-and-operated stations were KNX Los Angeles, KCBS San Francisco, WBBM Chicago, WJSV Washington, DC (later WTOP), KMOX St. Louis, and WCCO Minneapolis.) Those stations remain the core affiliates of the CBS Radio Network today, with WCBS still the flagship, and all but WTOP (a Bonneville Broadcasting property) owned by CBS's Infinity Broadcasting unit Even with increased backing, the network continued to lose money, and on September 25, 1928, (some sources say January 18, 1929), Columbia Phonographic sold its half-interest for $500,000 to William S. Paley, son of a Philadelphia cigar manufacturer. With Columbia Phonographic's removal, Paley streamlined the corporate name to "Columbia Broadcasting System". Paley believed in the power of radio advertising; his family's company had seen their "La Palina" cigar become a best-seller after young William convinced his elders to advertise on Philadelphia station WCAU. As the third national network, CBS soon had more affiliates than either of NBC's two, in part because of a more generous rate of payment to affiliates. David Sarnoff, proprietor of NBC, believed in technology, so NBC's affiliates had the latest RCA equipment, and were often the best-established stations, or were on "clear channel" frequencies. But Paley believed in the power of programming, and CBS quickly established itself as the home of many popular musical and comedy stars, among them Bing Crosby, Al Jolson, George Burns & Gracie Allen, and Kate Smith. In the hard times of the early 1930s, radio broadened its offerings; refused an AP franchise for news, Paley launched an independent news division, shaped in its first years by Paley's vice-president, former New York Times man Ed Klauber, and news director Paul White. Another early hire, in 1935, was Edward R. Murrow, brought in as "Director of Talks." It was Murrow's reports, particularly during the dark days of the London Blitz, which contributed to CBS News's image for on-the-spot coverage. As European news chief and later head of the news division, Murrow created a team of reporters and editors that propelled CBS News to the forefront of the industry. On October 30, 1938, CBS gained a taste of infamy when Orson Welles and the Mercury Theatre broadcasted an adaption of H. G. Wells' The War of the Worlds. Its unique format of telling a contemporary version of the story in the form of faux news broadcasts had CBS listeners panicked that invaders from Mars were actually devastating New York City, despite 3 disclaimers during the broadcast that it was a work of fiction. CBS would later revive the format for television in the 1990s to tell the story of asteroids crashing to Earth, but the television format allowed for disclaimers to air at every commercial break, avoiding a replay of what happened in 1938. As long as radio was the dominant advertising medium, CBS dominated radio. All through the 1930s and 1940s, CBS programs were often the highest-rated. A much-publicized "talent raid" on NBC in the mid-1940s brought Jack Benny, Edgar Bergen and Amos 'n' Andy into the CBS fold. Paley also was an innovator in creating original programming; since broadcasting's earliest days, time had been sold to advertising agencies in half- or full-hour blocs. The ad agencies, not the networks, would then create the program to fill the time, thus it was " 'The Johnson's Wax Program', with Fibber McGee & Molly", or " 'The Pepsodent Show', with Bob Hope." At Paley's urging, beginning in the mid-1940s, CBS began creating its own programs; among the long-running shows that came from this project were "Our Miss Brooks," "Gunsmoke" and "The Adventures of Ozzie & Harriet." In time this idea was carried further, selling ad time by the minute, so that ad agencies no longer had any control over what went out over Mr. Paley's air. CBS was slow to move into television; as late as 1950 it owned only one station; radio continued to be the backbone of the company. But gradually, as the television network took shape, the big radio stars began to drift to television. Burns & Allen made the move in 1950; the high-rated Jack Benny show ended in 1955, and Edgar Bergen's Sunday-night show went off the air in 1957. Smaller-budgeted dramatic shows and daytime serials lasted until the early 1960s. But when CBS announced in 1956 that its radio operations had lost money, while the television network had made money, it was clear where the future lay. After the retirement of talk-show pioneer Arthur Godfrey in the early 1970s, CBS radio programming consisted of hourly news broadcasts, occasional news features and commentaries, and the nightly "CBS Mystery Theater", the lone holdout of old-style programming. The CBS Radio Network continues to this day, but offers primarily newscasts and news-related features like "The Osgood File" and "Harry Smith Reporting."

The Television Years: Expansion and Growth

Harry Smith CBS's first television broadcasts were experimental, often only for one hour a day, and reaching a limited area in and around New York City. To catch up with rival RCA, CBS bought Hytron Labratories in 1939, and immediately moved into set production and color broadcasting. Though there were many competing patents and systems, RCA dictated the content of the FCC's technical standards, and grabbed the spotlight from CBS, DuMont and others by introducing television to the general public at the 1939 New York World's Fair. The FCC began licensing televsion stations on July 1, 1941; the first license went to RCA and NBC's WNBT; the second license, issued that same day, was to WCBS. CBS-Hytron offered a practical color system in 1941, but it was not compatible with the black-and-white standards set down by RCA. In time, and after considerable dithering, the FCC rejected CBS's technology in favor of that backed by RCA. During the World War II years, commercial television broadcasting essentially shut down; only in 1946 did CBS and others resume regularly scheduled service. But as RCA and DuMont raced to establish networks and offer upgraded programming, CBS lagged. Only in 1950, when NBC was dominant in television, did CBS begin to buy or build stations. The "talent raid" on NBC of the mid-forties had brought over established radio stars; they now became stars of CBS television as well. One reluctant CBS star refused to bring her radio show, "My Favorite Husband," to television unless the network would re-cast the show with her real-life husband in the lead. Paley and network president Frank Stanton had so little faith in the future of Lucille Ball's series, re-dubbed "I Love Lucy," that they granted her wish and allowed the husband, Desi Arnaz, to take financial control of the production. This was the making of the Ball-Arnaz Desilu empire, and became the template for series production to this day. As television came to the forefront of American entertainment and information, CBS dominated television as it once had radio. By the late 1950s the network often controlled seven or eight of the slots on the "top ten" ratings list. This would continue for many years, with CBS bumped from first place only by the rise of ABC in the mid-1970s. William Paley was a buyer of art, and a backer of New York's Museum of Modern Art. CBS offices were filled with original works. Paley shared this interest with CBS President from 1946 - 1971 Frank Staton who carried this belief over into the design elements surrounding the network. When CBS bought Los Angeles station KNX in 1936 for a west-coast production headquarters, it was at Frank Stanton's instigation that architect William Pereira was hired to create a distinctive, modern broadcasting center on Sunset Boulevard. Similarly, when CBS commissioned Eero Saarinen to design a new corporate center in New York in the 1960s, Staton supervised every aspect of the project, even dictating what could be displayed in employee offices and on desk-tops. This belief in art, graphics and branding carried over to such things as the CBS Television's logo, the unblinking eye logo (designed by William Golden and introduced in 1951). An example of CBS's graphic-design particularity: on all official CBS letterhead, a tiny dot (at most a point in diameter) was pre-printed to indicate to a secretary where the typewriter carriage should be positioned for the salutation of a letter. pointDuring the 1960s, CBS began an effort to diversify, and looked for suitable investments. In 1965 it acquired Fender Guitars from Leo Fender, who agreed to sell his company due to health problems. Between 1965 and 1985 the quality of Fender guitars and amplifiers declined significantly; outraged Fender fans banded together in 1985 to buy Fender back and create FMIC, the Fender Musical Instrument Corporation. In other diversification attempts, CBS would buy (and later sell) sports teams (especially the New York Yankees baseball club), book publishers, map-makers and other properties. It made a brief, unsuccessful move into film production in the late 1960s, creating Cinema Center 100; this profit-free unit was shut down after a year-and-a-half. Yet in 1982, CBS was talked into another try at Hollywood, in a joint venture with Columbia Pictures and HBO called Tri-Star Pictures. CBS also entered into the home video market, and joined with MGM to form MGM/CBS Home Video in 1978; the joint venture was broken by 1983, and CBS joined another studio: 20th Century Fox, to form CBS/Fox Home Video. CBS' duty was to release some of the movies by Tri-Star under the CBS-FOX Home Video label. As William Paley aged, he tried to find the one person who could follow in his footsteps. Over the years any number of accomplished, successful businessmen were recruited, loudly praised to the press, only later to be summarily dismissed. By the mid-1980s, the investor Laurence Tisch had begun to acquire substantial holdings in CBS; eventually he gained Paley's confidence, and then his blessing, taking control of CBS in 1986. But Tisch had no dreams of quality or of "Tiffany" networks; he expected a return on his investment. When CBS faltered, under-performing units were given the axe. Among the first properties to go, and among the most prestigious, was the CBS Records group, which, as Columbia Records, had been part of the company since 1938. Sold to Sony in 1988, the company which had given the network its name, was re-christened "Sony Music" in 1991.

New owners

By the early 1990s, profits had fallen as a result of competition from cable companies, video rentals, and the high cost of programming. CBS ratings were acceptable, but the network struggled with an image of stodginess. Laurence Tisch lost interest and sought a new buyer. In 1995 Westinghouse Electric Corporation acquired CBS for $5.4 billion. Moving away from its industrial beginnings, Westinghouse sought to transform itself into a major media company with its purchase of CBS. This was followed in 1997 with the $4.9-billion purchase of Infinity Broadcasting Corporation, owner of more than 150 radio stations. Also that year, Westinghouse acquired two cable channels, Gaylord's The Nashville Network (TNN), (now Spike TV), and Country Music Television (CMT). Following the Infinity purchase, the remains of the CBS Radio network was handed to Infinity 's Westwood One subsidiary. Still more activity in the busy year of 1997: Westinghouse changed its name to CBS Corporation, and corporate headquarters were moved from Pittsburgh to New York. And to underline the change in emphasis, all non-entertainment assets were put up for sale. Another 90 radio stations were added to Infinity's portfolio in 1998 with the acquisition of American Radio Systems Corporation for $2.6 billion. A year later CBS paid $2.5 billion to acquire King World Productions, a television syndication company whose programs include The Oprah Winfrey Show and Wheel of Fortune. By 1999, all pre-CBS elements of Westinghouse's industrial past were gone. Though CBS had become a broadcasting giant, it was not immune from other buyers, and in 1999, entertainment conglomerate Viacom, a company long-before created to syndicate old CBS series, announced its was taking over CBS in a deal valued at $37 billion. Following completion of this effort in 2000, Viacom was ranked as the second-largest entertainment company in the world. A.C. Nielsen estimated in 2003 that CBS can be seen in 96.98% of all American households, reaching 103,421,270 homes in the United States. CBS has 204 VHF and UHF affiliated stations in the U.S. and U.S. possessions. CBS is currently the most watched television network in the United States, with the prime draws being the CSI and Survivor franchises. Having assembled all the elements of a communications empire, Viacom found that the promised synergy was not there, and in June, 2005 announced it would split itself in two. Under this plan, CBS is to become the center of a new company, CBS Corporation, which will include the broadcasting elements, Paramount Television's production operations, Viacom Outdoor advertising, Showtime, Simon & Schuster, and Paramount Parks. The second company, keeping the Viacom name, will include Paramount Pictures, assorted MTV Networks, BET, and Famous Music. CBS, Inc. announced on November 3, 2005 that they will acquire College Sports TV (CSTV) for $325 million. CEO of CSTV Brian Bedol will continue to run that network and report to Leslie Moonves, chairman of CBS. The transaction will be completed in January 2006, after Viacom completes the separation, as described in the last paragraph, which will be likely to be completed by the end of 2005. At that time, the company will go to CBS Corporation.

Some Criticisms

As an industrial power in technology-driven businesses, Westinghouse had been accused over the years of violating various environmental laws. Such was the company's reputation in some quarters that an exaggerated claim was made on the comedy-show Saturday Night Live that Westinghouse was guilty of dumping nuclear waste in playgrounds. In 2004 the FCC imposed a record $550,000 fine on CBS for its broadcast of a Super Bowl half-time show (produced by sister-unit MTV) in which singer Janet Jackson's breast was briefly exposed. It was the largest fine ever for a violation of federal decency laws. Following the incident CBS apologized to its viewers and denied foreknowledge of the event, which was broadcast live. CBS suffered another embarrassment in September of that year, when the network aired a controversial episode of its newsmagazine, 60 Minutes, which questioned U.S. President George W. Bush's service in the National Guard. Later, it was revealed that the documents CBS used were forged. CBS News eventually acknowledged that it could not verify the authenticity of the documents it obtained, although it maintains the other overall findings in relation to Bush's military service. The following January, CBS fired four people connected to the preparation of this news-segment. CBS Evening News anchor and 60 Minutes reporter Dan Rather resigned before the announcement of these firings, though he claimed that his decision had been made prior to the forged-documents matter.

The Eye Device

CBS unveiled its Eye Device logo on October 17, 1951. The Eye device was designed by William Golden based on a Pennsylvania Dutch hex sign as well as a Shaker drawing. First drawn by graphic artist Kurt Weiss, it made its broadcasting debut on October 20, 1951. The following season, as Golden prepared a new logo, CBS President Frank Stanton insisted on keeping the Eye device and using it as much as possible ("just when you're beginning to be bored by what you've done is when it's beginning to be noticed by your audience"). The CBS eye is now an American icon. While the symbol's settings have changed (with the CBS reference outside the pupil since 1990), the Eye device itself has not been redesigned in its entire history. It has frequently been copied or borrowed by television networks around the world.

Notes on Sources

- Barnouw, Erik. A Tower in Babel: A History of Broadcasting in the United States to 1933. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
- Barnouw, Erik. The Golden Web: A History of Broadcasting in the United States, 1933-1953. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968.
- Smith, Sally Bedell. In All His Glory, The Life of William S. Paley, the Legendary Tycoon and His Brilliant Circle. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990.
- Paley, William. As It Happened, a Memoir. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1979.
- Kisseloff, Jeff. The Box: An Oral History of Television, 1920-1961. New York: Viking, 1995.

External links

- [http://www.cbs.com CBS website]
- [http://www.cbs.com/specials/cbs_75/eye.shtml History of the CBS Eye]
- [http://www.mbcnet.org/archives/etv/C/htmlC/columbiabroa/columbiabroa.htm Background on CBS]
- [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/C/htmlC/columbiabroa/columbiabroa.htm Columbia Broadcasting System page on museum.tv]
- [http://www.tv-ark.org.uk/international/us_cbs.html Screen captures of CBS logos past and present, as well as footage of vintage promos] Category:CBS television network Category:United States television networks Category:Viacom subsidiaries ja:CBS

The WB Television Network

The WB Television Network, casually referred to as The WB, is a television network in the United States, founded as a joint venture between the Warner Bros. film studio and Tribune Company on January 11, 1995. The network is typically referred to as The WB or sometimes as The Frog (referring to the network's former mascot, the animated character Michigan J. Frog). The WB has helped to launch the careers of several Hollywood stars, including Sarah Michelle Gellar, Katie Holmes, Jessica Biel, Chad Michael Murray, Ashlee Simpson, and James Van Der Beek.

History

Much like its competitor UPN, the WB was a reaction to the success of the upstart Fox Network and first-run syndicated programming during the late 1980s and early 1990s such as Baywatch, as well as the erosion in ratings suffered by independent television stations due to the growth of cable television and movie rentals. WB's first programs were sitcoms and other cheaply produced fare, mostly targeted at an ethnic audience. Even though three of the inaugural four shows were renewed beyond the first year, none of them made a significant impact. The WB also added the "Kids' WB" programming block, which mixed Warners' biggest hit shows (Tiny Toon Adventures, Animaniacs and later Batman: The Animated Series, all of which originated either on Fox, Fox Kids or in syndication) with new productions and original shows. After the Turner–Time Warner merger in 1996, Kids' WB formed an alliance with Cartoon Network, and over time, they have shared more and more programming. Beginning in fall 2006, Kids' WB will be replaced by reruns of the sitcom Reba and ER. A few years after its launch, The WB intentionally shifted its programming to capture what it perceived to be a heavily fragmented market by marketing to the under-courted teen demographic. While the Fox Network was intentionally targeting older audiences with shows like Ally McBeal, The WB's breakout hits during the late 1990s centered around attractive highschoolers with Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Dawson's Creek in prime time. Just three years after their launch, they were ranked #1 among teenage audiences. Following the success of those shows, the network went on to produce the similarly positioned Felicity and Charmed. Around the same time, The WB also launched the American version of Pokémon in the Kids' WB blocks, which they acquired from syndication (TV Tokyo) in 1998 and became a widespread pop-culture phenomenon. WB also got the English-language version of the second series Yu-Gi-Oh! anime, titled Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters in Japan. It is sold to TV markets below the number 100 in viewership as determined by Nielsen in a packaged format, with a master schedule and no local advertisements. It was estimated in 2005 that the WB was viewable by 91.66% of all households, reaching 90,282,480 houses in the United States. The WB was carried by 177 VHF and UHF stations in the U.S., counting both owned-and-operated and affiliated stations (the owned and operated stations are not actually operated by Warner Bros. or Time Warner; instead, Tribune owns and operates these stations, thus its stake in the network). Outside of the aforementioned series, other large successes include Gilmore Girls, Smallville, and its only hit sitcom, Reba. Its most successful TV show to date is the religious family drama 7th Heaven, which enters its 10th season in the fall of 2005. The network has suffered in the ratings of late after its peak in the 2001/2002 season as it struggles to launch and brand unique new series, something which it previously had no problem doing. 2003–2005 produced only one viable new series, One Tree Hill, and even that is a pale comparison to the ratings peaks of Dawson's Creek and the like. As a result, the network is shifting its focus from the women 18–24 demographic to the more broad 18–34 range. To this end, The WB has abandoned its trademark mascot, Michigan J. Frog, as the network's iconic emblem. WB Entertainment President David Janollari explained in July at the network's summer 2005 press tour, that the animated character "perpetuated the young-teen feel of the network, and that is not the image we want to put to our audience." During the 2004/2005 season, The WB finished behind rival UPN for the first time in several years. In 2006 The WB's longest running series 7th Heaven will air their final episode.

External links

- [http://www.thewb.com/ The WB homepage]
- [http://www.kidswb.com/ Kids WB's Homepage]
- [http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/17172/107581 Suite 101: Kids' WB! 2004-2005 Preview]
- [http://www.routledge-ny.com/ref/television/wbnet.html WB Network] from The Encyclopedia of Television Category:The WB television network Category:Time Warner subsidiaries Category:United States television networks

Cable TV

:Cable TV redirects here. For the Hong Kong-based cable television network, see Cable TV Hong Kong. Cable TV Hong Kong Cable television or Community Antenna Television (CATV) (often shortened to cable) is a system of providing television, FM radio programming and other services to consumers via radio frequency signals transmitted directly to people’s televisions through fixed optical fibers or coaxial cables as opposed to the over-the-air method used in traditional television broadcasting (via radio waves) in which a television antenna is required. It is most commonplace in Canada, the United States, Europe, and much of East Asia, though it is present in many other countries, mainly in Australasia, South America and the Middle East. In Africa, cable TV has had little success, as it is not cost-effective to lay cables in sparsely populated areas, and although so-called "wireless cable" or microwave-based systems are used, "direct-to-home" satellite television is far more popular, especially in South Africa. Technically, both cable TV and CATV involve distributing a number of television channels collected at a central location (called a headend) to subscribers within a community by means of a network of optical fibers and/or coaxial cables and broadband amplifiers. As in the case of radio broadcasting, the use of different frequencies allows many channels to be distributed through the same cable, without separate wires for each. The tuner of the TV, VCR or radio selects one channel from this mixed signal. The same program is often simultaneously broadcast by radio and distributed by cable, usually at different frequencies. Other programs may be distributed by cable only; rules restricting content (e.g. regarding nudity and pornography) are often more relaxed for cable than for over-the-air TV. Traditional cable TV systems worked strictly by way of analog signals (i.e. using standard radio waves) but many modern cable TV systems also employ the use of digital cable technology, which uses compressed digital signals, allowing them to provide many more channels than they could with analog alone. Many cable television systems were formerly known as CATV (Community Antenna Television) systems as they were originally composed simply of a shared antenna located in a high location to which multiple households could have their TVs connected to via coaxial cable. This was designed to provide access to television signals in areas where reception was traditionally poor. As cable-only networks began to appear on CATV systems, picked up via satellite rather than by antenna, the use of the term CATV has largely faded and the term cable television has taken its place.

History of U.S. cable television and its regulation

During the television licensing freeze of the late 1940s, the demand for television increased. Since new television licenses were not being issued, the only way the demand was met was by Community Antenna Television. The first commercial CATV System was developed in 1948 by John Walson. He had interest in an appliance store that began to carry televisions. A major problem in selling televisions in Mahanoy City, Pennsylvania was that the stations which were available were received very poorly. Walson built an antenna on the top of a nearby mountain and strung a wire from it to his shop. A neighbor asked for the wire to be connected to his house and Walson connected it to his own house. He said he would extend the wire to anyone who would buy one of his television receivers, and in 1949 he started charging for the service. Another system in Mahanoy City was founded by Jerrold Electronics Corp. which served the other side of town. Both were originally three-channel systems and were upgraded to five. Other systems were built: some conceived the idea independently, others didn't, and others laid claim to the title of first. On August 1, 1949 T.J. Slowie, a secretary of the Federal Communications Commission, sent a letter to a CATV pioneer in Astoria, Oregon, L.E. Parsons, requesting he "furnish the Commission full information with respect to the nature of the system you may have developed and may be operating." He did. This is the first known involvement of the FCC in CATV. An FCC lawyer, E. Stratford Smith, determined the Commission could exercise common carrier jurisdiction over CATV. The FCC didn't act on this opinion and Smith later changed his mind after working in the cable industry for some time and testifying in Senate committee hearings. Senator and future Federal Communications Commissioner Kenneth A. Cox attended and participated in these hearings. He prepared a report entitled the Cox Report for the Senate Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. This report was against CATV and supported the FCC policy of a television station in every community. In 1959 and 1961 bills were introduced in Congress that would have determined the role of the FCC in CATV policy. The 1959 bill, which actually made it to the floor of the Senate, would have limited FCC jurisdiction to CATV systems within the contours, i.e. the broadcast range, of a single station. It was defeated. The 1961 bill proposed by the FCC would have given the Commission authority over CATV as CATV, and not as a common carrier or broadcaster. The Commission could then adopt rules and regulations "in the public interest" to govern CATV in any area covered both by CATV and broadcast television. No action was ever taken on this bill. More important than Congressional action in determining Federal Communications Commission CATV policy were court cases and FCC hearings. Frontier Broadcasting Co. v. Collier was a hearing in which broadcasters tried to get the FCC to exercise common carrier authority over 288 CATV systems in 36 states. The broadcasters maintained that CATV went against the FCC's Sixth Report and Order, which advocated at least one television station in every community. In 1958, the FCC decided that CATV was not really a common carrier since the subscriber did not determine the programming. Carter Mountain Transmission Corp., a common carrier that already transmitted television signals by microwave to CATV systems in several Wyoming towns, wanted to add a second signal to two of the towns and add two signals to a previously unserved town. A television station in one town opposed this and protested to the FCC on the grounds of economic damage. A hearing examiner supported Carter Mountain but the Commission supported the television station. The case was taken to appeal, as most are, and the Federal Communications Commission won. "The fact that no broadcaster has actually gone off the air due to CATV competition at the time the government moved to expand its authority (nor have any since) did not stay the momentum for the expansion of regulatory authority. That some economic impact was merely plausible sufficed as the basis for government concern and government action." The FCC overruled a hearing examiner in favor of broadcasters again in the "San Diego Case". The CATV systems in San Diego, California wanted to import stations from Los Angeles, some of which could be seen in San Diego; the television stations in San Diego didn't want the signals imported. The television stations won, not allowing the signals on future cable lines in San Diego and its environs. The FCC's reasoning was to protect the present and future UHF stations in San Diego. In the First Report and Order by the Federal Communications Commission on CATV the FCC gave itself the power to regulate CATV. This Report and Order was designed to protect small town television stations. It did this by imposing two rules, which in slightly altered form still stand: one requires that a CATV system carry all local stations in which the CATV system is in the "A" (best reception) contour of the station. The second prohibits the importation of programs from a non-local station that duplicates programming on a local station if the duplication is shown either 15 days before or 15 days after its local airing. This 1965 report reasoning is as follows: 1) CATV should carry local stations because CATV supplements, not replaces, local stations and the non-carriage of local stations gives distant stations an advantage since people will not change from the cable to the antenna to see a local station; 2) non-carriage is "inherently contrary to the public interest"; 3) CATV duplication of local programming via distant signals is unfair since broadcasters and CATV do not compete for programs on an equal footing; the FCC recommends "a reasonable measure of exclusivity". The 1966 Second Report and Order made some minor changes in the First Report and Order and added a major regulation. This was designed to protect UHF stations in large cities. The new rule disallowed the importation of distant signals into the top 100 markets, thus making CATV profitable only in cities with poor reception. In 1968 the Supreme Court upheld the FCC's right to make rules and regulations concerning CATV. In its decision on United States v. Southwestern Cable, the "San Diego Case", it said "the Commissions authority over 'all interstate ... communications by wire or radio' permits the regulation of CATV systems."

The birth of public access television

Main article: Public-access television In 1969 the FCC issued rules requiring all CATV systems with over 3500 subscribers to have facilities for local origination of programming by April 1, 1971. The date was later suspended. In 1972, Dean Burch steered the FCC into a new area of regulation. It lifted its restrictions on CATV in large cities, but now put the burden of more local programming on CATV operators. In 1976, the FCC used its rule making power to require that new systems now had to have 20 channels, and that cable providers with systems of 3500 subscribers or more had to provide PEG (public, education, and government access) channel capacity, and facilities and equipment necessary to use this capacity.

Programming

United States

In the United States, cable television programming is often divided between basic and premium programming. Basic cable TV networks are generally transmitted without any scrambling or other special methods and thus anyone connected to the cable TV system can receive them. Basic cable networks receive at least some funding through fees paid by the cable TV systems for the right to include the network in its channel lineup. Most basic cable TV networks also include advertising to supplement the fees, due to their programming cost being greater than the fees paid by cable TV systems. Premium cable refers to networks, such as HBO and Showtime, that scramble or encrypt their signals so that only those paying additional monthly fees to their cable TV system can legally view them (via the use of cable box). Because these networks command much higher fees from cable TV systems, their programming is generally commercial free. There are several features of is cable programming that distinguish it from broadcast television. Because cable television carries more bandwidth than broadcast TV (10 to 20 times as many channels), there is room for more specialized channels catering to a particular genre or groups such as sci-fi or woman’s oriented programming. Also, because cable TV networks rely much less, or in some cases not at all, on revenue from commercials, they can feature programming (such as minority sports or ethnic programming) that draws much smaller viewer numbers than what broadcast networks would find acceptable. And finally, since cable TV signals, unlike broadcast TV, cannot be picked up by just anyone with a TV, including children, the FCC’s rules regarding acceptable content do not apply to cable TV networks, allowing greater freedom in the use of language, nudity, and violence. The lack of restrictions on content has led to cable TV programs with more adult-oriented content such as nudity and strong language, including some premium cable networks broadcasting soft-core porn programs. Premium cable networks have traditionally been the loosest with regard to content, since they require a cable box to view, making it easier to restrict children’s access to them. Thus, one can find nudity, foul language, and even soft-core pornography on these networks, though, so far, not hard-core pornography, possibly due in part to such factors as the risk of cable TV systems dropping them or legal risk. Basic cable, on the other hand, has not traditionally been as loose with regard to content. While there are no FCC rules that apply to content on basic cable networks, because most such networks rely at least partly on advertising revenue, they have buckled to pressure from advertisers to keep their content more in line with that of broadcast TV. Thus, many basic cable networks voluntarily censor their programs, particularly with regard to language and nudity. In recent years though, some basic cable networks have begun to relax their self-imposed restrictions, particularly late at night. Thus, programs like Comedy Central’s South Park often contain content deemed unsuitable for U.S. broadcast TV. Some basic cable networks have also recently aired R-rated movies, uncut, late at night. There has been a recent push to create laws that force cable providers to allow consumers to purchase individual cable TV channels "a la carte," i.e. to allow them to pick and choose which channels they would like to have available in their homes. This is not likely to occur until digital cable television becomes popular, as it is very difficult to notch out individual channels from a cable TV line. For example, many cable providers have a "basic plan" consisting of local channels and a few national cable networks; and an "economy basic" plan consisting of local channels only. Both plans are supplied on the same cable, but the cable company can filter out the expanded channels to the "economy basic" subscribers using a low-pass filter which filters out higher channels. Notch filters are available which can filter out a "notch" of channels (for example, channels 45-50 can be "notched" out yet the subscriber can receive channels below 45 and higher than 50). However, to do this individually for a single subscriber who wants many "notches," would be very difficult. These problems are alleviated with the use of digital cable, which requires a set-top converter box. This converter can be programmed remotely to allow or disallow access to channels on an individual basis.

Cable television fees and programming lineups

Cable TV systems impose a monthly fee depending on the number and perceived quality of the channels offered. Cable TV subscribers are offered various packages of channels one can subscribe to. The cost of each package depends on the type of channels offered (basic vs. premium) and the quantity. These fees cover the fees paid to individual networks for the right to carry their network as well as the cost of operating and maintaining the cable TV system so that their signals can reach subscribers homes. Additional fees and taxes are often tacked on by local, state, and federal governments. The fee the cable TV system must pay to a cable TV network will vary depending on whether it is a basic or premium channel and the perceived popularity of that channel. Because cable TV systems are not required to carry any basic cable channel they often try and negotiate the fee they will pay for carrying a channel. Thus more popular networks have been able to command much higher fees then less popular networks. The fees paid to basic cable networks has a benefit in that advertisement breaks on basic cable are either absent or their number and duration are far lower than on broadcast TV, where ads make up around 25% of programming in the U.S. Most cable systems divide their channel lineups into three or four basic channel packages. A must-carry rule requires all cable TV system carry local broadcast stations on their lineups. Cable TV systems are also required to offer a subscription package that provides these broadcast channels at a lower rate then the standard subscription rate. The basic programming package offered by cable TV systems is usually known as basic cable and provides access to a large number of basic cable TV networks, as well as broadcast channels, and local-access television channels. Some systems refer to this package as expanded basic, with their most minimal package being referred to as basic cable. In addition to the basic cable packages, all system offer premium channel add-on packages offering either just one premium network (e.g. HBO) or several premium networks for one price (e.g. HBO and Showtime together). Finally, most cable systems offer pay-per-view channels where users can watch individual movies, live programs, sports, etc. for an additional fee for single viewing at a scheduled time. Some cable systems have begun to offer on-demand programming, where customers can select programs from a list of offerings including recent releases of movies, concerts, sports, and reruns of TV shows and specials and start the program whenever they wish, as if they were watching a DVD or a VHS tape. Some of the offerings have a cost similar to renting a movie at a video store while others are free. Starting in the late 1990s, advances in digital signal compression (primarily Motorola's DigiCipher 2 technology in North America) technology have given rise to wider implementation of digital cable services. Digital cable provides many more television channels over the same available bandwidth, by converting cable TV channels to a digital signal and then compressing the signal. Currently, most system offer a hybrid analog/digital cable system. This means they offer a certain number of analog channels via basic cable service with additional channels being made available via digital cable service. Thus subscribers wishing to have access to digital cable channels must have a special cable box to receive them. Additional subscription fees is also usually required to receive these digital channels. Digital cable channels can offer a higher quality picture then their analog counterparts though digital compression has a tendency to soften the quality of the television picture, particularly of channels that are more heavily compressed. Many cable systems operate as local monopolies in the United States, as cable companies typically receive exclusive rights to serve a region as a result of a franchise agreement with a local government. In some areas that is changing as competition has been allowed to enter the market, including in some cases city run cable systems. The rise of Digital Satellite Systems, which provide the same type of programming using small satellite receivers, has also provided competition to cable TV systems.

Mexico

The first cable system started to operate in the early Sixties in Monterrey, as a CATV service (an antenna at the top of the Loma Larga, which could get TV signals from South Texas). Most of the other major cities didn't develop cable systems until the late Eighties, due to government censorship. By 1989 the industry had had a major impulse with the founding of Multivisión—a MMDS system who started to develop its own channels in Spanish—and the later development of companies such as Cablemas and Megacable. Over the past few years, many US networks have started to develop content for the Mexican market, such as CNN en Español, MTV, Cartoon Network, Disney Channel, and others. The country also has a DTH service called SKY (Televisa & News Corp. owned). Recently DirecTV merged with Sky. The dominant company nowadays is Megacable.

United Kingdom

In the UK Cable Television had its origins in 1938, when the first Community Antenna TV systems were setup in towns including Bristol and Hull, for homes which couldn't recieve transmisssions over the air; however these signals were on the 405-line system. In the 1960s Ridiffusion Vision was setup to provide cable television in the newer 625-line and PAL formats. In the early 1980s Rediffusion Vision suplimented its service with other channels including The Music Box, Screensport, Sky Channel and TEN. The service was renamed to Rediffusion Cablevision. In the United Kingdom, the current generation of cable television began in the late 1980s with the issue of franchises to many local operators. These small operations proved uneconomic and there has been a continuing process of consolidation and re-financing. The two principal cable operators are now NTL and Telewest Broadband, which are themselves in the process of merging. NTL's cable service was originally known as CableTel and grew rapidly through the acquisition of, among others, ComTel (which itself had bought Telecential), Comcast, Diamond Cable and finally, in 1999, the residential and small business operations of Cable & Wireless. Telewest also steadily acquired local operators. Cable TV faces intense competition from SkyDigital's satellite television service, although most channels on that platform are also carried on cable; few channels are now exclusive to cable. However, paid for digital terrestrial television proved less of a competitive threat, as ITV Digital went into liquidation in 2002. The re-launch of DTTV as the free Freeview service has been a success in introducing people to multichannel digital TV and seems not to have adversely affected the growth of cable and satellite subscribers. Another potential source of competition in the future will be TV over broadband. This was initially launched, using ADSL, in London, where it is provided by HomeChoice, and Hull, where it where it is provided by Kingston Communications. As the speed and availability of broadband connections increase, more TV content can be delivered using protocols such as IPTV.

Republic of Ireland

Cable television first started in the Republic of Ireland in the 1970s, when state broadcaster RTÉ began a service called RTE Relays, which rebroadcast the UK's three terrestrial TV channels. Later called Cablelink, the service began offering a number of satellite channels in the 1980s. The state telephone operator Telecom Éireann (now eircom) was also a stakeholder. In rural areas, the company ran an MMDS service called Multilink, as did other companies such as Irish Mulitchannel in Cork, now called Chorus. Cablelink was later sold to NTL in 1999, and was renamed NTL Ireland. In rural areas where neither cable or MMDS are available, there have been 'deflectors', which pick up the UK terrestrial channels (either from Northern Ireland or Wales), and retransmit them on local UHF signals along with other channels. These operators faced legal action in the late 1990s from MMDS operators, as they did not pay royalties to the relevant broadcasters, and were not licensed. When the deflectors were shut down, there was such an outcry in those areas that an independent candidate in County Donegal, Tom Gildea, was elected as a TD on a platform of supporting legalisation, which occurred in 1999.

Hong Kong

i-Cable Communications Limited(branded as "CableTV") is the holding company that runs Hong Kong's one of four cable television service providers. It is listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange and NASDAQ. Wharf Holdings Limited owns 67 per cent of the cable provider and the rest amongst public shareholders. Another three operators offers pay-TV via DSL, they are Now Broadband TV(PCCW), HKBN Digital TV and SuperSUN(control by TVB). Many in Hong Kong watch subscription TV using satellite systems like Star TV.

Singapore

StarHub Cable Vision is the sole cable television operator in Singapore, where private ownership of satellite dishes is banned. StarHub Cable Vision was formed as a result of a merger between StarHub and Singapore Cable Vision on 15 May 2002. The latter first began broadcasting as a terrestrial pay-television operator in 1992 as the first cable network was not completed until 1995. Around 15% ofl households and offices in Singapore are connected to the StarHub network.

Australia

In Australia, most people do not have access to cable. Satellite is a more common way of getting subscription TV services. Telstra's Foxtel-carrying cable network covers parts of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, and Perth. Optus's network covers small parts of Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane, though its restrictive subscription rules means that many people in this area are not allowed to subscribe. A small part of Perth is covered by Bright Telecomunications. Part of Canberra is covered by TransACT. Much of Darwin is covered by Austar. Parts of Geelong, Ballarat and Mildura are reached by Neighbourhood Cable.

Other cable-based services

Coaxial cables are capable of bi-directional carriage of signals as well as the transmission of large amounts of data. Cable television signals use only a portion the bandwidth available over coaxial lines. This leaves plenty of space available for other digital services such as broadband internet and cable telephony. Unlike North America, many cable operators in Europe have already introduced telephone services, which operate just like existing fixed line operators. Broadband internet is achieved over coaxial cable by using cable modems to convert the network data into a type of digital signal that can be transferred over coaxial cable. One problem with some cable systems is the older amplifiers placed along the cable routes are unidirectional thus in order to allow for uploading of data the customer would need to use an analog modem to provide for the upstream connection. This limited the upstream speed to 56k and prevented the always-on convenience broadband internet typically provides. Many large cable systems have upgraded or are upgrading their equipment to allow for bi-directional signals, thus allowing for greater upload speed and always-on convenience, though these upgrades are expensive. Another service being added to many cable systems is cable telephone service. This service involves installing a special telephone interface at the customer's premises that coverts the analog signals from the customer's in-home wiring into a digital signal, which is then sent on the local loop (replacing the analog last mile, or POTS) to the company's switching center, where it is connected to the PSTN. The biggest obstacle to cable telephone service is the need for nearly 100% reliable service for emergency calls. One of the standards available for digital cable telephony, PacketCable, seems to be the most promising and able to work with the Quality of Service demands of traditional analog POTS service. The biggest advantage to digital cable telephone service is similar to the advantage of digital cable TV, namely that data can be compressed, resulting in much less bandwidth used than a dedicated analog circuit-switched service. Other advantages include better voice quality and integration to a VoIP network providing cheap or unlimited nationwide and international calling. Note that in most cases, digital cable telephone service is separate from cable modem service being offered by many cable companies and does not rely on IP traffic or the Internet. A chart showing the North American cable television bandplan can be found here. Cable television is facing increasing competition from satellite television. See also: List of cable companies

References

- [http://www.wharfcable.com Wharf Cable Home Page]
- [http://www.cabletv.com.hk Cable TV Hong Kong]
- [http://www.roventa.lt Cable TV Roventa ] ja:ケーブルテレビ zh-cn:有线电视

ATSC

The Advanced Television Systems Committee (ATSC) is the group that helped to develop the new digital television standard for the United States, also adopted by Canada, Mexico, and South Korea and being considered by other countries. It is intended to replace the NTSC system and produce wide screen 16:9 images up to 1920×1080 pixels in size—more than six times the display resolution of the earlier standard. However, a host of different image sizes are supported, so up to six standard-definition "virtual channels" can be carried in a single broadcast. ATSC also boasts "theater quality" audio because it uses the Dolby Digital (AC-3) format to provide "5.1" surround sound. Numerous auxiliary data services can also be provided. ATSC coexists with the more widely used DVB standards, and ISDB being implemented in Japan. The system includes the capability to carry PAL- and SECAM-format video (576 displayable lines, 50 fields per second) along with NTSC (480 displayable lines, 60 fields per second) and film (24 frames per second). Broadcasters who use ATSC and must retain an analog signal have to broadcast on two separate channels, as the ATSC system requires use of an entire six megahertz channel. The system has been criticized as being complicated and expensive to implement and use. Many aspects of ATSC are patented, including the AC-3 audio coding, and the VSB modulation. The standards ATSC depends on are often ambiguous, one example would be the EIA-708 standard for closed captioning.

Resolution

The ATSC system supports a host of different display resolutions and frame rates. The formats below list frame/field rates and lines of resolution (for more informations and links, see also the TV resolution overview at the end of this article): ;SDTV :480i60 (NTSC), 480p24, 480p30 576i50, 576p25 (PAL, SECAM); ;EDTV :480p60; 576p50 ;HDTV :720i50, 720i60, 720p24, 720p25, 720p30, 720p50, 720p60 :1080i50, 1080i60, 1080p24, 1080p25, 1080p30 The different resolutions can operate in progressive scan or interlaced mode, although the highest 1080-line system is more limited and cannot display progressive images at the rate of 60 frames per second. Such technology was seen as too advanced at the time, plus the image quality was deemed to be too poor considering the amount of data that can be transmitted. A terrestrial (over-the-air) transmission carries 19.39 megabits of data per second, compared to a DVD which typically has an upper limit of 9 or 10 Mbit/s. "EDTV" is largely a marketing term created to sell low-resolution televisions with minor enhancements. Such TVs can display progressive scan content and frequently have a 16:9 wide screen format. Such resolutions are 720×480 in NTSC or 720×576 in PAL, allowing 60 progressive frames per second in NTSC or 50 in PAL. Brushing aside marketing-speak, there are three basic display sizes for ATSC. Basic and enhanced NTSC and PAL image sizes are at the bottom level at 480 or 576 lines. Medium-sized images have 720 lines of resolution and are 960 or 1280 pixels wide (for 4:3, traditional version, and 16:9, wide screen version, aspect ratio respectively). The top tier has 1080 lines either 1440 or 1920 pixels wide (here, too, for 4:3 and 16:9 aspect ratio respectively).

Codecs

ATSC is based on the MPEG-2 system. It should be noted that MPEG-2 defines an entire system of encoding and encapsulating information (a "transport"), and is not merely a video compression algorithm. ATSC uses 188-byte MPEG-TS packets to carry data. This is the "raw" data that a decoder interprets, following demodulation and error correction of the data stream. 1080-line video is actually encoded with 1920×1088 pixel frames, but the last eight lines are discarded prior to display. This is due to a restriction of the MPEG-2 video format. Dolby Digital AC-3 is used as the audio codec, though it was officially standardized as A/52 by the ATSC. It allows the transport of up to five channels of sound with a sixth channel for low-frequency effects (the so-called "5.1" configuration). In contrast, Japanese ISDB HDTV broadcasts use MPEG's Advanced Audio Coding (AAC) as the audio codec, which also allows 5.1 audio output. DVB allows both.

Modulation and Transmission

Main articles: 8VSB, 256QAM ATSC signals are designed to use the same 6 MHz bandwidth as NTSC television channels. Once the video signals have been compressed, the data stream can be modulated in a variety of manners depending on the method of transmission. Terrestrial (local) broadcasters use a 8-VSB modulation that can transfer at a maximum rate of 19.39 Mbit/s, sufficient to carry several video channels and metadata depending on conditions. Cable television operators generally have a higher signal-to-noise ratio and can use 16-VSB or 256-QAM to achieve a throughput of 38.78 Mbit/s, using the same 6 MHz. In recent years cable operators have become accustomed to compressing standard resolution video for digital cable systems, making it harder to find duplicate 6 MHz channels for local broadcasters on uncompressed "basic" cable. Cable operators lobbied the Federal Communications Commission to allow 256-QAM in addition to the 16-VSB standard originally mandated. Though successful, cable operators have still been slow to add ATSC channels to their lineups.

Design flaws

The ATSC signal cannot be adapted to changes in propagation conditions, very unlike DVB-T and ISDB-T. If ATSC were able to dynamically change its error correction modes, code rates, interleaver mode, and randomizer—the signal could be more robust even if the modulation itself does not change. In spite of ATSC's fixed transmission mode, it is still a very robust waveform under normal conditons.

External links

- [http://www.atsc.org ATSC website]
- [http://www.paradiso-design.net/videostandards_en.html#atsc The common ATSC formats represented in different criterias] category: television technology Category:Digital television Category:High-definition television ko:ATSC

Federal Communications Commission

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is an independent United States government agency, created, directed, and empowered by Congressional statute. The FCC was established by the Communications Act of 1934 as the successor to the Federal Radio Commission and is charged with regulating all non-Federal Government use of the radio spectrum (including radio and television broadcasting), and all interstate telecommunications (wire, satellite and cable) as well as all international communications that originate or terminate in the United States. The FCC took over wire communication regulation from the Interstate Commerce Commission. The FCC's jurisdiction covers the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and U.S. possessions.

Organization

The FCC is directed by five Commissioners appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate for five-year terms, except when filling an unexpired term. The President designates one of the Commissioners to serve as Chairperson. Only three Commissioners may be members of the same political party. None of them can have a financial interest in any Commission-related business. As the chief executive officer of the Commission, the Chairman delegates management and administrative responsibility to the Managing Director. The Commissioners supervise all FCC activities, delegating responsibilities to staff units and Bureaus. The current FCC Chairman is Kevin Martin.The other current Commissioners are Kathleen Abernathy, Michael Copps and Jonathan Adelstein, with one seat vacant. Further changes are expected: Kathleen Abernathy announced November 17th, 2005 her intention to leave the commission on December 9th, 2005, which would leave two seats vacant pending confirmation of new commissioners. At the time of her announcement, Deborah Taylor Tate had been nominated to the previous vacant seat on the commission but not yet confirmed by the Senate.

History

Communications Act of 1934

In 1934 Congress passed the Communications Act, which abolished the Federal Radio Commission and transferred jurisidiction over radio licensing to a new Federal Communications Commission. Title III of the Communications Act contained provisions very similar to the Radio Act of 1927, and the new FCC largely took over the operations and precedents of the FRC.

Report on Chain Broadcasting

In 1940 the Federal Communications Commission issued the "Report on Chain Broadcasting." The major point in the report was the breakup of NBC (See American Broadcasting Company), but there were two other important points. One was network option time, the culprit here being CBS. The report limited the amount of time during the day, and what times the networks may broadcast. Previously a network could demand any time it wanted from an affiliate. The second concerned artist bureaus. The networks served as both agents and employees of artists, which was a conflict of interest the report rectified.

Allocation of television stations

The Federal Communications Commission assigned television the very high frequency (VHF) band and gave TV channels 1 to 13. The 13 channels could only accommodate 400 stations nationwide and could not accommodate color in its state of technology in the early 1940s. So in 1944 CBS proposed to convert all of television to the ultra high frequency (UHF) band, which would have solved the frequency and color problem. There was only one flaw in the CBS proposal: everyone else disagreed. In 1945 and 1946 the Federal Communications Commission held hearings on the CBS plan. RCA said CBS wouldn't have its color system ready for 5–10 years. CBS claimed it would be ready by the middle of 1947. CBS also gave a demonstration with a very high quality picture. In October of 1946 RCA presented a color system of inferior quality which was partially compatible with the present VHF black and white system. In March 1947 the Federal Communications Commission said CBS would not be ready, and ordered a continuation of the present system. RCA promised its electric color system would be fully compatible within five years; in 1947 an adapter was required to see color programs in black and white on a black and white set. In 1945 the Federal Communications Commission moved FM radio to a higher frequency. The Federal Communications Commission also allowed simulcasting of AM programs on FM stations. Regardless of these two disadvantages, CBS placed its bets on FM and gave up some TV applications. CBS had thought TV would be moved according to its plan and thus delayed. Unfortunately for CBS, FM was not a big moneymaker and TV was. That year the Federal Communications Commission set 150 miles as the minimum distance between TV stations on the same channel. There was interference between TV stations in 1948 so the Federal Communications Commission froze the processing of new applications for TV stations. On September 30, 1948, the day of the freeze, there were thirty-seven stations in twenty-two cities and eighty-six more were approved. Another three hundred and three applications were sent in and not approved. After all the approved stations were constructed, or weren't, the distr