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Kadambas

Kadambas

Kadambas was an ancient royal dynasty of Karnataka, who ruled from their capital of Banavasi, later branched into Goa, Hanagal and Chandavar. The dynasty was founded by Mayura Sharma in circa 345 AD. Ancestors were said to have migrated from the foothills of the Himalayas. Subjected to some sort of humiliation at the court of the Pallavas, the young Brahmin renounced his hereditary priestly vocation and took to the life of a fierce warrior and battled the Pallavas, who were forced to recognize him as a sovereign, when he crowned himself at Banavasi. One of his successors, Kakusta Varma (circa 435) was such a powerful ruler that even the Guptas cultivated marital relationships. The great poet Kalidasa is said to have visited his court. Tiring of the endless battles and bloodshed, one of the later descendants, King Shivakoti adopted Jainism. The Kadambas went on to build numerous Jain temples that are scattered around Banavasi, Belgaum, Mangalore and Goa. Kings and Queens of the dynasty were renowned for their support of literature, arts and liberal grants to temples and educational institutions. Several descendants are scattered around present day Goa, Belgaum, Mangalore and Bangalore. Kadambas were the first rulers to use Kannada as the official administrative language. The Adikavi (First known poet of Kannada) Pampa highly spoke of this kingdom in his writings. Following are his famous quotes on Banavasi: "Aaramkushamittodam nenevudenna manam banavasi deshamam", (I shall cherish the sweet memories of Banavasi even when tourchered), Maridumbiyagi mEN Kogileyagi puttuvudu nandanadol Banavasi deshadol"(As a bee or as nightingle should one born here in this beautiful country of Banavasi). The Madhukeshwara (Lord Shiva) temple built by them still exists in Banavasi, the then capital of Kadamba kingdom. Built in 10th century Ad and rennovated many times, the temple is a very good piece of art. The stone cot with wonderful fine carvings is one of the main tuorist attractions in the temple. Kadambotsava ("The festival of Kadamba) a festival is celebrated every year by Governamet of Karnataka in memory of this kingdom. On May 31, 2005 Defence minister Pranab Mukherjee commissioned India's most advanced and first dedicated military naval base named INS Kadamba after the Kadamba dynasty, in Karwar.

Origin of Kadambas

The Devagiri Plates of Krishna Varman I connect the Kadamba family with the Nagas. Another account speaks of the Nanda origin of the Kadambas. There is also a Jain tradition according to which Mauryavarman was the son of the sister of Ananda Jinavritindra. These legends do not in any way put the speculations to rest; and they cannot explain the origin of the Kadamba family. The only plausible account of the origin of the Kadamba dynasty is available in the Talagunda pillar inscription of Santivarma. According to Dr. B. L. Rice, " It gives what appears to be a realistic and true account of the Kadamba line of Kings, free from numerous legends that are current regarding it". It describes at length the circumstances that led to the founding of the Kingdom by Mayurasarman, who by his Kshatriya demeanour came to be known as Mayuravarma. The Talagunda inscription narrates how Mayurasarma proceeded to Kanchi, along with his guru, Virasarma to prosecute his Vedic studies at a Ghatika. There, owing to some misunderstanding between him and a Pallava guard, a quarrel arose in which Mayurasarma was humiliated. In high rage, the Brahmana discontinued his studies, left Kanchi, swearing vengeance on the impudent Pallavas, and had recourse to arms. The inscription does not miss the opportunity to provide a dramatic effect to the event, and says: " with the hand dexterous in grasping the Kusa grass, the fuel and the stones, the ladle, the melted butter and the oblation vessel, unsheathed a flaming sword, eager to conquer the Earth". An open rebel against the Pallava authority and arrogance, Mayurasarma collected an army and routed the Pallava officers guarding the frontier and occupied the area of Sriparvata (Srisailam). He then subdued the Brihad-Bana and other kings and collected tributes from them. Unable to tame the power of Mayura, the Pallava rulers thought it wise to compromise with him and acknowledged his sway over the territory from the Western Ocean to Prehara. Politically, the success of Mayurasarma should be viewed, as scholars like Dr. G. M. Moraes and Prof. K. A. Nilakanta Sastri have pointed out, in context of the confusion that prevailed in the South after the invasion of Samudragupta. Mayura was successful in exploiting the situation to his advantage. It has also been argued that the whole event was a reflection of the revolt of the Brahmanas against the Kshatriya misrule and tyranny. In fact, Mayura, after he successfully defied the Pallava authority, preferred to change his surname 'Sarma' to 'Varma', which was indicative of the Kshatriya status. The political career of Mayura did not stagnate after he secured a base for his ambition. He soon defied the authority of the Pallavas and proclaimed his independence. His Chandravalli record says that he subdued the Traikutas, Abhiras, Pallavas, Pariyatraka, Sakasthana, Mokhari, Punnata and Sayindhakas. Pariyatraka was the region of the Western Ghats between the Aravalli and the Vindhyas. Sayindhakas were the Sendrakas governing a part of the Shimoga area while Punnata was the Heggadadevanakote region. Dr. P.B. Desai thinks that though it is not improbable that Mayurasarma came into conflict with some of these kings, it is doubtful he went as far as the Sakasthana and Mokhari which are identified with the territories of the Sakas of Ujjaini and the Maukharis of Rajasthan. Dr. K. P. Jayaswal is convinced that Mayurasarma's Kingdom was confined to Karnataka. However, it is said that in commemoration of his spectacular victories, Mayura performed the Aswamedha sacrifice to advertise his sovereignty. Prakrit had the status of an official language under the early Kadamba rulers. But by the time of Kakusthavarma, Sanskrit came to be increasingly adopted. Kannada too was assuming greater importance by the 5th century A.D. as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription. The contribution of the Kadambas to the architectural heritage of Karnataka is certainly worthy of recognition. Dr. G. M. Moraes believes that the Kadamba style can be identified and that it has a few things in common with the Chalukyan and the Pallava styles. They also drew from the architectural tradition of the Satavahanas. It has also been pointed out that in architecture and sculpture, the Kadambas contributed to the foundation of the later Chalukya-Hoysala style.

External links


- http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/kadamba.htm
- [http://www.ourkarnataka.com/states/history/ About the Kadambas of Banavasi (Ref. History of Karnataka by Dr.Arthikaje)] Category:Historical Indian empires

Karnataka

Karnataka (ಕನಾ೯ಟಕ in Kannada) is one of the four southern states of India. Before 1973, the state was known as Mysore state, as it was formed out of the former Kingdom of Mysore in 1950, and enlarged in 1956 to include the Kannada-speaking regions of neighboring states. Karnataka's capital Bangalore is the only city in the state with a population of more than 1 million. Other major cities include Mysore, Mangalore, Hubli-Dharwad, Bellary and Belgaum. Kannada is the official language of Karnataka. As of 2001, it is one of 10 Indian states with a population greater than 50 million.

Geography

Karnataka is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, Goa to the northwest, Maharashtra to the north, Andhra Pradesh to the east, Tamil Nadu to the east and southeast, and Kerala to the southwest. It is situated at the angle where the western and eastern mountain ranges of South India converge into the Nilgiri Hills. The state has three principal physical zones;
- The coastal strip, between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, which is lowland, with moderate to high rainfall levels. This strip is around 320 km in length and 48-64 km wide.
- The Western Ghats, a mountain range inland from the Arabian Sea, rising to about 900m average height, and with moderate to high rainfall levels.
- The Deccan Plateau, comprising the main inland region of the state, which is drier and verging on the semi-arid. The humidity in these plains or maidans never exceeds 50 percent. There are several suggested etymologies for the name Karnataka. The most reasonable one is that it comes from "karu" + "nadu" meaning "elevated land". It is interesting to note that Karnataka has one of the highest average elevations of Indian states at 1,500 feet. The highest recorded temperature was 45.6 C (114.08 F) at Raichur on May 23, 1928. The lowest recorded temperature was 2.8 C (37.04 F) at Bidar on December 16, 1918.

Districts

see article Districts of Karnataka

Language

Language was the basis for the formation of the Indian states after independence and the new Karnataka state was formed by the inclusion of 9 new districts from the erstwhile Madras State (present day Tamil Nadu), Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh states in 1957. Certain larger districts were further divided for asdministrative convenience resulting in 27 districts in total. The predominant language of Karnataka is Kannada, which is its official language. Other languages include Tamil, Marathi, Konkani, Kodava Thakk, Tulu, Sankethi, Hindi and Urdu.

Economy

Karnataka is one of the more industrialised states in India. Its capital Bangalore has become a major hub of the Information Technology industry. 90% of India's gold production comes from Karnataka, and it is also the IT capital of india. Recently there has been a lot of activity in the extraction of manganese ore from the districts of Bellary and Hospet.

History

Hospet of Karnataka in the 13th century.]] The history of Karnataka dates back to the period of epics. The capital of Vali and Sugriva, 'Vanara Sena' of the Ramayana, is said to have been Hampi in the present day Bellary district. Hidimbasura of Mahabharatha, a cruel and fierce demon, is said to have lived in present day Chitradurga district of Karnataka, who was then exterminated by Bhima who came there along with the other Pandavas and their mother Kunti during the Vanavaasa. Stone transcriptions from the period of Ashoka are the oldest available archaelogical evidence. In the 4th century BCE, a local dynasty called Satavahana came to power, and its rule lasted nearly 300 years. With the disintegration of the Satavahana dynasty, the Kadambas came to power in the north, and the Gangas in the south of the state. The gigantic monolithic statue of Gomateswara is considered to be the monument of the Ganga period. The Chalukyas of Badami (500 to 735) ruled over a wider area, from the Narmada to the Kaveri from the days of Pulikeshi II (609 to 642) who had even defeated Harshavardhana of Kannauj. This dynasty created fine monuments at Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal, both structural and rock-cut. Aihole has been one of the cradles of temple architecture in the country. The Rashtrakutas (753-973) of Malkhed who succeeded them levied tribute on the rulers of Kannauj successively in the so-called Age of 'Imperial Kannauj'. Kannada literature developed in this period. Outstanding Jain scholars of India lived in their court. The Chalukyas of Kalyana (973 to 1183) and their feudatories, the Hoysalas of Halebidu built fine temples, encouraged literature and fine arts. Noted jurist Vijnaneshwara (work-Mitakshara) lived at Kalyana. The great religious leader Basaveshwara was a minister at Kalyana. The Vijayanagar empire (1336 to 1565) fostered indigenous traditions and encouraged arts religion and literature in Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu and Tamil. Overseas trade flourished. The Bahmani sultans of Gulbarga (later capitals were Bidar and Bijapur) and the Adil Shahi sultans of Bijapur raised fine Indo-Saracenic buildings and encouraged Urdu and Persian literature. After the fall of Maratha Peshwa (1818) and Tipu Sultan of Mysore (1799) Karnataka came under the British. After Indian independence, the Wodeyar Maharaja acceded to India. In 1950, Mysore became an Indian state, and the former Maharaja became its rajpramukh, or governor. After accession to India, the Woyedar family was provided with a pension by the Indian state until 1975, and members of the family still reside in part of their ancestral palace in Mysore. On November 1, 1956 or Rajyotsava Day (Formation Day), Mysore State was enlarged to its present boundaries, incorporating the state of Coorg and the Kannada-speaking portions of neighboring Madras, Hyderabad, and Bombay states, with an elected Chief Minister and state assembly. On November 1 1973 the name of the state was changed to Karnataka.

Natural areas

Karnataka is home to several national parks, including Bandipur National Park in Mysore District, Bannerghatta National Park Savandurga forest Kempegowda Dhama Bangalore District, Nagarhole National Park in Mysore and Kodagu districts, Kudremukh National Park in Dakshina Kannada and Chickmagalur districts, and Anshi National Park in Uttara Kannada District. There are also a number of wildlife sanctuaries and nature preserves. Jog falls of Shimoga District is the highest waterfalls in Asia.

See also


- Cuisine of Karnataka
- List of Chief Ministers of Karnataka.
- List of famous people from Karnataka.
- List of political parties in the state
- Carnatic (region)
- Kannada
- Kannada Wikipedia

References


-

External links


- [http://kstdc.nic.in/ Karnataka State Tourism Development Corporation]
- [http://www.karnatakatourism.org/ Karnataka Tourism]
- [http://www.karnataka.gov.in/ Karnataka State Government]
- [http://www.karnatakainformation.org/ Karnataka Government Information Department]
- [http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/kar/ Topics on Karnataka's History and Culture] Category:States and territories of India

Goa

Goa (गोआ in Devanāgarī) is India's smallest state in terms of area and the fourth smallest in terms of population after Sikkim, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh. It is located on the west coast of India, in the region known as the Konkan, and is bounded by the state of Maharashtra to the north, and Karnataka to the east and south. The Arabian Sea makes up the state's west coast. Panaji is the state's capital, and Vasco-da-Gama (Vasco) its largest town. Portuguese merchants first landed in Goa in the 16th century but soon after colonised it. The Portuguese colony existed for about 450 years, until it was annexed as part of India in 1961. Internationally renowned for its beaches, Goa is visited by hundreds of thousands of foreign and domestic tourists each year. Besides beaches, Goa is also known for its world heritage architecture including the Bom Jesus Basilica. Goa also has rich flora and fauna, owing to its location on the Western Ghats range, which are classified as a biodiversity hotspot.

Origin of name

biodiversity hotspot The precise origin of the name Goa is unclear. The Indian epic Mahabharata refers to the area now known as Goa, as "Goparashtra" or "Govarashtra", which means a nation of cowherds. "Gopakapuri" or "Gapakapattana" were used in some ancient Sanskrit texts, and these names were also mentioned in other sacred Hindu texts such as the Harivansa and the Skanda. In the latter, Goa is also known as "Gomanchala". Gove, Govapuri, Gopakpattan, and Gomant are some other names that the region is referred to in certain inscriptions and texts such as the Puranas. It has also been known as "Aprant".

History

Purana Goa has a long history stretching back to the 3rd century BC, when it formed part of the Mauryan Empire. Goa was later ruled by the Satavahanas of Kolhapur (in Maharashtra) around two thousand years ago. It eventually passed to the Chalukyas of Badami, who controlled it between 580 to 750. Over the next few centuries Goa was successively ruled by the Silharas, the Kadambas and the Chalukyans of Kalyani, rulers of Deccan India. In 1312, Goa came under the governance of the Delhi Sultanate. However the kingdom's grip on the region was weak, and by 1370 they were forced to surrender it to Harihara I of Vijayanagar. The Vijayanagar monarchs held on to the territory for the next hundred years until 1469, when it was appropriated by the Bahmani sultans of Gulbarga. After the dynasty crumbled, the area came under the hands of the Adil Shahis of Bijapur who made Velha Goa their auxiliary capital. In 1498, Vasco da Gama became the first European to set foot in India through a sea route, landing in Kozhikode in Kerala, followed by an arrival in what is now known as Old Goa. The Portuguese arrived with the intention of setting up a colony and seizing complete control of the spice trade from other European powers after traditional land routes to India were closed by the Ottoman Turks. Later, in 1510, Portuguese admiral Afonso de Albuquerque defeated the ruling Bijapur kings on behalf of a local sovereign, Timayya, leading to the establishment of a permanent settlement in Velha Goa (or Old Goa). The Portuguese intended it to be a colony and a naval base, distinct from the fortified enclaves established elsewhere along India's coasts. Timayya With the imposition of the Inquisition (1560–1812), many of the local residents were forcibly converted to Christianity by missionaries, threatened by punishment or confiscation of land, titles or property. Many converted, however retaining parts of their hindu heritage, including the "caste system". To escape the Inquisition and harassment, thousands fled the state, settling down in the neighbouring towns of Mangalore and Karwar in Karnataka. With the arrival of the other European powers in India in the 16th century, most Portuguese possessions were surrounded by the British and the Dutch. Portuguese possessions in India were a few enclaves along India's west coast, with Goa being the largest of these holdings. An interesting development of the 18th century in Goa is the Conspiracy Of The Pintos in 1787 which was inspired by the French Revolution. This was the first ethnic rebellion against Portuguese rule in Goa. Goa soon became their most important possession in India, and was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon. The Portuguese encouraged its citizens to marry local women, and to settle in Goa. However among the local population (both Christian and Hindu) this was looked down upon. Progeny of these unions called the "mestizo" (mixed) were favourably considered by the Portuguese rulers. Subsequently, a senate was created, which maintained direct communications with the king. In 1843 the capital was moved to Panjim from Velha Goa. By mid-18th century the area under occupation had expanded to most of Goa's present day state limits. After India gained independence from the British in 1947, Portugal refused to accede to India's request to relinquish their control of its exclave. Arbitration by the World Court and the United Nations General Assembly in the 1950s ruled in favour of self determination. Finally, on 1961-12-12, the Indian army moved in, taking the colony by force. After a brief skirmish lasting for twenty-six hours, Goa, along with Daman and Diu (enclaves lying to the north of Maharashtra), was made into a federally administered Union Territory. The UN drafted a resolution condemning the invasion which was vetoed by the Soviet Union. Though most nations later recognised the annexation, Portugal acknowledged it only after its Carnation Revolution in 1974. On 1987-05-30, the Union territory was split, and Goa was elevated as India's twenty-fifth state.

Geography and climate

1987-05-30 Goa encompasses an area of 3,702 km² (1,430 sq mile). It lies between the latitudes 14°53'54" N and 15°40'00" N and longitudes 73°40'33" E and 74°20'13" E. Most of Goa is a part of the coastal country known as the Konkan, which is an escarpment rising up to the Western Ghats range of mountains, which separate it from the Deccan Plateau. The highest point is the Sonsogor, with an altitude of 1,167  metres (3,827  feet). Goa has a coastline of 101  km (63  miles). Goa's main rivers are the Mandovi, the Zuari, the Terekhol, Chapora and the Betul. The Mormugao harbour on the mouth of the river Zuari is one of the best natural harbours in South Asia. The Zuari and the Mandovi are the lifelines of Goa, with their tributaries draining 69% of its geographic area. Goa has more than forty estuarine, eight marine and about ninety riverine islands. The total navigable length of Goa's rivers is 253 km (157 miles). Goa has more than three hundred ancient tanks built during the rule of the Kadamba dynasty and over a hundred medicinal springs. Most of Goa's soil cover is made up of laterites which are rich in ferric aluminium oxides and reddish in colour. Further inland and along the river banks, the soil is mostly alluvial and loamy. The soil is rich in minerals and humus, thus conducive to plantation. Some of the oldest rocks in the Indian subcontinent are found in Goa between Molem and Anmod on Goa's border with Karnataka. The rocks are classified as Trondjemeitic Gneiss estimated to be 3,600 million years old, dated by the Rubidium isotope dating method. A specimen of the rock is exhibited in the Goa University. Goa, being in the tropical zone and near the Arabian Sea, has a warm and humid climate for most of the year. The month of May is the hottest, seeing day temperatures of over 35°C (95°F) coupled with high humidity. The monsoon rains arrive by early June and provide a much needed respite from the heat. Most of Goa's annual rainfall is received through the monsoons which last till late September. Goa has a short cool season between mid-December and February. These months are marked by cool nights of around 20°C (68°F) and warm days of around 29°C (84°F) with moderate amounts of humidity. Further inland, due to altitudinal gradation, the nights are a few degrees cooler.

Subdivisions

February.]] The state is divided into two districts: North Goa and South Goa. Panaji is the headquarters of the north Goa district and Margao of the south district. Each district is governed by a district collector, an administrator appointed by the Indian government. The districts are further divided into eleven talukas – Talukas of North Goa are Bardez, Bicholim, Pernem, Ponda, Satari and Tiswadi. Talukas of South Goa are Canacona, Mormugao, Quepem, Salcette and Sanguem. Headquarters of the respective talukas are Mapusa, Bicholim, Pernem, Ponda, Valpoi, Panaji, Chaudi, Vasco, Quepem, Margaon and Sanguem. In the Parliament of India, Goa has two seats in the Lok Sabha, one representing each district, and one seat in the Rajya Sabha.

Flora and fauna

Rajya Sabha Forest cover in Goa stands at 1,424 km², most of which is owned by the government. Most of the forests in the state are located in the interior eastern regions of the state. The Western Ghats, which form most of eastern Goa, have been internationally recognised as one of the biodiversity hotspots of the world. In the February 1999 issue of the National Geographic Magazine, Goa was compared with the Amazon and Congo basins for its rich tropical biodiversity. The important forests products are bamboo canes, Maratha barks, chillar barks and the bhirand. Coconut trees are ubiquitous and are present in almost all areas of Goa barring the elevated regions. A large number of deciduous vegetation consisting of teak, sal, cashew and mango trees are present. Fruits include jackfruits, mangos, pineapples and blackberries. Foxes, wild boars and migratory birds are found in the jungles of Goa. The avifauna includes kingfishers, mynas and parrots. Numerous types of fish are also caught off the coast of Goa and in its rivers. Crabs, lobsters, shrimps, jellyfish, oysters and catfish form some of the piscine catch. Goa also has a high snake population, which keeps the rodent population in control. Goa has many famous National Parks, including the renowned Salim Ali bird sanctuary. Other wildlife sanctuaries include the Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary, Molem Wildlife Sanctuary, Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary, Madei Wildlife Sanctuary, Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary Mahaveer Wildlife Sanctuaryand the Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary located on the island of Chorao. Goa has more than 33% of its geographic area under government forests (1224.38 sq.km.) of which about 62% has been brought under Protected areas (PA) of Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Park. Since there is a substantial area under private forests and a large tract under cashew, mango, coconut, etc. plantations the total forest and tree cover constitutes 56.6% of the geographic area.

Economy

Goa is India's richest state with a GDP per capita one and a half times that of the country as a whole, and one of its fastest growth rates: 8.23% (yearly average 1990-2000). Tourism is Goa's primary industry: it handles 12% of all foreign tourist arrivals in India. Goa has two main tourist seasons. Tourism is particularly focussed in the coastal areas, while its impact is more limited in the outer parts. The land away from the coast is rich in minerals and ores and mining forms the second largest industry. Mining in Goa focuses on ores of iron, bauxite, manganese, clays, limestone and silica. Agriculture, while of shrinking importance to the economy over the past four decades, offers part-time employment to a sizable portion of the populace. Rice is the main agricultural crop, followed by areca, cashew and coconut. The fishing industry provides employment for about forty thousand people, though recent official figures indicate a decline of the importance of this sector and also a fall in catch, perhaps coupled with the fact that traditional fishing has given way to large-scale mechanised trawling. Medium scale industries include the manufacturing of pesticides, fertilisers, tyres, tubes, footwear, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, wheat products, steel rolling, fruits and fish canning, cashew nuts, textiles, brewery products. Goa is also notable for its low liquor prices due to its very low excise duty on alcohol. Another source of cash inflow into the state comes from many of its citizens who work abroad and remit money to their families.

Transport

Goa's main form of public transport largely consists of privately operated buses linking the major towns to rural areas. Government-run white-with-blue-and-red-stripes buses, maintained by a service called the Kadamba Transport Corporation, links both major routes (like the Panjim-Margao route) and also some of the more remote parts of the state and taluka headquarters. In large towns such as Panjim and Margao, intra-city buses serve its citizens. Public transport in Goa is not very efficient, and most buses stop plying on routes a little after dusk. Residents depend heavily on their own transport, usually motorised two-wheelers. Goa has two National Highways passing through it. NH-17 runs along India's west coast and links Goa to Bombay in the north and Mangalore to the south. NH-4A running across the state connects the capital Panjim to Belgaum in east, linking Goa to cities in the Deccan. The NH-17A connects NH-17 to Mormugao Harbour from Cortalim, and the new NH-17B, once complete will be a four lane highway connecting Mormugao Harbour to NH-17 at another location, Verna, via Dabolim airport. Goa has a total of 224 km of National highway, 232 km of state highway and 815 km of district highway. Hired forms of transport include unmetered taxis, and, in urban areas, auto rickshaws. A unique form of transport in Goa is the yellow-and-black two-wheeler Motorcycle taxi, operated by drivers who are locally called "pilots". These vehicles transport a single pillion rider, at fares that are usually negotiated prior or after the journey. In some places in Goa, there are river crossings which are serviced by the ferry boats, operated by the river navigation departments. Goa has two rail lines – one run by the South Central Railway and the other by the Konkan Railway. The line run by the South Central Railway was built during the colonial era linking the port town of Vasco da Gama to Hubli in Karnataka and passing through Margaon. The line, earlier a metre gauge, was recently converted to broad gauge. The Konkan Railway line, which was built during the 1990s, runs parallel to the coast connecting Mumbai to the Malabar Coast. Goa's sole airport – the Dabolim Airport is a military airport, though civilian flights are permitted when the fields can be spared from military uses. In addition to regular flights, the airport handles a large number of chartered flights. The Mormugao harbour near the city of Vasco handles mineral ore, petroleum, coal and international containers. Much of the shipments consist of minerals and ores from Goa's hinterland. Panaji, which is situated on the banks of the Mandovi, also has a minor port, which used to handle passenger steamers between Goa and Mumbai till the late 1980s.

Demographics

1980s A native of Goa is called a Goan in English, Goenkar in Konkani, Goês (male) or Goesa (female) in Portuguese and a Govekar in Marathi. Goa has at present a population of 1.344 million residents, making it India's fourth smallest (after Sikkim, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh). The population has a growth rate of 14.9% per annum. There are 363 people for each square kilometre of the land. 49.77% of the population live in urban areas. The sex ratio is 960 females to 1000 males. Goa's literacy rate is 82.32%, broken down into: males 88.88% and females 75.51%. Hinduism (65%), Catholicism (30%) and Islam are the three main religions in Goa. Roman Catholicism reached India during the period of European colonization, which began in 1498 when the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama arrived on the Malabar coast. During the Goa Inquisition under the Pourtuguese, Hindus were forced to convert and thousands of Hindus in Goa who refused or were suspected of practising heresy were burned alive. Goa's major towns include Vasco, Margao (also spelt as Margaon, Margão or Madgaon), Marmagao (also known as Murgaon or Mormugão), Panjim and Mapusa. The region connecting the last four towns is considered a de facto conurbation, or a more or less continuous urban area. Following the end of Portuguese rule, the most widely used languages are Konkani as the primary spoken language, and English and Marathi for official, literary or educational purposes. Language is a controversial issue in Goa, over which an agitation was fought between two contending pro-Konkani and pro-Marathi camps between 1985-87. After the agitation ended in 1987, a complex formula grants 'official language' status to Konkani, while Marathi is also allowed to be used "for any or all official purposes." Given the bitter rivalry between the two lobbies, clubbed with a maudlin issue has resulted in a stalemate over the actual implementation. Portuguese, the earlier language of the elite, has been hit by shrinking numbers, though a small section still prefer it as the medium for discourse at home, while even a few Portuguese books have been published in recent years. English, viewed as a language of opportunity and social mobility is widely understood by the many of the state residents. Hindi, India's national language, is also spoken as a second or third language.

Culture

Hindi The most popular celebrations in Goa are Christmas, Ganesh Chaturthi, New Year's Day, the Shigmo festival and the Carnival. However, since the 1960s, the celebrations of the Shigmo and carnival have shifted to the urban centres, and in recent times these festivals are seen more as a means of attracting tourists. Celebrations for all festivals usually last for a few days and include parties and balls. Western English songs have a large following in most parts of Goa. Traditional Konkani folk songs too have a sizable following. Manddo, the traditional Goan music which originated in the nineteenth century, is sung and danced on special occasions. Goa is also known for its Goa trance music. Rice with fish curry is the staple diet in Goa. Goa is renowned for its rich variety of fish dishes cooked with elaborate recipes. Coconut and coconut oil is widely used in Goan cooking along with chilli, spices and vinegar giving the food a unique flavour. Pork dishes such as Vindaloo, Xacuti and Sorpotel are cooked for major occasions among the Catholics. A rich egg-based multi-layered sweet dish known as bebinca is a favourite at Christmas. The most popular alcoholic beverage in Goa is feni; Cashew feni is made from the fermentation of the fruit of the cashew tree, while coconut feni is made from the sap of toddy palms. Goa has two World Heritage Sites: the Bom Jesus Basilica and a few designated convents. The Basilica holds the mortal remains of St. Francis Xavier, regarded by many Catholics as the patron saint of Goa. Once every decade, the body is taken down for veneration and for public viewing. The last such event was conducted in 2004. The Velhas Conquistas regions are also known for its Indo-Portuguese style architecture. In many parts of Goa, mansions constructed in the Indo-Portuguese style architecture still stand, though in some villages, most of them are in a dilapidated condition. Fontainhas in Panjim, has been declared a cultural quarter, and are used as a living museum showcasing the life, architecture and culture of Goa. Some influences from the Portuguese era are visible in some of Goa's temples, notably the Mangueshi Temple; although, in an conscious effort after 1961, many of these were demolished and reconstructed in the indigenous Indian style.

Sports

Football is widely popular in Goa, particularly around Margao where the main football stadium, at the Fatorda locality is based. Football is also played in local fields, during the non-monsoon, non-planting season, particular in central coastal Goa. Many of the country's top NFL clubs such as the Vasco, Salgaokar, Dempo, Sporting Clube de Goa and Churchill Brothers are based in Goa. In recent decades, a growing influence of cricket is visible, in large part fuelled by the massive coverage this sport gets on national television, thus making an impact even in a part of South Asia which hardly had any contact with the British Empire. The state's sole stadium is the Fatorda stadium, located near Margaon. The stadium hosts both international football as well as cricket matches. Hockey is the third most popular sport. Goa used to be a traditional bastion of hockey talent, though in recent times its popularity has been decreasing.

Government and politics

Panaji (also known by its anglicised name – Panjim) is the administrative capital of Goa lying on the left bank of the Mandovi near Panaji. Goa's legislative capital is Porvorim – the seat of the Goa assembly, which lies across the Mandovi River. The state's judicial capital, however, is Mumbai (formerly known as Bombay, and not within the state's borders), as the state comes under the Bombay High Court. A bench of the High Court is present in Panaji. Goa contributes two seats to the Lok Sabha and one to the Rajya Sabha, India's bicameral parliament. Goa has a unicameral legislature consisting of a forty member Legislative Assembly, headed by a Chief Minister who wields the executive power. The ruling government consists of the party or coalition garnering the most seats in the state elections and enjoying the support of a simple majority of the House. The governor is appointed by the President of India. The governor's role is largely ceremonial, but plays a crucial role when it comes to deciding who should form the next government or in suspending the legislature as has happened in the recent past. After having stable governance for nearly thirty years upto 1990, Goa is now notorious for its political instability having seen fourteen governments in the span of the fifteen years between 1990 and 2005. In March 2005 the assembly was dissolved by the governor and President's Rule was declared, which suspended the legislature. A recent by-election in June 2005 saw the Congress coming back to power after winning three of the five seats that went to polls. The Congress party and the BJP are the two largest parties in the state. Other parties include the United Goans Democratic Party, the Nationalist Congress Party and the Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party is the oldest in the state, though in recent times it has lost out much of its traditional electorate. Unlike other states which follows the British Indian model of civil laws framed for individual religions, the Portuguese Uniform Civil Code, based on the Napoleonic Codes, has been retained by the Goa government.

Media

The All India Radio is the only radio channel in the state, broadcasting in both FM and AM bands. Major cellular service operators include Reliance Infocomm, Tata Indicom, BPL, BSNL and Idea!. Local newspaper publications include the English language Herald (Goa's oldest, till 1983 a Portuguese paper known as O Heraldo), the Gomantak Times and the Navhind Times. In addition to these, The Times of India and the Indian Express are also received from Bombay and Bangalore in the urban areas. Among the list of officially-accredited newspapers are The Navhind Times, Herald and Gomantak Times (all in the English language) and Gomantak, Tarun Bharat, Navprabha, Pudhari, Goa Times, Sanatan Prabhat, Govadoot (all in Marathi)besides Sunaparant in Devanagiri-script Konkani. All are dailies. Outstation dailies reaching Goa daily from other centres of publication include Kesari, Times of India, Maharashtra Times, Loksatta, The Asian Age, Deccan Herald, The Hindu, Navashakti, etc. Two mainstream news agencies, apart from others, operating in the state are the Press Trust of India and the United News of India. Electronic media with staff stationed in Goa includes ETC, ANI, Sahara, NDTV. Local cable-TV based news operations include Goa Newsline, Goa 365 and Goa Plus. Other publications in the state include Goa Today (English-language, monthly), Goan Observer (English, weekly), Vavraddeancho Ixtt (Roman-script Konkani, weekly) Goa Messenger, Gulab (Konkani, monthly), Bimb (Devanagiri-script Konkani), Harbour Times, Digital Goa. Goa is served by almost all television channels available in India. Channels are received through cable in most parts of Goa. In the interior regions, channels are received via satellite dishes. Doordarshan, the national television broadcaster, has two free terrestrial channels on air. Local cable channels include Goa365 (English), Goa Newsline and Goa Plus (both Konkani).

Education

Each taluka is made up of villages, each having a school run by the government. However many of the state's residents prefer to enroll in privately run schools, which offer better facilities. All schools come under the state SSC whose syllabus is prescribed by the state Education department. There are also a few schools run by the all-India ICSE board. Most students in Goa complete their high school using English as the medium of instruction. Primary schools, on the other hand is largely run in Marathi (in government schools) and Konkani (in private, but government-aided schools). As is the case in most of India, enrolment for vernacular media has seen a fall in numbers in favour of English medium education. After ten years of schooling, students join a Junior College which offers courses in popular streams such as Science, Arts, Law and Commerce. Additionally, many join three year diploma courses. Two years of college is followed by a professional degree. The Goa University is the sole university in the state located in Taleigao amd all colleges are affiliated to it. There are three engineering colleges and one medical college in the state. The Goa Engineering College and Goa Medical College are run by the state whereas the other two engineering colleges are run by private organisations. Goa Medical College]There are also colleges offering pharmacy, architecture and dentristry along with numerous private colleges offering law, arts, commerce and science. Many residents however choose to take up courses in other states as the demand for a course in Goa is more than that available. Goa is also well-known in India for courses in marine engineering, fisheries, hotel management and cuisine. The State also hosts a premier Business school Goa Institute of Management which is autonomous and was founded in 1993 by Fr. Romuald D'souza. Portuguese is taught in part of the school curriculum as a third language in some schools. The Goa University also offers bachelor and Master's degrees in Portuguese, though few take up these courses.

See also


- Jan Huyghens van Linschoten
- Arambol

References

# [http://www.colaco.net/thegoaUdontNO.htm The Goa that you may not know], Dr. Nandkumar Kamat, [http://www.colaco.net Colaco.net], 2001-06-06 # [http://www.nikkistravel.com/facts_and_figures_goa.htm Facts and Figures About Goa], [http://www.nikkistravel.com/index.htm Nikkis Travel Services] verified 2005-04-02 # [http://goenkar.com/book/print/112 Economy of Goa], from [http://goenkar.com/ goenkar.com] verified 2005-04-02. # [http://www.hindu.com/2005/01/31/stories/2005013104051100.htm Odds stacked against Parrikar], Anil Sastry, [http://www.hindu.com The Hindu], 2005-01-31, verified 2005-04-02 # Manorama Year Book 2003 — pg 659 – ISBN 81-900461-8-7 # [http://www.goatourism.org/People/people.htm The People], [http://www.goatourism.org/ Department of Tourism], Government of Goa, verified 2005-04-02 # [http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/july242004/n4.asp Portuguese passport racket worries UK, US], Devika Sequeira, [http://www.deccanherald.com Deccan Herald], Saturday, 2004-07-24 # [http://goenkar.com/book/print/112 Economy of Goa], from [http://goenkar.com/ goenkar.com], Government owned forest is estimated at 1224.38 km² whilst private is given as 200 km² verified 2005-04-02. # [http://es.popex.com/popEx/9/2/0/5/5/8/ Ain't Goin to Goa]; song by Alabama 3. verified 2005-09-19.

External links


- [http://www.clickgoa.com Goa Information Portal], Goa's best site for Information
- [http://www.goayellowpages.com Goa Yellow Pages], Goa's Online Yellow Pages
- [http://www.goanet.org Goanet], Goa's premier mailing list
- [http://www.goa.pl/ Goa.pl] History of Goa and Goa Trance music.
- [http://www.goagovt.nic.in Government of Goa official website]
- [http://www.tourisminindia.com/indiainfo/states/goa/index.htm Ministry of Tourism]
- [http://www.funonthenet.in/index.php?set_albumName=Goa&option=com_gallery&Itemid=51&include=view_album.php Goa Pictures] Stunning pictures of Goa
- [http://www.goanet.org/ Goanet mailing lists and site]
- [http://www.supergoa.com/ SuperGoa] - In English and Portuguese
- [http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/indian_subcontinent/goa/get.htm Lonely Planet]
- [http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/goa/ Maps of Goa]
- [http://www.roadjunky.com/goa/guide_goa.shtml Goa Travel Info] - Tips on staying safe and sane in Goa
- [http://www.goacom.com/goatourism/ Goa Tourism]
- [http://www.goaholidayhomes.com/Food/ Goan Recipe]
- [http://www.goainformation.org Goainformation]
- [http://goabooks.swiki.net Goa book reviews site]
- [http://www.webindia123.com/GOA/economy/economy.htm webindia.com]
- [http://www.goamog.com/ The GoaMog Information Resource Portal]
- [http://www.wairua.co.nz/ruth/culture/goa_and_india.html Ruth DeSouza's site with information about Goan migration]
- [http://www.navhindtimes.com/ Navhind Times: One of the leading daily newspaper of Goa]
- Category:Konkan Category:States and territories of India Category:Former Portuguese colonies ja:ゴア simple:Goa

Himalaya

. (annotated version)]] The Himalaya is a mountain range in Asia, separating the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. By extension, it is also the name of the massive mountain system which includes the Himalaya proper, the Karakoram, the Hindu Kush, and a host of minor ranges extending from the Pamir Knot. Together, the Himalayan mountain system is the planet's highest and home to all fourteen of the world's highest peaks, the Eight-thousanders, including Mount Everest. To comprehend the enormous scale of Himalayan peaks, consider that Aconcagua, in the Andes, is the highest peak outside the Himalaya at 22,841 feet (6,962 m), while the Himalayan mountain system is home to over thirty peaks exceeding 25,000 feet (7,620 m). Etymologically Himalaya means "abode of snow" in Sanskrit ( from hima "snow", and alaya "abode"). The correct name for the range is Himalaya, though the plural Himalayas is often used. The Himalaya stretch across five nations — Pakistan, India, China, Bhutan and Nepal. It is the source of three of the world's major river systems — the Indus Basin, the Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin and the Yangtze Basin. An estimated 750 million people live in the watershed area of the Himalayan rivers, which also includes Bangladesh.

Geography

Bangladesh lie on the Himalayas.]] The Himalayan (pronounced with a long "a": Himaalayan) range runs for about 2400 km, from Nanga Parbat in the west to Namche Barwa in the east. The width varies between 250-300 km. The Himalayan range comprises three parallel ranges, arranged by elevation and geological age. Nanga Parbat plain is visible as the lighter area near the top.]] The youngest of the three is called the Sub-Himalayan range (Siwalik hills in India) and has an elevation of about 1200 m. This range is made up of erosion material from the rising Himalaya. Running parallel to this is the Lower Himalayan range, which has an elevation between 2000 — 5000 m. A number of Indian hill stations such as Shimla, Nainital and Darjeeling are located here. The northernmost range is called the Higher Himalaya and is also the oldest of the three. It has an elevation of more than 6000 m and contains a large number of the world's highest peaks including the three highest - Mount Everest, K2 and Kanchenjunga. Vegetation across the Himalayan range varies with climate and altitude. While the sub-Himalayan range exhibits deciduous forests, the vegetation graduates to temperate forests, conifers and tundra in the Higher Himalayan range, before giving way to a permanent snow line in the topmost regions. The far eastern Himalaya also have evergreen rainforests. The Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh lie mostly in the Himalayas. The southern part of the Tibet Autonomous Region of China also lies on the Himalayas.

Origins and growth

China The Himalaya are among the youngest mountain ranges on the planet. According to the modern theory of plate tectonics, their formation is a result of a continental collision or orogeny along the convergent boundary between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The collision began in the Upper Cretaceous period about 70 million years ago, when the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate, moving at about 15 cm/year, collided with the Eurasian Plate. By about 50 million years ago this fast moving Indo-Australian plate had completely closed the Tethys Ocean, whose existence has been determined by sedimentary rocks settled on the ocean floor and the volcanoes that fringed its edges. Since these sediments were light, they crumpled into mountain ranges rather than sinking to the floor. The Indo-Australian plate continues to be driven horizontally below the Tibetan plateau, which forces the plateau to move upwards. The Arakan Yoma highlands in Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal were also formed as a result of this collision. The Indo-Australian plate is still moving at about 5 cm/year, and over the next 10 million years it will travel about 1500 km into Asia. About 2 cm/year of the India-Asia convergence is absorbed by thrusting along the Himalaya southern front. This leads to the Himalaya rising by about 5 mm/year, making them geologically active. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate also makes this region seismically active, leading to earthquakes from time to time.

Glaciers and river systems

The Himalayan range encompasses a very large number of glaciers, notable among which is the Siachen Glacier, the largest in the world outside the polar region. Some of the other more famous glaciers include the Gangotri and Yamunotri (Uttaranchal), Nubra, Biafo and Baltoro (Karakoram region), Zemu (Sikkim) and Khumbu glaciers (Mount Everest region). The higher regions of the Himalaya are snowbound throughout the year in spite of their proximity to the tropics, and they form the sources for several large perennial rivers, most of which combine into two large river systems: perennial
- The western rivers combine into the Indus Basin, of which the Indus River is the largest. The Indus begins in Tibet at the confluence of Sengge and Gar rivers and flows southwest through Pakistan to the Arabian Sea. It is fed by the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, and the Sutlej rivers, among others.
- Most of the other Himalayan rivers drain the Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin. Its two main rivers are the Ganges and the Brahmaputra. The Ganga originates as the Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glacier and flows southeast through the plains of northern India, fed by the Alaknanda and the Yamuna among other tributaries. The Brahmaputra originates as the Tsangpo in western Tibet, and flows east through Tibet and west through the plains of Assam. The Ganga and the Brahmaputra meet in Bangladesh, and drain into the Bay of Bengal through the world's largest river delta. The eastern-most Himalayan rivers feed the Irrawaddy, which originates in eastern Tibet and flows south through Myanmar to drain into the Andaman Sea. The Salween, Mekong, the Yangtze and the Huang He (Yellow River) all originate from parts of the Tibetan plateau that are geologically distinct from the Himalaya mountains, and are therefore not considered true Himalayan rivers. Some geologists refer to all the rivers collectively as the circum-Himalayan rivers [http://www.cosis.net/abstracts/EAE03/13617/EAE03-J-13617.pdf]. In recent years scientists have monitored a notable increase in the speed of the glacial melt across the region as a result of global climate change. Although the affect of this won't be known for many years it potentially could mean disaster for the hundreds of thousands of people that rely on the glaciers to feed the rivers of northern India during the dry seasons.

Lakes

India The Himalaya region is dotted with hundreds of lakes. Most lakes are found at altitudes of less than 5,000 m, with the size of the lakes diminishing with altitude. The largest lake is the Pangong t'so, which is spread across the border between India and Tibet. It is situated at an altitude of 4,600 m, and is 8 km wide and nearly 134 km long. The highest lake is the Gurudogmar in North Sikkim 5,370 m (17,600 feet). Other major lakes include the Tsongmo lake, near the Indo-China border in Sikkim. The mountain lakes are known to geographers as tarns if they are caused by glacial activity. Tarns are found mostly in the upper reaches of the Himalaya, above 5,500 metres.

Impact on climate

tarns is clearly visible.]] The Himalaya has a profound effect on the climate of the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan plateau. It prevents frigid, dry Arctic winds from blowing south into the subcontinent, which keeps South Asia much warmer than corresponding temperate regions in the other continents. It also forms a barrier for the monsoon winds, keeping them from traveling northwards, and causing heavy rainfall in the Terai region. The Himalaya are also believed to play an important part in the formation of Central Asian deserts such as the Taklamakan and Gobi deserts. Due to the mountain ranges, the western disturbances which appear from Iran during winter are prevented from travelling any further, resulting in snow in Kashmir and rainfall for parts of Punjab and northern India. Despite being a barrier to the cold northernly winter winds, the Brahmaputra valley receives part of the frigid winds, thus lowering the temperature in the northeast Indian states and Bangladesh. These winds also cause the North East monsoon during this season for these parts.

Mountain passes

Bangladesh River valley.]] The rugged terrain of the Himalaya makes few routes through the mountains possible. Some of these routes include:
- Gangtok in Sikkim to Lhasa in Tibet, via the Nathula Pass and Jelepla Passes (offshoots of the ancient Silk Route).
- Bhadgaon in Nepal to Nyalam in Tibet.
- Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh, India.
- The road from Srinagar in Kashmir via Leh to Tibet. This pass is now less used because of regional troubles.

Impact on politics and culture

Tibet The Himalaya, due to its large size and expanse, has been a natural barrier to the movement of people for a long time. In particular, this has prevented intermingling of people from the Indian subcontinent with people from China and Mongolia, causing significantly different languages and customs between these regions. The Himalaya has also hindered trade routes and prevented military expeditions across its expanse. For instance, Genghis Khan could not expand his empire south of the Himalaya into the subcontinent.

Himal

Himal is Nepalese for "range" and is used to name the various regions of the Himalaya. In Nepal, these are as follows:
- Annapurna Himal
- Ganesh Himal
- Khumbu Himal
- Langtang Himal
- Manang Himal
- Rolwaling Himal

Notable peaks

Religion and mythology

Rolwaling Himal center for Hindus]] Several places in the Himalaya are of religious significance in Hinduism and Buddhism. In Hinduism, the Himalaya have also been personified as the god Himavat, the father of Shiva's consort, Parvati.
- Haridwar, the place where the river Ganges enters the plains.
- Badrinath, a temple dedicated to Vishnu.
- Kedarnath, where one of the 12 Jyothirlingas is located.
- Deoprayag, where the Alaknanda and Bhagirathi merge to form the Ganges.
- Rishikesh, has a temple of Lakshmana.
- Mount Kailash, a 6,718 m high peak which is considered to be the abode of the Hindu god Shiva and is also venerated by Buddhists. Lake Manasarowar lies at the base of Mount Kailash, and is the source of the Brahmaputra.
- Amarnath, has a natural Shivalinga of ice which forms for a few weeks each year. Thousands of people visit this cave during these few weeks.
- A number of Tibetan Buddhist sites are situated in the Himalaya, including the residence of the Dalai Lama.
- The Yeti is one of the most famous creatures in cryptozoology. It is a large primate-like creature that is supposed to live in the Himalaya. Most mainstream scientists and experts consider current evidence of the Yeti's existence unpersuasive, and the result of hoaxes, legend or misidentification of mundane creatures.
- Shambhala is a mystical city in Buddhism with various legends associated with it. While some legends consider it to be a real city where secret Buddhist doctrines are being preserved, other legends believe that the city does not physically exist and can only be reached in the mental realm.

Himalaya in fiction


- Shangri-La is a fictional utopia situated somewhere in the Himalaya, based on the legendary Shambhala. It is described in the novel Lost Horizon, written by the British writer James Hilton in 1933.
- The Hollywood movie Vertical Limit (2000), is set in the K2 peak of the Himalaya.

See also


- Eight-thousander - a list of Himalayan peaks over 8000 metres
- List of mountains in Pakistan
- Geography of China
- Trekking peak

Further reading


- Michael Palin, Himalaya, Weidenfeld Nicolson Illustrated (2004) [ISBN 0297843710]
- John Hunt, Ascent of Everest, Hodder & Stoughton (1956) [ISBN 0898863619]
- Everest, the IMAX movie (1998), [ISBN 0788814931]

External links


- [http://comp1.geol.unibas.ch/zanskar/CHAPITRE2/page23.html The making of the Himalaya and major tectonic subdivisions]
- [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~wittke/Tibet/Himalaya.html Geology of the Himalayan mountains]
- [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/everest/earth/birth.html Birth of the Himalaya]
- [http://snobear.colorado.edu/Markw/Mountains/03/week11.html Some notes on the formation of the Himalaya]
- [http://www.8000metres.com Guide to the 8000m peaks]
- [http://himachalpardesh.blogspot.com Guide to the North Indian Himalayan state] Category:Asia Category:Biodiversity hotspots Category:Mountain ranges of Asia ko:히말라야 산맥 ms:Himalaya ja:ヒマラヤ山脈 simple:Himalaya th:เทือกเขาหิมาลัย

Pallavas

Persian Origins

The Pallavas are believed to be hereditary Hindu rulers who dominated southeastern India between the 4th and 9th centuries. One view is that they belonged to Kuruba(Kurumbar) Clan. But recent historical, anthropological, and linguistic evidence indicates that the Pallavas were of Parthian origin and the name Pallava is just a variant of a well known Sanskrit Pahlava. According to Dr Carnegy, the Pahluvas were the peoples who spoke Pehlvi, a language of Persia. And according to Dr Buhler, Pahlava and its Iranian prototype Pahlav are corruptions of Parthava. It is also notable that for the same people, the different recensions of Puranas interchangeably write Pahlava as well as Pallava The Pallavas represent a section of the Pahlavas who, in alliance with Sakas and Kambojas, had encroached into India during second/first century BCE and settled in south-western and southern India around the beginning of Christian era. The Markendeya Purana and Brhat Samhita indeed attest Pahlava and Kamboja settlements in south-western India (i.e. nairRtyAM dizi dezAH Pahlava-KAmboja.....Brhat Samhita) [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migration_of_Kambojas#The_Kambojas_in_West.2FSouthwest_India]. Yasovarman, the eighth century king of Kanauj fought with the king of Magadha, killed the king of Vanga, reached the eastern shore, defeated the kings of Deccan, crossed the Malaya mountains (east coast of Malabar,southern Mysore), reached the southern sea and fought with the Parasikas. He then received tribute from Western Ghats and moved to the north, reaching the banks of Narbada. This evidence shows that a section of Pahlavas (Parasikas) were also residing in southern India as late as first quarter of the 8th century AD. Thus, it appears that the Pallavas of Kanchi were indeed a branch of the Iranian Pahlavas, who with passage of time, had embraced Hinduism and become followers of Brahmanical way of life. French scholar George Coedes, among numerous others, identifies the Pallavas with the Iranian Pahlavas and further also sees close affinity between the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Kambuja rulers of Cambodia. This implies that some adventurous families from among the southern Indian Kambojas (allies of Pahlavas) had sailed to Indo-China and founded the Kambuja kingdom in the north of Funan around fifth/sixth century CE. Kamboja settlements are also attested in ancient Sinhala since as early as third c BCE [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migration_of_Kambojas#Kambojas_in_Sri_Lanka].

Pallava Kingdom

The Pallava dynasty’s greatest kings were Simhavisnu (ruled 575-600) and Narasimhavarman I (ruled 630-668). Their main capital was Kanchipuram, a town southwest of Madras. It is believed that they had two other working capitals in Bhavathri, in Andhra, and in Palakkad, in eastern Kerala. At its peak the Pallava Empire stretched over most of south India, bounded by the Cholas on the south and Cheras on the west and the Chalukyas on the north. At its height it covered an area larger than France, England and Germany combined. It encompassed all the present-day Dravidian nations, including the Tamil, Telugu, Malayali and Kannada tracts within its far-flung borders. The foundations of classical Dravidian architecture were established by these powerful rulers, who left behind fantastic sculptures and magnificent temples which survive to this very day. Kannada The Pallava dynasty was a time of significant change in South India -- in particular, the growth of Jainism, decline of Buddhism and emergence of Bhakti movement. Both the Alvars and the Nayanmars were active during this time. Under the Pallavas, maritime trade with Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia flourished, as did music, painting, literature, and architecture. Structural stone temples replaced rock buildings, the most impressive example being the sculptured Shore Temple at the seaport of Mahabalipuram, dedicated to the god Shiva. The Pallavas engaged in constant warfare with the Chalukyas of Badami and were finally eclipsed by the Chola kings in the 8th century.As Pallava rule declined, the Kuruba people scattered over a wide area of southern India and became culturally distinct. During this time, the Kurubas survived by hunting, gathering forest produce, or small-scale farming. In time, the majority of Kurubas settled on the plains as small landowners or herdsmen Classification of Pallava dynasty as "Early", "Middle" and "Later" is based on the language used in their copper and stone engravings. Early Pallavas used Prakrit, middle Pallavas used Sanskrit, and later Pallavas used Tamil in their engravings.

List of Pallava Kings

Notes


- Brahmanda Purana (12.16.46), Calcutta edition; Markendeya Purana (57.35), Calcutta edition; Matasya Purana (12.16.46) Calcutta as well as Bombay editions; Vamana Purana (13.37); Harivamsa (XIII.763-64).
- Markendeya Purana (58.30-32) and Brhat Samhita (14.17-19)
- Ancient India, 2000, p 630, Dr V. D. Mahajan.
- Indianised States of South-east Asia, 1968, p 47,66, G Coedes.

References


- Pallavar varalaṛu, by Mā. Rācamānikkanār, 1944, Caiva Cittānta Nūṛpatippu Kaḻakam.
- [http://www.ksafe.com/profiles/p_code4/1479.html The Kuruba of India]
- Mahendravarman I Pallava: Artist and Patron of Mamallapuram by Marilyn Hirsh, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 48, No. 1/2. (1987), pp.113

External links


- [http://www.hostkingdom.net/india.html#Pallava List of rulers of Pallava]
- [http://www.iranian.com/History/2003/May/Pallava/ India's Parthian colony] Category:Ruling clans of India Category:Hindu history ja:パラヴァ朝

435

Events
- August 3 - Nestorius is exiled by Imperial edict to a monastery in a Sahara oasis.
- The Vandals are allowed territory in North Africa.
- Ibas becomes bishop of Edessa. Births
- Odoacer, king of Italy
- Justin I, Byzantine emperor (approximate date) Deaths
- Pelagius, British monk (approximate date)
- Rabbulas, bishop of Edessa Category:435 ko:435년

Jainism

from Mathura]] Jainism (pronounced in English as //), traditionally known as Jain Dharma (जैन धर्म) , is a classical religion with its origins in the prehistory of India. The Jains, although a small minority in India now, have continued to sustain the shraman (श्रमण) tradition. Jainism is significantly influential in both the ethical and economic spheres in India. Jainism places great stress on compassion to all living beings. Self-control (व्रत, vrata in Sanskrit) forms a central part of being a Jain. A lay Jain is termed a shravaka (श्रावक) i.e. a listener. The Jain Sangha (संघ) has four components: monks (साधु), nuns, lay men and women.

Overview of Jain Dharma

According to Jain beliefs, Jain philosophy is a codification of eternal universal truths which at times lapse among humanity, but later reappear through the teachings of human beings who have gained enlightenment or omniscience (Keval Gnan). According to jain tradition, Lord Rishabha (ऋषभ, sometimes pronounced as िरषभ) was the first human to receive the philosophy in this part of the universe, in the present cycle, and more recently Vardhaman Mahavira (599–527 BCE), or Lord Mahavira (महावीर). Jainism teaches that every single living thing is an individual and eternal soul, called jīva, which is responsible for its own actions. Jains see their faith as teaching the individual to live, think and act in ways that respect and honor the spiritual nature of every living being to the best of one's human abilities. Jains view God as the unchanging traits of the pure soul of each living being, chief among them being Infinite Knowledge, Perception, Consciousness, and Happiness ('Ananta Gnana, Darshan, Chaitanya,' and 'Sukh') — but as such does not believe in any single Omnipotent Supreme Being (see Ishvara). The universe itself is seen as being eternal, having no beginning and no end, precluding God from being any creator. The primary figures of Jainism are the Tirthankaras. Jainism has two main variants: Digambar and Shvetambar. Jains believe in ahimsa (or ahinsā), asceticism, karma, samsara, and the jiva. Jain philosophy has many scriptures written over a long period of time. One of the most cited scripture among all Jains is Tattvartha Sutra, or Book of Realities written over 18 centuries ago by the monk-scholar Umasvati (also known as Umasvami). The holy Vedas of the orthodox Hindus is not regarded as authoritative, and hence, Jainism (along with Buddhism) is a Shramana Paramparā (monastic tradition) as opposed to orthodox Hinduism which is a Vaidika Paramparā (Vedic tradition). Compassion to all fellow living beings (along with humans) is central to being a Jain. Jainism is the only religion where all followers, both monks and practicing lay persons, are traditionally vegetarian. In regions of India with strong Jain influence, often the majority of the population is vegetarian. In many towns, the Jains run animal shelters. In Delhi, there is a bird hospital run by a Jain temple. Many historians believe that Hinduism adopted vegetarianism as a recommendation (though never a requirement or a dogma) because of the strong influence of Jainism and Buddhism. As part of its stance on nonviolence, Jainism goes even beyond vegetarianism, in that the Jain diet also excludes most root vegetables as Jains believe such vegetables have an infinite number of individual souls, invisible to the naked eye. Jains also do not eat certain other foods believed to be unnecessarily injurious. Observant Jains do not eat, drink or travel after sunset and always rise before sunrise. Anekantavada, meaning simultaneous validity of multiple points of view is an important principle in Jainism. Another foundational principle of Jainism is the theory of relativity of knowledge, ie, Syādvāda. The Jains can be remarkably open minded towards other dharmas. There are several Hindu temples that are administered by Jain individuals. The Jain Heggade family has run the institutions of Dharmasthala including the Manjunath Temple for eight centuries. There are examples of Jains donating money for building churches and mosques. In India the Jains have often helped organize multi-religious discussions and functions. They have also sometimes been involved in activities to promote harmony among followers of rival faiths to help defuse communal tensions. Jains have been an important presence in Indian culture, contributing to Indian philosophy, art, architecture, sciences and the politics of Mohandas Gandhi which led to Indian independence.

Universal History and Jain Cosmology

According to Jain beliefs, the universe was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist. It is eternal but not unchangeable, because it passes through an endless series of cycles. Each of these upward or downward cycles is divided into six world ages (yugas). The present world age is the fifth age of one of these "cycles", which is in a downward movement. These ages are known as "Aaro" as in "Pehela Aara" or First Age, "Doosra Aara" or Second Age and so on. The last one is the "Chhatha Aara" or Sixth Age. All these ages have fixed time durations of thousands of years. When this reaches its lowest level, even Jainism itself will be lost in its entirety. Then, in the course of the next upswing, the Jain religion will be rediscovered and reintroduced by new leaders called Tirthankaras (literally "Crossing Makers" or "Ford Finders"), only to be lost again at the end of the next downswing, and so on. In each of these enormously long alternations of time there are always twenty-four Tirthankaras. In the current world age, the twenty-third Tirthankar was Parshva, an ascetic and teacher, whose traditional dates are 877-777 BC, i.e., 250 years before the passing of the last Tirthankar Lord Mahavira in 527 BC. Jains regard him and all Tirthankars as a reformer who called for a return to beliefs and practices in line with the eternal universal philosophy upon which the faith is said to be based. Hence the epithet Bhagavan is applied to Mahavira and most other Tirathankaras in the sense of the Venerable One. Bhagavan is shelter from ocean of rebirths]] The twenty-fourth and final Tirthankar of this age is known by his title, Mahāvīr, the Great Hero (599-527 BC). He too was a wandering ascetic teacher who attempted to recall the Jains to the rigorous practice of their ancient faith. Jains believe that reality is made up of two eternal principles, jiva and ajiva. Jiva consists of an infinite number of identical spiritual units; ajiva (that is, non-jiva) is matter in all its forms and the conditions under which matter exists: time, space, and movement. Both jiva and ajiva are eternal; they never came into existence for the first time and will never cease to exist. The whole world is made up of jivas trapped in ajiva; there are jivas in rocks, plants, insects, animals, human beings, spirits, et cetera. Any contact whatsoever of the jiva with the ajiva causes the former to suffer. Thus the Jains believed that existence in this world inevitably means suffering. Neither social reform nor the reform of individuals themselves can ever stop suffering. In every human being, a jiva is trapped, and the jiva suffers because of its contact with ajiva. The only way to escape from suffering is for the jiva to completely escape from the human condition, from human existence. Karma and transmigration keep the jiva trapped in ajiva. Achieving release from the human condition is difficult. The Jains believe that the jiva continues to suffer during all its lives or reincarnations, which are of an indefinite number. They believe that every action that a person performs, be it good or evil, opens up channels of the senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell), through which an invisible substance, karma, filters in and adheres to the jiva within, weighing it down and determining the conditions of the next reincarnation. The consequence of evil actions is a heavy karma, which weighs the jiva down, forcing it to enter its new life at a lower level in the scale of existence. The consequence of good deeds, on the other hand, is a light karma, which allows the jiva to rise in its next life to a higher level in the scale of existence, where there is less suffering to be endured. However, good deeds alone can never lead to release. karma The way to moksha (release or liberation) is withdrawal from the world. Karma is the cause-and-effect mechanism by virtue of which all actions have inescapable consequences. Karma operates to keep the jiva chained in an unending series of lifetimes in which the jiva suffers to a greater or lesser extent. Thus the way of escape must involve an escape from karma, the destruction of all karma and the avoidance of new karma. Then, at death, with no karma to weigh it down, the jiva will float free of all ajiva, free of the human condition, free of all future embodiments. It will rise to the top of the universe to a place or state called Siddhashila, where the jiva, identical with all other pure jivas, will experience its own true nature in eternal stillness, isolation and noninvolvement. It will be totally free. The way to burn up old karma is to withdraw from all involvement in the world as much as possible, and close the channel of the senses and the mind to prevent karmic matter from entering and adhering to the jiva. Such kind of an eternal liberation from the unbinding of the Jiva and the Pudgala (ajiva), such that no new reincarnation occurs into the material world, is called as Moksha. Ignorance (ajñāna) is the cause of binding, and true knowledge (kevala jñāna) is the cause of liberation. S. Vernon McCasland, Grace E. Cairns and David C. Yu describe Jain cosmology after the following manner: :"In Jain tradition, the first teacher of the religion, Rishabha, lived in the third period of Avasarpini, during which half of the world cycle things are getting worse. Since evil had begun to be found, a teacher called a Tirthankara was needed in order for people to cope with the problems of life. In the fourth period, evils proliferated such that twenty-three more Tirthankaras came into the world to teach people how to defeat evil and achieve mokasha. The present time, part of the fifth period, is 'wholly evil.' Now, men live no longer than 125 years, but the sixth epoch will be even worse. 'Man's life span will be only sixteen to twenty years and his height will be reduced to the size of a dwarf. . . . But then the slow upward movement of the first half of the world cycle, Utsarpini, will begin. There will be steady improvement until, in the first era, man's needs will be fulfilled by wishing trees, and man's height will be six miles, and evil will be unknown.' However, eventually things will degenerate again, with a repeat of Avasarpini; Usarpini will come again afterwards, in a neverending cycle, according to Jain cosmology." (McCasland, Cairns, and Yu, Religions of the World, New York: Random House, 1969: pages 485-486)

Beliefs and practices

Moksha." The wheel represents the dharma-chakra. This logo represents halting the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of truth.]] On one hand, there are the monks, who practice severe asceticism and strive to make this birth their last. On the other hand, there are the lay people, who pursue less rigorous practices, striving to attain rational faith and do good deeds in this birth. Due to the strict ethics embedded in Jainism, the laity must choose a profession and livelihood that does not involve violence to self and other living beings. In their effort to attain their highest and most exalted state of being a Siddha, which is the permanent release of the jiva from all involvement in worldly existence, the Jains believe that no spirit or divine being can assist them in any way. The Jains consider that the devas (angels or celestial beings) cannot help the jiva to obtain release. This has to be achieved by individuals through their own efforts. In fact, the devas cannot even gain their own release until they are reincarnated as humans and undertake the difficult actions of removing the karmas. The ethical code of Jainism is taken very seri