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Kalamazoo, Michigan

Kalamazoo, Michigan

:There is also Kalamazoo, West Virginia. Kalamazoo is a city in the southwest area of the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 77,145. It is the county seat of Kalamazoo County⁶. Kalamazoo is home to Western Michigan University a nationally recognized research institution that has benefited from the local presence of Pfizer and Stryker. This has enabled the school to offer strong programs in both its College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, and Haworth College of Business. The city is also home to Kalamazoo College (often referred to as "K-College"), a prestigious liberal arts school located downtown. As such, Kalamazoo is often referred to as a "college town with a strong white-collar presence"; this is in contradiction to eastern parts of the state that are predominantly blue collar.
Name origin
The city is named after the Kalamazoo River, but no one is certain as to where the name Kalamazoo actually comes from. A lack of evidence means that the truth will likely never be found, but there are four common theories: # It is derived from the Potawatomi word negikanamazo, which is variously translated as "otter tail" or "stones like otters." This could refer to area wildlife. # Most widely accepted is the legend of a Potawatomi named Fleet Foot. In order to win his bride, he was required to run from his settlement to a point on the river and back before a pot of water boiled away. This event is thought to have occurred in 1810, a couple of decades before the first permanent white settlers. The Potawatomi word kikalamezo appears on an 1823 atlas of the area. The word translates as "boiling pot" or "place where the water boils," and refers to the Fleet Foot legend. # The "boiling pot" translation may also refer to various nearby bends in the river that resemble pots. # An alternate translation of kikalamezo is "mirage" or "reflecting waters," and could refer to the once-clear waters of the river, which are now much less so due to pollution. Yet another possibility is it meant a place to ford the river. The city was originally established near one of the few places in the area where it was easy to cross by wading. In response to the strange-sounding name, t-shirts are sold in Kalamazoo that feature the phrase "Yes, there really is a Kalamazoo". Also, there are songs that use the word, such as "I've Got a Gal in Kalamazoo" by Glenn Miller, "Down on the Corner" by Creedence Clearwater Revival, "Kalamazoo" by Ben Folds, "Kalamazoo" by Primus, "Kalamazoo" by Luna. The word also features in the opera "Einstein on the Beach" by Philip Glass. The common phrase "from Timbuktu to Kalamazoo" has also served to popularize the name.
History
At the time white explorers first began arriving, the area was home to the Potawatomi Indians. The 1821 Treaty of Chicago ceded all the territory south of the Grand River to the United States federal government. However, the area around present-day Kalamazoo was reserved as the village of Chief Match-E-Be-Nash-She-Wish. In the September 19, 1827, Treaty with the Potawatomi, the tract that became the city was also ceded. The village had been a fur trading center. White settlers began to arrive in 1829, led by Titus Bronson, originally from Connecticut. He platted the town in 1831 and named it the village of Bronson (not to be confused with the much-smaller Bronson, Michigan about fifty miles to the south-southeast). Bronson was frequently described as "eccentric" and argumentative and was later run out of town. The village of Bronson was renamed Kalamazoo in 1836. Today, a hospital and a park, among other things, are named after Titus Bronson. Kalamazoo legally incorporated as a village in 1838 and as a city in 1883. In 1959 Kalamazoo designed the first pedestrian mall in the U.S. [http://www.rootsweb.com/~mikalama/kalamazoomall.htm]
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 65.2 km² (25.2 mi²). 63.9 km² (24.7 mi²) of it is land and 1.3 km² (0.5 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 1.99% water, including several lakes. To the south is its largest suburb, Portage, Michigan, which includes the largest collection of major stores in the area. The city has Kalamazoo-Battle Creek International Airport, which also serves Battle Creek, Michigan, used by several airlines. There is a downtown Amtrak passenger station, which also serves as a bus (coach) station. The Kal-Haven Trail, heavily used by bicyclists and snowmobilers, starts a few miles west of the city limits, though there are plans to extend the trail to the downtown. Kalamazoo is served by highways Interstate 94, U.S. Highway 131, Michigan State Highway 43 and Michigan State Highway 96. It was on the original Territorial Road in Michigan of the 1800s, which started in Detroit and ran to Lake Michigan. Much of that, but not all, later became Old U.S. 12--the "old" designation came about when I-94 was built parallel to it--and also was called Red Arrow Highway after a World War I army division. The name "U.S. 12" was shifted south to what once was U.S. 112 between Detroit and Chicago. Some parts of Old U.S. 12 outside of town, especially in Van Buren County and Berrien County to the west, are still called Red Arrow Highway. The term "Old U.S. 12" has faded from use.
Demographics
As of the census ² of 2000, there are 77,145 people, 29,413 households, and 14,353 families residing in the city. The population density is 1,206.9/km² (3,125.4/mi²). There are 31,798 housing units at an average density of 497.5/km² (1,288.2/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 70.77% White, 20.64% Black or African American, 0.58% Native American, 2.39% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 2.38% from other races, and 3.18% from two or more races. 4.28% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 29,413 households out of which 24.9% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.6% are married couples living together, 14.7% have a female householder with no husband present, and 51.2% are non-families. 34.8% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.6% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.30 and the average family size is 2.99. In the city the population is spread out with 20.3% under the age of 18, 27.6% from 18 to 24, 26.8% from 25 to 44, 15.2% from 45 to 64, and 10.1% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 26 years. For every 100 females there are 93.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.9 males. The median income for a household in the city is $31,189, and the median income for a family is $42,438. Males have a median income of $32,160 versus $25,532 for females. The per capita income for the city is $16,897. 24.3% of the population and 13.6% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 26.0% of those under the age of 18 and 11.3% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
Education
Kalamazoo is home to Western Michigan University, (often referred to simply as "Western") which is located on the western edge of the city. The college has four campuses in Kalamazoo, (West Campus, East Campus, Parkview, and Oakland Drive) as well as several satellite campuses throughout Michigan. West campus is by far the largest concentration of university students, programs and school services. The school is one of the 50 largest universities in the nation, and one of the top 100 public universities in the country. In 2005, the university had over 26,000 students and employed over 1,200 faculty. Also in 2005, Western ranked #2 Wireless Campus in the U.S. in a national survey done by the Intel Corporation. Also located in Kalamazoo is Kalamazoo College as well as Kalamazoo Valley Community College and Davenport University. It also had been the home of Nazareth College, which closed in the 1990s. Due to very generous private donations from seven anonymous individuals, every student in the Kalamazoo Public School District is entitled to a scholarship to any public university or community college in Michigan, starting with the class of 2006. The program has become known as the Kalamazoo Promise. To receive any assistance, a student must live the city of Kalamazoo and would have had to attend since at least ninth grade. Sixty-five percent of that student's tuition would be paid. The scale goes up from there, with eighth graders receiving 70 percent of their tuition paid, 75 percent for seventh graders, 80 percent for sixth, 85 percent for fifth, 90 percent for fourth, and 95 for first through third graders. Students attending schools in the district from kindergarten through high school graduation will have 100 percent of their tuition and fees paid.
Industry
Medical:
Kalamazoo was home to The Upjohn Company, a pharmaceutical manufacturer now part of Pfizer. Many of Upjohn's complexes remain, most centered in downtown and neighboring Portage, Michigan, and Pfizer remains a rather large employer in the area. The city is also home to the Stryker Corporation, a surgical and medical devices manufacturer. Breweries:
Kalamazoo has three popular local breweries and brewpubs producing a variety of beer styles, from light bodied wheat ales to stouts and barleywines. The most famous is the Bell's Brewery Inc., originally established as the Kalamazoo Brewing Company in 1985 by its flamboyant founder, Larry Bell.[http://www.bellsbeer.com/] The brewery has expanded from its original Kalamazoo location, which houses the Eccentric Cafe, to a modern, state of the art brewery located in nearby Comstock/Galesburg. Kraftbrau Brewery, located within one block of Bell's downtown brewery, is likely Bell's most notable rival. [http://www.kraftbraubrewery.com/] Olde Peninsula is a downtown brewpub featuring a small selection of craft beers to accompany its diverse menu. Flavorings:
The A.M. Todd Company, one of the lead producers of peppermint oil and other flavorings, is headquartered in Kalamazoo.[http://www.amtbotanicals.com/] Its founder, Albert M. Todd, was elected to the United States House of Representatives Fifty-fifth Congress. Kalamazoo is also home to Kalsec, another flavorings company, which is family owned and managed by some of Todd's descendants.[http://www.kalsec.com/] Other:
Other notable Kalamazoo businesses include:
- First of America of Michigan (now National City) - Banking & Finance
- Pro Co - Audio Equipment Historical:
In the past, Kalamazoo was known for its production of windmills, buggies, automobiles, cigars, stoves, paper, and paper products. Agriculturally, it once was noted for celery and bedding plants. Although much has become suburbanized, the countryside still continues to produce significant amounts of crops from farms. Notable businesses founded in Kalamazoo include Gibson Guitar (which spawned the still-local Heritage Guitars); the Shakespeare Company, a fishing and tackle manufacturer; and Checker Motors, an automobile manufacturer, which is now a division of General Motors, best known for the Checker Cab. The eponymous Kalamazoo Stove Company used to have such slogans as "A Kalamazoo direct to you."
Culture
Largely due to its college-town influence, Kalamazoo has always been notable as a center for the arts. Among the local theater groups are the Kalamazoo Civic Players, New Vic Theatre and Barn Theater in nearby Augusta, along with others. There are also productions by college students. Big-name stars and groups often perform at the State Theatre, Miller Auditorium at Western Michigan University, and Wings Stadium. There are a number of art galleries, the most prominent being the Kalamazoo Institute of Arts. An annual event is "Eccentric Day" at Bell's Eccentric Cafe which celebrates the brewery's eclectic Eccentric Ale. The celebration is in December on the Friday marking the end of finals at Western Michigan University. [http://www.michiganbeerguide.com/news.asp?articleid=124] It is home to the Kalamazoo Symphony Orchestra. The Kalamazoo Aviation History Museum--generally called the Kalamazoo Air Zoo--is located at the airport. Many of its antique planes are flyable. Downtown is the Kalamazoo Valley Museum, a "hands-on" museum aimed largely at children which also has a planetarium and a nationally recognized Challenger Learning Center, both of which are heavily influenced by the direction of Bay Ari-Gur. Northeast of town is the Gilmore Car Museum, which includes cars used in Walt Disney movies. In 2001, the Kalamazoo Public Library was awarded "Library of the Year" by Library Journal. The city's library system is comprised of four branch libraries in addition to its central location, as well as the bookmobile system. [http://www.kpl.gov/] Kalamazoo is also the birthplace of the Moped Army, a nationwide moped club. The Kalamazoo branch, the Decepticons, hosts an annual Memorial Day event which attracts riders from all over the United States. Despite the name and a Woody Woodpecker cartoon, there is no zoo in Kalamazoo, besides the mentioned aviation museum called the Kalamazoo Air Zoo.
Sports
The Western Michigan University Broncos, who compete in NCAA Division I in the Mid-American Conference play at various venues throughout the city, most notably Waldo Stadium (football), Lawson Arena (hockey), University Arena (basketball{{{{

Kalamazoo, West Virginia
Kalamazoo is an unincorporated community in Barbour County, West Virginia, USA.
External links
Category:Barbour County, West Virginia Category:Geography of West Virginia Category:Unincorporated communities in West Virginia

U.S. state

A U.S. state is any one of the fifty states (four of which officially favor the term commonwealth) which, together with the District of Columbia and Palmyra Atoll (an uninhabited incorporated unorganized territory), form the United States of America. The separate state governments and the U.S. federal government share sovereignty, in that an "American" is a citizen both of the federal entity and of his or her state of residence. The United States Constitution allocates power between the two levels of government in general terms; the general idea is that by ratifying the Constitution, each state has transferred certain aspects of its sovereign powers to the federal government while retaining the remainder for itself. The tasks of education, health, transportation, and other infrastructure are generally the responsibility of the states. Over time, the Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization, with the federal government playing a much larger role than it once did.

Legal relationship

At the time of the Declaration of Independence from Great Britain in 1776, the 13 colonies became 13 independently sovereign states, which became fourteen in 1777 with the formation of the Vermont Republic; for a brief period, they were in effect legally separate nations. But upon the adoption of the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, the states became a single sovereign political entity as defined by international law, empowered to levy war and to conduct international relations, albeit with a very loosely structured and inefficient central government. After the failure of the union under the Articles of Confederation, the thirteen states joined the modern union via ratification of the United States Constitution, beginning in 1789. Under Article IV of the Constitution, which outlines the relationship between the states, the Congress has the power to admit new states to the union. The states are required to give "full faith and credit" to the acts of each other's legislatures and courts, which is generally held to include the recognition of legal contracts, marriages, criminal judgments, and - at the time - slave status. The states are guaranteed military and civil defense by the federal government, which is also required to ensure that the government of each state remains a republic. The Constitution is silent on the issue of the secession of a state from the union. The Articles of Confederation had stated that the earlier union of the colonies "shall be perpetual", and the preamble to the Constitution states that Constitution was intended to "form a more perfect union". In 1860 and 1861, several states attempted to secede, but were brought back into the Union by force of arms during the Civil War. Subsequently, the federal judicial system, in the case of Texas v. White, established that states do not have the right to secede without the consent of the other states.
- Four of the states bear the formal title of Commonwealth: Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. In these cases, this is merely a name and has no legal effect. However, the United States has non-state areas called commonwealths (Puerto Rico and the Northern Marianas) which do have a legal status different from the states.
- States are free to organize their judicial systems differently from the federal judiciary, as long as due process is protected. See state supreme court for more information. For example, most lawsuits in the state of New York are filed in the Supreme Court, and then appealed to the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court. The highest court in New York is the Court of Appeals.
- The joint resolution which admitted the Republic of Texas to the Union as a state guaranteed Texas the right to divide itself up into up to 5 states. This clause may be redundant, however, as any such state would arguably require Congressional approval, just as when Maine was split off from Massachusetts; it may also be unconstitutional, as reducing the equal suffrage of the other states in the United States Senate.

List of states

The states, with their U.S. postal abbreviations, traditional abbreviations, capitals and largest cities, are as follows. For a complete list of non-state dependent areas and other territory under control of the U.S., see United States dependent areas. State names speak to the circumstances of their creation. (See the lists of U.S. state name etymologies and U.S. county name etymologies for more detail.)
- Southern states on the Atlantic coast originated as British colonies named after British monarchs: Georgia, the Carolinas, Virginia, and Maryland. Some northeastern states, also former British colonies, take their names from places in the British Isles: New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York.
- Many states' names are those of Native American tribes or are from Native American languages: Kansas, Massachusetts, Hawaii, Connecticut, Missouri, Iowa, Wisconsin, Illinois, Minnesota, the Dakotas, Mississippi, Texas, Utah, and others.
- Because they are on territories previously controlled by Spain or Mexico, many states in the southeast and southwest have Spanish names. They include Colorado, New Mexico, Florida, and Nevada.
- Because it was previously a French colony, Louisiana is named after the Louis XIV (King of France at the time).
- The origins of the names of California, Oregon, Idaho, and Rhode Island are unknown, although various theories exist.

Trivia

Names

- "Georgia" can refer to either a U.S. state or to an independent country in the Caucasus.
- The name "New York" can refer to any one of three geographical levels: a state, a city in that state, or a county (coterminous with the borough of Manhattan) in that city.
- "Washington" is a state, a city corresponding to the District of Columbia (and thus not part of any state), and a number of cities and counties in various states. See the list of places named for George Washington.
- The state of Washington is the only state named after a U.S. President (or after a person born within the area now comprising the U.S., for that matter).
- The official name of Rhode Island is "the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations."
- Only two states have state capitals named for the state (however, such name-sharing occurs commonly with states and provinces in some other countries, where the state or province actually often takes its name from a capital city): Oklahoma, with capital Oklahoma City, and Indiana, with capital Indianapolis (which means Indiana City). Iowa City, Iowa was the first state capital of Iowa but the capital was later moved to Des Moines, Iowa.
- Maine is the only state with a one-syllable name.

Geography

- Colorado and Wyoming are bounded by two circles of latitude and two meridians each, i.e. they appear to be rectangles in a cylindrical map projection.
- Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming are the only states whose borders are made up of only straight lines (taking meridians and circles of latitude as straight lines) and, thus, the only states whose borders completely ignore natural features.
- Every state—except Hawaii, which has no land boundaries—has straight lines as at least part of its boundaries. These are usually combined with rivers (see river borders of U.S. states), ridge lines and other natural boundaries. Pennsylvania and Delaware are unique in that their common border is an arc of a circle, see The Twelve-Mile Circle.
- The lower peninsula of Michigan is shaped like a mitten; Louisiana is shaped like a boot.
- Alaska, Florida, Idaho, Maryland, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Texas and West Virginia have panhandles.
- Alabama, Missouri, New Mexico and Mississippi have bootheels.
- Alaska and Hawaii are the only states that are not physically connected to other states; Maine is the only state that borders only one other state. Missouri and Tennessee each border eight other states, the most for any state.
- Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah are the only four states to share a common border, known as the "Four Corners."
- Appearances given by the stereographic projection to the contrary, Minnesota is the northernmost of the forty-eight contiguous United States, as a northern spur of the state contains a portion of Lake of the Woods. At one time it was thought that Lake of the Woods contained the headwaters of the Mississippi River (now known to be at Lake Itasca).
- Alaska is the northernmost state and the westernmost state. Some would argue that it is also the easternmost state, as the Aleutian island chain crosses the 180º line of longitude.

Grouping of the states in regions

Alaska, The South and The Northeast. Note that Alaska and Hawaii are shown at different scales, and that the Aleutian Islands and the uninhabited Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are omitted from this map.]] States may be grouped in regions; there are endless variations and possible groupings, as most states are not defined by obvious geographic or cultural borders. For further discussion of regions of the U.S., see the list of regions of the United States.

State lists

References

External links

- [http://factfinder.census.gov/bf/_lang=en_vt_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_GCTPH1R_US9S_geo_id=01000US.html Tables with areas, populations, densities and more (in order of population)]
- [http://factfinder.census.gov/bf/_lang=en_vt_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_GCTPH1_US9_geo_id=01000US.html Tables with areas, populations, densities and more (alphabetical)]
- [http://www.usnewspapers.org US Newspapers by State]
- [http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0854966.html Origin of State Names] United States, States of the Category:Subdivisions of the United States
- U.S. State ja:アメリカ合衆国の地方行政区画 ko:미국의 주 simple:List of U.S. states th:มลรัฐของสหรัฐอเมริกา zh-min-nan:Bí-kok ê hêng-chèng-khu

United States 2000 Census

The United States Census of year 2000, conducted by the Census Bureau, determined the resident population of the United States on April 1, 2000, to be 281,421,906, an increase of 13.2 percent over the 248,709,873 persons enumerated during the 1990 Census. This was the twenty second federal census and the largest peacetime effort in the history of the United States. The U.S. resident population includes the total number of people in the 50 states and the District of Columbia. The Bureau also enumerated the residents of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico; its population was 3,808,610, an 8.1 percent increase over the number from a decade earlier.

Population profile

In an introduction to a more detailed population profile (see references below), the Census Bureau highlighted the following facts about U.S population dynamics:
- 75.1 percent of respondents said they were White and no other race;
- Hispanics - who may belong to any race - accounted for 12.5 percent of the U.S. population, up from 9 percent in 1990;
- Between 1990 and 2000, the population aged 45 to 54 grew by 49 percent and those aged 85 and older grew 38 percent;
- Women outnumber men two to one among those aged 85 and older;
- Almost one in five adults had some type of disability in 1997 and the likelihood of having a disability increased with age;
- Families (as opposed to men or women living alone) still dominate American households, but less so than they did thirty years ago;
- Since 1993, both families and nonfamilies have seen median household incomes rise, with "households headed by a woman without a spouse present" growing the fastest;
- People in married-couple families have the lowest poverty rates;
- The poor of any age are more likely than others to lack health insurance coverage;
- The number of elementary and high school students in 2000 fell just short of the all-time high of 49 million reached in 1970;
- Improvements in educational attainment cross racial and ethnic lines; and
- The majority (51%) of U.S. households have access to computers; 41% have Internet access.

Population breakdown

The most-populous state in the country was California (33,871,648); the least populous was Wyoming (493,782). The state that gained the most numerically since the 1990 census was California, up 4,111,627. Nevada had the highest percentage growth in population, climbing 66.3 percent (796,424 people) since 1990.

Changes in population

Regionally, the South and West picked up the bulk of the nation's population increase, 14,790,890 and 10,411,850, respectively. This meant that the mean center of U.S. population moved to Phelps County, Missouri. The Northeast grew by 2,785,149; the Midwest, by 4,724,144. Image:2000-census-percent-change.jpg Image:2000-census-numeric-change.jpg

Languages spoken at home

The Modern Language Association provides a website with overviews and detailed data about the locations and numbers of speakers of thirty languages and seven groups of less commonly spoken languages in the United States. Languages other than English are spoken at home by 46,951,595 respondents or 17.88% of people who are at least five years old. Below are the top languages spoken at home. Percentage is with respect to the number of people reported language other than English. Languages that contribute over 1% are listed. #Spanish or Spanish Creole (59.85%) #French or French Creole (4.47%) #Chinese (4.31%) #German (2.95%) #Tagalog (2.61%) #Vietnamese (2.15%) #Italian (2.15%) #Korean (1.90%) #Russian (1.50%) #Polish (1.42%) #Arabic (1.31%) #Portuguese or Portuguese Creole (1.20%) #Japanese (1.02%) (Note that our ranking differs from the MLA website because we combine French and French Creole.)

Reapportionment

The results of the census are used to determine how many congressional districts each state is apportioned. Congress defines the formula, in accordance with Title 2 of the U.S. Code, to reapportion among the states the 435 seats in the United States House of Representatives. The apportionment population consists of the resident population of the fifty states, plus the overseas military and federal civilian employees and their dependents living with them who could be allocated to a state. Each member of the House represents a population of about 647,000. The populations of the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico are excluded from the apportionment population because they do not have voting seats in the U. S. House of Representatives. Since 1790 Census, the first census, the decennial count has been the basis for the United States representative form of government. In 1790, each member of the House represented about 34,000 residents. Since then, the House has more than quadrupled in size, and each member represents about 19 times as many constituents. Image:2000-census-reapportionment.jpg

External links and references

United States Census Bureau web pages

- [http://www.census.gov/main/www/cen2000.html Census 2000 gateway]
- [http://www.census.gov/population/www/pop-profile/profile2000.html Population Profile of the United States: 2000]
- [http://www.census.gov/population/pop-profile/2000/profile2000.ppt Population Profile Introductory slide show], in MS Powerpoint format
- [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/ State and County QuickFacts], the most requested information
- [http://factfinder.census.gov American FactFinder], for population, housing, economic, and geographic data

Other 2000 census websites

- [http://www.mla.org/census_main MLA Language Map] from the Modern Language Association
- [http://people.howstuffworks.com/census.htm How the Census Works] Category:Demographics of the United States Category:National censuses

County seat

A county seat is an administrative center for a county. In the U.S. New England states and the Canadian Maritime Provinces, the term "shire town" is also used, but officially so only in Vermont. In England, Wales and Ireland, the term county town is used. This term is probably still used colloquially in Scotland and Northern Ireland, but today neither are divided into counties - instead being divided, respectively, into regions and districts. Counties are called "parishes" in Louisiana and Alaska is divided into "boroughs" (here, meaning a very large district or region of the state). Their seats of county government are called "parish seat" and "borough seat," respectively. The Canadian province of Ontario, in addition to counties, also has territorial districts, regional muncipalities, and at least one metropolitan municipality, which are effectively different types of counties in that they perform county government functions. In America as in England and Canada, a county is an administrative division of a state which has no sovereign jurisdiction of its own, so it would not be correct to say that a county seat is equivalent to a capital city since it's just an administrative centre. (See also the article, Counties of the United States.) Counties administer state or provincial law at the local level as part of the decentralisation of state/provincial authority. In many U.S. states, state government is further decentralised by dividing counties into townships, to provide local government services to residents of the county who do not live in incorporated cities or towns. A county seat is often, but not always, an incorporated municipality. The county courthouse and county administration are usually located in the county seat, but some functions may also be conducted in other parts of the county, especially if it is geographically large. Most counties have only one county seat. However, some counties in Arkansas, Iowa, Kentucky, Massachusetts, and Mississippi have two or more county seats, usually located on opposite sides of the county. An example is Harrison County, Mississippi, which lists both Biloxi and Gulfport as county seats. The practice of multiple county towns dates from the days when travel was difficult. There have been few efforts to eliminate the two-seat arrangement since a county seat is a source of pride (and jobs) for the towns involved. In Virginia, all cities are independent cities, which are legally distinct from the counties that surround them. An independent city interacts with the commonwealth (state) government directly whereas villages and other local government authorities do so through the county government apparatus. However, many of Virginia's independent cities act as the county seat for their neighbouring counties. For example, the City of Fairfax is separate from Fairfax County, but is still the county's seat. Uniquely, because it was formerly part of the District of Columbia, Arlington County, Virginia, which is the smallest county in the United States, has no county seat - because it has no muncipalities within its boundaries. Prior to their retrocession to Virginia during the nineteenth century, Arlington and the neighboring independent city of Arlington were, respectively, Arlington County and Alexandria County - two of the three counties of the District of Columbia. The District as currently drawn was coextensive with the County of Washington, which disappeared in the twentieth century following the amalgamation of Tenley, Anacostia and the other rural and semi-rural towns and villages of Washington County, D.C., to the City of Washington.

References

Category:Capitals Category:U.S. counties ja:郡庁所在地

Western Michigan University

Western Michigan University Logo

Established 1903

School type Public University

President Dr. Judith I. Bailey

Location Kalamazoo, MI, USA

Enrollment 26,239 total
21,434 undergraduate,
4,805 graduate

Faculty 1,189

Mascot Broncos

Website [http://www.wmich.edu/ www.wmich.edu]

Western Michigan University (abbr. WMU) is a public university established in 1903; its main campus is located in Kalamazoo, Michigan. As of 2005, the school has nearly 30,000 enrolled students. The school is the fourth largest in the state of Michigan and is one of the 50 largest universities in the United States.The school's mascot is Buster Bronco, and the school colors are brown and gold. WMU's College of Aviation is one of the largest aviation programs in the United States; the university is also noted for its Paper Engineering and Behavioral Analysis programs, as well as for the Haworth College of Business. WMU's expansion projects include a new Business and Technology park for research, a new aviation campus in Battle Creek, Michigan, and extensive building renovation and restoration in the Kalamazoo campus.

History

Western Michigan University was established in 1903 as a normal school. Kalamazoo, Michigan was chosen for the site of the institution and the original campus was established on Prospect Hill. The orginal campus is today known as East Campus and consists of historic buildings built in the early years of the University. The first president of the university was Dwight B. Waldo The normal school experienced steady growth during its first four decades. Following World War II, the GI Bill enabled millions to receive a higher education. As a result Western's enrollment grew to over 4,000 students by 1950. To accommodate this fast growth the university began to expand during the late 1940's with a new campus.

Academics

Western currently enrolls 26,239 students for the 2005-2006 academic year; 21,434 undergraduate students and 4,805 graduate students. The average entering freshmen at Western received an ACT score of 20-25 and had a high school GPA of 3.3. The university offers 254 degree programs through 9 colleges. The colleges that are part of WMU are: the College of Arts and Sciences, the College of Aviation, the Haworth College of Business, the College of Education, the College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, the College of Fine Arts, the College of Health and Human Services, the Lee Honors College, and the Graduate College. The Haworth College of Business operates out of Arnold Schneider Hall. The school is named for an alumnus, who gave a gift of $5,000,000 towards the construction of Schneider Hall, and later served on the schools board of directors. Aside from having a nationally recognized business program, the Haworth College of Business has one of the oldest and most successful Master of Business Administration (MBA) programs in the state. It also is the sixth largest college of business in the country, with over 5,200 students.

Campus

Western Michigan University is divided into four campuses in Kalamazoo:
- West Campus
- East Campus
- Oakland Drive Campus
- Parkview Campus

West Campus

West Campus is main and largest campus in Kalamazoo. Most of the University academic and administrative buildings are located on West Campus. Many of the residence halls are found scattered throughout West Campus. The Bernhard Center is also located on West Campus to provide student and community groups with meeting space.

East Campus

East Campus is the original development when the university was founded in 1903. It contains many the university's historical buildings including, East Hall, West Hall, North Hall, Walwood Hall, Spindler Hall, and Vandercook Hall. Many of these buildings are located on a hill overlooking the city of Kalamazoo. Since most of the academic and administrative functions of the university have moved to West Campus, the buildings in East Campus no longer serve important functions for the university. Because of their diminshing roll in the university and the increasing disrepair of these buildings, their future is still uncertain, but many local preservationists and students hope for their restoration. East Campus is also the site of some of Western's athletic facilities including the football field, softball field, and baseball field.

Oakland Drive Campus

The Oakland Drive Campus is the university's newest land acquisition. The campus, acquired in 1998, was origanally state property used by the Kalamazoo Regional Psychiatric Hospital. The hospital is still leased to the state and remains in operation. The Oakland Drive Campus is home to the university's College of Health and Human Services. The college's new $48.2 million facility opened in the 2005.

Parkview Campus

The Parkview Campus is home to the university's [http://www.wmich.edu/engineer/ College of Engineering and Applied Sciences]. Erected in 2003, the $72.5 million building is 343,000 square feet and features two two-story 600 foot wings connected by a middle glass enclosure. Students often commute to the campus via a shuttle bus that runs Monday through Friday between the main campus and [http://maps.pp.wmich.edu/KaEng/KaEng.html the engineering college].

Branch Campuses

Western also has several branch campuses in various citites throughout Michigan:
- Battle Creek, Michigan, site of the College of Aviation. The college is affiliated with several commercial fliers, and also trains future pilots who hope to fly in the United States Air Force. Recently, an alumnus donated a jet to the college of aviation, so students are experienced in all aspects of flying, from small commuters, to large aircraft.
- Grand Rapids, Michigan
- Holland, Michigan
- Lansing, Michigan
- Muskegon, Michigan
- South Haven, Michigan
- Benton Harbor, Michigan (Southwest)
- Traverse City, Michigan

Athletics

Western Michigan University is an accredited NCAA Division I-A school, and competes in the Mid-American Conference in men's baseball, basketball, football, soccer and tennis; and women's basketball, cross-country skiing, golf, gymnastics, ice skating, soccer, softball, track and field, and volleyball. The men's hockey team competes in the Central Collegiate Hockey Association. The school's primary intra-state rival is Central Michigan University. WMU athletic teams are known as "The Broncos".

Notable Alumni

- Tim Allen, actor and stand-up comedian
- Tim Allen was a former undergraduate who later received an honorary degree
- Dennis Archer, Mayor of Detroit, Michigan Supreme Court Justice, President of the American Bar Association
- Jason Babin, National Football League Player for the Houston Texans, early first round draft pick
- Bouton, Jim, pitcher for the New York Yankees and editor of Ball Four, a memoir of one of his most pivotable seasons in baseball
- Robert Bruininks, President of University of Minnesota
- Bruce Campbell, actor
- Dave Dombrowski, General Manager of the Detroit Tigers
- Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick, U.S. Representative
- Neil Smith, General Manager of the New York Rangers
- John Saunders, ABC Sports television personality
- Also played hockey at WMU along with his brother Bernie
- Luther Vandross, rhythm and blues/urban contemporary singer, songwriter, and record producer
- Bo Rogers, Canadian Football League defensive back
- Skyler Stone, actor-comedian
- Stephen Lynch, stand-up comedian
- Terry Crews, actor

External links

- Official Sites
- [http://www.wmich.edu/ Official WMU website]
- [http://gowmu.wmich.edu/ Student/Faculty Portal]
- [http://webmail.wmich.edu/ WMU Webmail]
- [http://www.wmubroncos.com/ Official WMU athletics website]
- Student Orientated Sites
- [http://www.broncoslive.com/ BroncosLive.com]
- [http://www.thebroncoweb.com/ TheBroncoWeb] Category:Universities and colleges in Michigan Category:Kalamazoo County, Michigan

Stryker

:For the manufacturer of medical and orthopedic products, see Stryker Corporation. For the Mortal Kombat character, see Kurtis Stryker.

Kurtis Stryker
Infantry Fighting Variant equipped with the .50 caliber machine gun
Country Of Origin:	United States
Designation:	Infantry Fighting Vehicle
Configuration:	8 x 8
Manufacturer:	General Dynamics Land Systems - Canada
Crew:	4
Length:	6.95 m (22.92 ft)
Width:	2.72 m (8.97 ft)
Height:	2.64 m (8.72 ft)
Weight:	16,472 kg 18.12 t (ICV) 18,772 kg 20.65 t (MGS)
Clearance:
Fording:
Obstacle:
Trench:
Speed:	100 km/h (62 mph) (road) km/h (off-road)
Range:	502 km (312 miles)
Primary armament:	M68A1E4 105 mm gun M2 .50 caliber gun 2 x M6 smoke grenades
Secondary armament:	.50-caliber M2 gun MK19 40mm grenade machine gun or MK240 7.62mm machine gun 4 x M6 smoke grenades
Armour:	mm
Power plant:	350 hp

The Stryker is a family of eight wheeled, all wheel drive, armored combat vehicles produced by General Dynamics Land Systems and is in current use by the US Army. It is the first military vehicle to enter service in the US military since the M2 Bradley in the 1980s. The Stryker is based on the LAV III light-armoured vehicle, which in turn is based on the Mowag Piranha. Stryker is named in honor of two American servicemen: Spc. Robert F. Stryker, who received the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Vietnam War, and Pfc. Stuart S. Stryker, who received the award for his actions during World War II. Both men were killed in action.

Production history

The Stryker Brigade Combat Team idea is relatively new and based upon the Brigade Combat Team Doctrine. A newer generation of equipment such as the Stryker digitally connected through military C4I networks greatly enhance the overall units' lethality and ability to react to hostile forces. This light and mobile team was championed by the 34th U.S. Army Chief of Staff, General Eric Shinseki. The Stryker was recalled from duty early in Iraq in order to be retrofitted with armor capable of adequately defending against rocket propelled grenade (RPG) attacks that it would likely face in Iraq. It has since been redeployed with the "Catcher's Mask" style deflector (known as slat armor) that pre-detonates a RPG's high explosive (HE), thereby reducing the overall penetration power and increasing the durability of the vehicle.

Variants

Image:Stryker-ATGM-M240C.jpg
Anti-Tank Guided Missile Variant equipped
with the TOW missile and M240B machine gun

The Stryker chassis is very modular in design to tout increased survivability and supports a wide range of inter-changeable parts to create different variants. The two main chassis are the Infantry Carrier Vehicle (ICV) and the Mobile Gun System (MGS). The MGS is a heavier chassis to support a 105 mm M68A1 rifled cannon, the same gun system as was used on the original M1 variant of the Abrams main battle tank. The Stryker has the following configurations with more planned in the future:
- M1126 Armored Personel Carrier (APC)
- M1135 Nuclear, Biological, Chemical Reconnaissance Vehicle (NBC RV)
- M1134 Anti-Tank Guided Missile (ATGM) armed with TOW missile
- M1129 Mortar Carrier (MC) armed with 120mm Mortar
- M1133 Medical Evacuation Vehicle (MEV)
- M1132 Engineer Support Vehicle (ESV)
- M1130 Commanders Vehicle (CV)
- M1131 Fire Support Vehicle (FSV)
- M1127 Reconnaissance Vehicle (RV)
- M1128 Stryker Mobile Gun System (MGS) All Strykers share common parts, self recovering abilities, and bullet resistant self inflating (run-flat) tires, along with their anti-RPG slat armor. Armament: M2 .50 cal machine gun, MK19 grenade machine gun, TOW anti-tank guided missile, M240B machine gun. The Strykers seen in US Army service are criticized for being poorly armed compared with similar vehicles, like the similar Coyote. The Stryker could mount the same turret, with 25 mm autocannon as the Coyote or the United States Marine Corps's LAV but vehicles equipped with this turret are too tall to drive on and off a C-130 transport aircraft. Being able to drive off the C-130, and right into combat, was regarded as more important than providing the occupants with a more powerful weapon. It should be noted that the Stryker is too wide to enter a C-130 when the "slat" armor is attached.

Operators

C-130 C-130
- United States - 3rd Brigade 2nd Infantry Division (known as the "Stryker Brigade")
- Canada Bought 66 vehicles in 2003, they are expected to arrive in 2010. It is rumoured that the MGS that Canada purchased will replace the current fleet of Leopard tank

Combat history

Deployments

- Post-invasion Iraq, 2003-2005: the first Stryker brigades were deployed to Iraq in October 2003. 3rd Brigade, 2d Infantry from Fort Lewis was the first to field and deploy the Stryker vehicle to combat in Iraq from Nov 2003 to Nov 2004. 3d Brigade was relieved by 1st Brigade, 25th Infantry Division (SBCT). Which are currently being relieved by the SBCT from Alaska.

Criticisms

The Stryker has been something of a controversial vehicle, with many criticisms levered at its concept, design, doctrine and costs. The Stryker MGS is most often compared by critics to the cancelled M8 AGS and the ICV to the M113A3. It is argued that any C4I technologies to be fitted on Stryker giving it its purported Situational Awareness advantage can also be installed on existing, more survivable and efficient vehicles A 108-page report in 2003 to a Congressman reports on many flaws of the Stryker.

Disadvantages of wheeled vehicles in general

Critics claim that a wheeled vehicle suffers many disadvantages versus a tracked vehicle:
- Inferior cross-country ability due to higher ground pressure. A track distributes vehicular weight over an area equal to the width of the tracks multipled by its length on the ground, which tends to be comparable to the vehicle's length. Tires distribute weight only over the relatively small areas of tire contact with the ground. Thus tracks can go over terrain where wheels would sink. This also means it is more likely to set off pressure-detonated mines
- The performance of a wheeled vehicle suffers more with excess weight than a tracked vehicle.
- Wheels are high and vulnerable targets for even small arms. The wheel wells cannot be protected by track-style armored skirts, for that would interfere with the vehicle turning.
- Wheels can turn the vehicle, but tracks can pivot the vehicle. Thus large wheeled vehicles (Stryker), have larger turn radiuses and inferior maneuverability.
- Wheeled vehicles find it very difficult to surmount obstacles (such as barricades) that a tracked vehicle would easily climb over.
- A wheeled vehicle is not really faster in field conditions when one takes into account the tracked vehicle's superior maneuverability and off-road performance.
- Part of the wheeled vehicle's reputation for superior maintanability is due to the fact they are usually of lower mass.
- Any advantages a wheeled vehicle has over steel tracked counterparts can be reduced by using new [http://www.geocities.com/equipmentshop/bandtracks.htm band-track] and electric-drive technology. Conventional tracks consist of linked solid metal segments with rubber pads attached; a rubber band track consists of coils of steel cables coated in rubber. While rubber band tracks cannot support the weight of tanks, they have been tested up to weights of 30 tons and were used on US Army halftracks in the Second World War. The M113 APC and its upgraded MTVL form, the most often proposed alternatives to Stryker, could easily be fitted with these tracks. Between the band tracks and a electric-drive motor, it can actually match the Stryker's theoretical road speed of about 62MPH. See also: [http://www.geocities.com/wheelsvstracks/ Tracks versus Wheels] [http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/docs/2wheels98.pdf The Wheel Versus Track Dilemma (pdf)]

Design

In addition to generic criticisms from the choice of wheels over tracks, critics claim there are many flaws with the Stryker.

ICV and general complaints

- A lack of amphibious ability, since there is no waterjet.
- A original "Key Performance Factor" was for it to be air-transportable by C-130. Instead of flying 1000 miles, critics claim it can only fly 100.
- It is too heavy for parachute operations.
- It is quieter but larger than comparable tracked vehicles.
- As of now, the RWS has no stabilization ability. The RWS is considered to be slow, and hard to work with due to its Black and White optical camera system.
- The vehicle's armor protects against 14.5mm, but the add-on-slat-armor only defeats RPGs with HE warheads. Armor-Piercing tipped RPGs have been known to punch through the slat-armor. Stryker armor is inferior to that which can be fitted to the tracked M113 APC and M2 Bradley Infantry Fighting Vehicle. Both of these vehicles are already available in large numbers; over 15,000 surplus M113s are in storage in Army depots.
- As with any vehicle mounted weapon, the vehicle commander must expose himself in the hatch to correct a weapons malfunction.
- The interior is tight with a squad of fully combat equipped soldiers, to include body armor with ballistic plates and a second load of ammunition that is also carried on the vehicle.

MGS-specific criticisms

- The C-130 cannot carry the heavier Mobile Gun System at all, thus totally failing the "Key Performance Factor" above.
- Instead of using a low pressure gun like the M8 (or the Russian 2S25), the Stryker MGS uses the M60's 105mm M68A1 cannon. This gun has far too much recoil for the Stryker's weight class.
- Thus, they added a muzzle brake. Muzzle brakes reduce recoil at the cost of extra blast and noise. The noise level in tests approached 200dB. It is estimated that means a soldier cannot safely approach within 450m of a firing Stryker MGS. The blast debris was also extensive, forcing the crew to fight in the buttoned-up position.
- Even with the muzzle brake, the recoil still damages the MGS' more delicate internals, such as night vision electronics, the lights, instrumentation and helmets worn by test dummies. Without the muzzle brake, the recoil mechanism is destroyed.
- Unlike the M8 autoloader, the MGS autoloader apparently cannot reliably select the right type of round. It also has a carousel with half the capacity, reducing its battle endurance.
- Only 2-axles on a Stryker are equipped with run-flat tires. The MGS is too heavy to be supported on 2 axles.
- No winch means no self-recovery
- Various other ergonomic and survivability flaws.

Updates

According to a Washington Post article, the Stryker vehicle has some serious faults; e.g. the insufficient ability to carry additional armor for protection against rocket-propelled grenades. The 5,000 pounds armor that was added caused problems with the automatic tire pressure system, causing crews to check tire pressure three times a day. Other problems include:
- As designed, the weapon system does not shoot accurately when the Stryker is moving.
- Troops cannot fasten their seat belts when they are wearing bulky body armor. This contributed to the death of one soldier when his Stryker vehicle rolled over. This problem was fixed by the time the CALL report was published and six months prior to the Washington Post article.
- Computer systems for communications, intelligence and other systems have malfunctioned in the desert heat due to air conditioning problems.
- [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A14284-2005Mar30.html Washington Post Article]
- [http://www.pogo.org/p/defense/da-050304-stryker.html POGO article]

Counter-criticisms

On the other hand, supporters of Stryker seem to like the vehicle very much. They point out that there are advantages to wheeled vehicles and the Stryker itself. They also pass some of the problems mentioned by their critics as unimportant.

Advantages of Wheeled Vehicles

- The tires provide greater protection against mines than tracks.
- Tires do have the bright spot of having the run-flat option. This allows Strykers with extensive damage to tires from IEDs to continue their mission, or at least limp out of the area. In comparison, a tracked vehicle with a thrown track would take 90+ minutes before the vehicle could be moved, delaying the mission and making the vehicle vulnerable to additional attacks.
- Wheeled vehicles generally have lower life running costs and can last longer between maintenance cycles. Ability to put mileage on them (20 tons) that would destroy an M2 Bradley (33 tons) makes them very mobile in theater, lets them shift quickly and often.
- Wheeled vehicles are quiet in comparison to tanks.
- Wheels don't destroy roads or curbs when driven

Responses to Stryker-specific complaints

- Proponents claim it is now capable of flying combat ready 600 miles.
- It is actually smaller in its basic dimensions than a BTR-80.
- Proponents figure the Kongsberg Remote Weapons Station, will have a stabilization capability to shoot on the move by 2006.
- The armor does make it more survivable than a Humvees.
- Durability allows fast repair and redeployment.
- Strykers' advanced communication systems give them excellent situational awareness, letting them coordinate fast raids and missions almost on-the-fly, even in unfamiliar territory, and expect that they will go well.

Updates

[http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/2005/10/m1126-strykers-in-combat-experiences-lessons/index.php Defense Industry Daily: M1126 Strykers in Combat: Experiences and Lessons]. Addresses both the Washington Post article and POGO's honest but puzzled publication of its surprise at the positive reviews it got from soldiers who had used the Strykers in combat. It includes extensive additional quotes and experiences from soldiers and reporters who have served with Strykers in Iraq, and even a Russian analyst review. It concludes by discussing the broader lessons from these experiences that apply beyond the Stryker itself. Source: [http://www.military.com/NewContent/0,13190,SS_111004_Stryker,00.html Star and Stripes], testimony & analysis in DID article. Soldiers and officers who use Strykers defend them as very effective vehicles; an article in the Washington Post states: :"But in more than a dozen interviews, commanders, soldiers and mechanics who use the Stryker fleet daily in one of Iraq's most dangerous areas unanimously praised the vehicle. The defects outlined in the report were either wrong or relatively minor and did little to hamper the Stryker's effectiveness, they said.". One colonel said that the Strykers saved the lives of at least a hundred soldiers deployed in northern Iraq. See [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A22009-2005Apr2.html Soldiers Defend Faulted Strykers]

Kalamazoo River

The Kalamazoo River is a river in the U.S. state of Michigan. The river is 166 miles (267 km) long from the headwaters of the southern branch to Lake Michigan. The river's watershed drains an area of approximately 2,020 square miles (5,230 km²) and drains portions of eight counties in southwest Michigan: Allegan, Barry, Eaton, Van Buren, Kalamazoo, Calhoun, Jackson, Hillsdale, Kent and Ottawa. The river has a median flow of 1640 cubic feet per second (46.4 m³/s) at New Richmond, Michigan, upstream from its mouth at Saugatuck, Michigan. The North and South Branches of the Kalamazoo River originate within a few miles of each other. The South Branch begins near North Adams in Moscow Township in northeastern Hillsdale County and flows north and west through Homer before joining the North Branch at the forks of the Kalamazoo in Albion. The North Branch begins near Farewell and Pine Hills lakes in southern Jackson County and flows north and west through Concord before reaching Albion in Calhoun County. It then flows through Kalamazoo and Allegan counties. After Albion, the Kalamazoo flows mostly westward through Marshall, Battle Creek, Augusta, Galesburg, Comstock, and Kalamazoo. From Kalamazoo, the river flows mostly north until just before it reaches Plainwell and then flows northwest through Otsego, Allegan, Saugatuck and then into Lake Michigan. Some of the larger tributaries of the Kalamazoo are Rice Creek, Wilder Creek, Wabascon Creek, Battle Creek River, Augusta Creek, Portage Creek, Gun River, Swan Creek, and Rabbit River.

History

Archeological evidence indicates humans have used the Kalamazoo River basin continuously for more than 11,000 years. At the time of European contact, the Kalamazoo River area was inhabited primarily by members of Potawatomi tribes. The Jesuit priest Father Jacques Marquette and his companions were probably the first Europeans to glimpse the mouth of the Kalamazoo in 1675 as they returned from Illinois. It wasn't until the late 1700s that the area was frequented by fur traders. By the early 1800s, there were several small communities along the river, including Kalamazoo. With the introduction of the railroad in the 1840s, the importance of the river for transportation diminished. By the mid-1800s, several communities had grown up along the River as mill towns and commercial centers: Battle Creek, Kalamazoo, Parchment, Plainwell, and Otsego. After the Civil War and into the 20th century, various industries, from cereal production to pharmaceuticals to automobile parts, flourished. Several communities became sites for paper production, which used the river for water intake and waste discharge. Deinking practices no longer in use led to PCB contamination of the river. Sewage effluent, other industrial discharges, and trash also contributed to the pollution of the river. For many years in the 1940s, 50s, and 60s, the river was an "eyesore" and most people did their best to avoid it. Beginning in the 1970s with the federal Clean Water Act, serious efforts were made to clean up the river. Although today the river is cleaner, the persistent PCB contamination has led to Superfund designation of a 35-mile section from Kalamazoo to Allegan Dam. Although the word Kalamazoo appears to be Native American in origin, various definitions have been suggested. One is that it means "river crossing" or "boiling water." Another is that it is related to another term Kikalamazoo, which means mirage or reflecting river. See the article on the city of Kalamazoo for more theories as to the origin of the name.

External links

- [http://www.kzooriver.com/kalamazoo/ Kalamazoo River Superfund Site]
- [http://www.epa.gov/region5/sites/kalproject/ U.S. EPA Kalamazoo River Project]
- [http://www.deq.state.mi.us/erd1/k-zoo/index.jsp Michigan Dept. of Environmental Quality]
- [http://midwest.fws.gov/nrda/kalamazoo/ U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Natural Resource Damage Assessment] Category:Rivers of Michigan

Potawatomi

The Potawatomi (also spelled Pottawatomie or Pottawatomi) are an American Indian people of the upper Mississippi River region. They traditionally speak the Potawatomi language a member of the Algonquian family. The Potawatomi were part of a long term alliance with the Ojibwe and Ottawa, called the Council of Three Fires and which fought the Iroquois Confederacy and the Sioux. In the Council of Three Fires, Potawatomi were considered the "youngest Brother" and the "Keeper of the Fire". Potawatomi warriors were an important part of Tecumseh's Confederacy and took part in Tecumseh's War, the War of 1812 and the Peoria War, albeit their allegiance switched repeatedly between the English and the Americans.

Bands

There are several active bands of Potawatomi:
- Citizen Potawatomi nation, Oklahoma
- Forest County Potawatomi community, Wisconsin
- Match-E-Be-Nash-She-Wish Band of Pottawatomi (formerly known as the Gun Lake tribe), based in Dorr, Michigan in Allegan County, Michigan
- Hannahville Indian Community, Michigan
- Nottawaseppi Huron Band of Potawatomi, based in Calhoun County, Michigan
- Pokagon Band, Michigan and Indiana
- Prairie Band, Kansas
- Stoney Point and Kettle Point bands, Ontario, Canada
- Walpole Island band; an unceded island between the United States and Canada

Location

The Potawatomi first lived in lower Michigan, then moved to northern Wisconsin and eventually settled into northern Indiana and central Illinois

Language

Algonquian language spoken by fewer than 100 people in Ontario and the north-central United States. The current speakers are all older people and there is fear that the language may die out. Many places in the midwest are named in the Potawatomi Language, for example, Michigan, Allegan, Waukegan, Muskegon, Skokie and most famously Chicago. In the language, the suffix -gan means land so whatever prefix is attached would be a defining characteristic. Chicago for example has been written down by several people outside of the Potawatomi people and the name itself has probably been distorted over time, but the original meaning was land of smelly onions, and was prounounced She-Ka-Gan.

External links

- [http://www.tolatsga.org/pota.html First Nations Compact Histories: Potawatomi History]
- [http://www.ukans.edu/~kansite/pbp/homepage.html Prairie Band Potawatomi]
- [http://www.potawatomi.org/ Citizen Potawatomi Nation]
- [http://www.itcmi.org/thehistorytribal2.html Nottawaseppi Huron Band of Potawatomi]
- [http://www.mbpi.org/default.asp Match-E-Be-Nash-She-Wish Band of Pottawatomi]
- [http://www.pokagon.com Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians]
- [http://www.ukans.edu/~kansite/pbp/books/treaties/title.html#toc Treaties with the Potawatomi]
- [http://www.potawatomivet.com Potawatomi Author Larry Mitchell]
- [http://www.kettlepoint.org Kettle & Stony Point First Nation] Category:Languages of Canada Category:Languages of the United States Category:Native American tribes Category:First Nations in Ontario Category:Algonquian languages Category:Native American tribes in Wisconsin Category:Indigenous languages of the North American eastern woodlands

Pollution

Environmental Pollution is the release of harmful environmental contaminants, or the substances so released. Generally the process needs to result from human activity to be regarded as pollution. Even relatively benign products o

POOP

f human activity are liable to be regarded as pollution, if they precipitate negative effects later on. The nitrogen oxides produced by industry are often referred to as pollution, for example, although the substances themselves are not harmful. In fact, it is solar energy (sunlight) that converts these compounds to smog. Pollution can take two major forms: local pollution and global pollution. In the past, only local pollution was thought to be a problem. For example, coal burning produces smoke, which in sufficient concentrations can be a health hazard. One slogan, taught in schools, was "The solution to pollution is dilution." The theory was that sufficiently diluted pollution could cause no damage. In recent decades, awareness has been rising that some forms of pollution pose a global problem. For example, human activity (primarily nuclear testing) has significantly raised the levels of background radiation, which may lead to human health problems, all over the world. Awareness of both kinds of pollution, among other things, has led to the environmentalism movement, which seeks to limit the human impact on the environment. Whether something is pollution depends almost entirely on context. Blooms of algae and the resultant eutrophication of lakes and coastal ocean is considered pollution when it is fueled by nutrients from industrial, agricultural, or residential runoff in either point source or nonpoint source form (see the article on eutrophication for more information). Heavy metals such as lead and mercury have a role in geochemical cycles (i.e. they occur as within 'nature'). These metals may also be mined and, depending on their processing, may thus be released in large concentrations into an environment previously not playing host to them. Just as the influences of anthropogenic release of these metals to the environment may be considered as 'polluting', such pollution could also occur in some areas due to either autochtonous or historic 'natural' geochemical activity. Carbon dioxide is sometimes referred to as a pollution, on the basis that these emissions have led, or are leading, to raised levels of the gas in the atmosphere and, furthermore, to harmful changes in the Earth's climate. Such claims are strongly disputed, particularly by political conservatives in Western countries and most strongly in the United States. Due to this controversy, in many contexts carbon dioxide from such sources are labelled neutrally as "emissions." See global warming for a very extensive discussion of this topic. Traditional forms of pollution include air pollution, water pollution, and radioactive contamination while a broader interpretation of the word has led to the ideas of ship pollution, light pollution, and noise pollution. Serious pollution sources include chemical plants, oil refineries, nuclear waste dumps, regular garbage dumps (many toxic substances are illegally dumped there), incinerators, PVC factories, car factories, plastics factories, and corporate animal farms creating huge amounts of animal waste. Some sources of pollution, such as nuclear power plants or oil tankers, can release very severe pollution when accidents occur. Some of the more common contaminants are chlorinated hydrocarbons (CFH), heavy metals like lead (in lead paint and until recently in gasoline), cadmium (in rechargeable batteries), chromium, zinc, arsenic and benzene. Pollution is often a serious side effect in natural disasters. For example hurricanes almost always involve sewage pollution, and petrochemical pollution from overturned boats or automobiles, or even damage from coastal refineries is common. Pollutants are thought to play a part in a variety of maladies, including cancer, lupus, immune diseases, allergies, and asthma. Some illnesses are named in relation with certain pollutants: for example, Minamata disease, which is caused by mercury compounds.

Regulation and Monitoring

International

The Kyoto Protocol is an amendment to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), an international treaty on global warming. It also reaffirms sections of the UNFCCC. Countries which ratify this protocol commit to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases, or engage in emissions trading if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases. A total of 141 countries have ratified the agreement. Notable exceptions include the United States and Australia.

United States

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was supposed to establish "acceptable" levels of exposure to contaminants. One of the ratings chemicals are given are carcinogenicity, or how likely they are to cause cancer. Levels range from, not carcinogenic, likely carcinogen, known carcinogen, and unknown. But some scientists have said that most of these levels are far too high and people should be exposed less to them. The CalEPA Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment has a different list of levels. ([http://www.oehha.ca.gov/prop65/prop65_list/Newlist.html OEHHA]). The U.S. has a maximum fine of US$25,000 for dumping toxic waste. However, many large manufacturers plead guilty, as they can easily afford this relatively small fine.

External links

- [http://www.scorecard.org/chemical-groups/one-list.tcl?short_list_name=tri00ry Toxic Release Inventory] - tracks how much waste companies release into the water and air. Gives permits for releasing specific quantities of these pollutants each year. [http://toxmap.nlm.nih.gov/toxmap/main/index.jsp Map]
- [http://www.scorecard.org/chemical-groups/one-list.tcl?short_list_name=hs Superfund] - manages Superfund sites and the pollutants in them (CERCLA).
- [http://www.osha-slc.gov/SLTC/pel/index.html OSHA limits for air contaminants]
- [http://atsdr1.atsdr.cdc.gov:8080/atsdrhome.html Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry] - found out top 20 pollutants, alias for chemicals, how they affect people, what industries use them and what products they are found in.
- [http://ntp-server.niehs.nih.gov/ National Toxicology Program] - from National Institutes of Health. Reports and studies on how pollutants affect people.
- [http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/ Toxnet] - more databases and reports on toxicology. From NIH
- [http://www.scorecard.org Scorecard.org] - lots of information about pollution in the US. Just enter your zip code. Colored maps also show how bad certain types of pollution are in your area.
- [http://www.epa.gov Environmental Protection Agency]
- [http://www.oehha.ca.gov/prop65/prop65_list/Newlist.html OEHHA]
- [http://ntmc0.tripod.com National Toxic Mold Coalition and Foundation]
- [http://www.edf.org Environmental Defense Fund]
- [http://www.rachel.org Rachel's Environment and Health News] - Weekly news about how the polluted environment affects people, and what corporations and governments are doing (or not doing) about it. Also in Spanish.
- [http://www.essential.org Essential.org] - Some organizations related to consumers and consumer protection, including pollution.
- [http://www.cleanupge.org CleanUp GE.org] - Info about GE's shady dumping practices on the Hudson river.
- [http://www.Pollution.net Pollution.net] - Good starting point for environmental jobs, environmental news, articles and books. Plus blogs on environmental issues
- [http://ace.orst.edu/info/extoxnet/newsletters/ghindex.html Extoxnet newsletters] - environmental pollution news. Last update 1998.
- [http://www.enn.com/ Environmental News Network] - more news
- [http://www.ewg.org/ Environmental Working Group]
- [http://www.ejnet.org/sludge/ Sewage Sludge] - in the U.S. it is perfectly legal to fertilize food crops with solids from the sewer, which include lots of heavy metals and toxins.
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/medicine/toxicology/ Yahoo - Toxicology] - another great starting point.
- [http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/Tox/ToxTutor.html The ToxTutor from the National Library of Medicine] - An excellent resource to review human toxicology.
- [http://the-raw-prawn.blogspot.com/2004/10/pollution-and-development-as-seen-from.html Pollution and development, as seen from space]
- [http://www.choosevegetarian.com/earth_overview.asp Overview of the possible environmental benefits of a plant-based diet]
- [http://airspace.bc.ca/Airspace Action on Smoking and Health]
- [http://www.cigarettelitter.org/ CigaretteLitter.Org - The Facts About Cigarette Butts and Litter - Cigarette Litter] ja:公害 th:มลพิษ

Glenn Miller

Alton Glenn Miller (March 1, 1904 – December 15, 1944) was an American jazz