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Kali

Kali

:This article is about the Hindu goddess Kali. For other uses of the word, see Kali (disambiguation). Kali (disambiguation)] Although her presentation in the West is usually as simply dark and violent, Kali is a goddess with a long and complex history in Hinduism. Her earliest history as a creature of indiscriminate violence and wrath still has some influence, while more complex Tantric beliefs sometimes extend her role so far as to be the Ultimate Reality and Source of Being. Finally, the comparatively recent devotional movement largely conceives of Kali as a straightforwardly benevolent mother-goddess. Kali is associated with many devis (goddesses) as well as the deva (god) Shiva. Kali is generally considered one of the consorts of Shiva. Her name seems to be a female version of the word 'kala' (Sanskrit for 'dark' or 'time'- time in this form being a euphemism for death); it also means Black Female, in contrast to her consort, Shiva, who is white. The goddesses that she is associated or identified with include Durga, Bhowani Devi, Sati, Rudrani, Parvati, Chinnamastika, Kamakshi, Uma, Menakshi, Himavati, Kumari. These names, if repeated, are believed to give special power to the worshipper.

Origin

Kali makes her 'official' debut in the Devi-Mahatmya, written around 600CE, where she is said to have emanated from the brow of the goddess Durga (slayer of demons) during one of the battles between the divine and anti-divine forces. In this context, Kali is considered the 'forceful' form of the great goddess Durga. Other goddesses who are less associated with warfare, such as Parvati, Sita and Sati, are also said to emanate Kali, or even become her, to defeat enemies. These enemies are sometimes only susceptible to female assault, making the intervention of the male consort impossible. In some cases, the Kali produced is even able to destroy a far greater enemy than her consort, as when Sita becomes Kali to defeat a thousand-headed Ravana. As her consort Rama is usually the warrior, but in this case freezes in fear, some take this to be a sign of the great potential power of women, when their Shakti is not controlled by and gifted to a male consort.

Development

Kali has become massively linked with Shiva in the later traditions. The unleashed form of Kali often becomes wild and uncontrollable, and only Shiva is able to tame her. This is both because she is often a transformed version of one of his consorts and because he is able to match her wildness. His methods vary from challenging her to the wild tandava dance and outdoing her, to appearing as a crying infant and appealing to her maternal instincts. While Shiva is said to be able to tame her, the iconography often presents her dancing on his fallen body, and there are accounts of the two of them dancing together, and driving each other to such wildness that the world comes close to unravelling. Shiva's involvement with Tantra and Kali's dark nature have led to her becoming an important Tantric figure. To the Tantric worshippers, it was essential to face her Curse, the terror of death, as willingly as they accepted Blessings from her beautiful, nurturing, maternal aspect. For them, wisdom meant learning that no coin has only one side: as death cannot exist without life, so life cannot exist without death. Kali's role sometimes increased beyond a chaos who could be confronted to bring wisdom, and she is given great metaphysical significance by some Tantric texts. The Nirvāna-tantra clearly presents her uncontrolled nature as the Ultimate Reality, claiming that the trimurti of Brahma, Visnu and Siva arise and disappear from her like bubbles from the sea. Although this is an extreme case, the Yogini-tantra, Kamakhya-tantra and the Niruttara-tantra declare her the svarupa (own-being) of the Mahadevi (the great Goddess, who is in this case seen as the combination of all devis). The final stage of development is the worshipping of Kali as the Great Mother, devoid of her usual violence or foulness. This tradition is a break from the more traditional depictions, and as a popular movement with little philosophical or literary backing it can easily be overlooked. The pioneers of this tradition are the Shakta poets such as Ramprasad (1718? - 1775?), who show an awareness of Kali's ambivalent nature. Rachel McDermott's work, however, suggests that for the common worshipper, Kali is not seen as fearful, and only those educated in old traditions see her as having a wrathful component.

Iconography

In most early representations, skulls, cemeteries, and blood are associated with her worship. She is black, naked and emaciated. Her face is azure, streaked with yellow, her glance is ferocious; her disheveled and bristly hair is usually shown splayed and spread like the tail of a peacock and sometimes braided with green serpents. She wears a long necklace (descending almost to her knees) of human skulls or intestines. She may be shown wearing a girdle of severed arms. Children's corpses as earrings (likeliest representing natural infant mortality and childhood mortality from causes such as disease), and cobras as bracelets or garlands add to her terrifying adornments. Her purple lips are often shown streaming with blood; her tusk-like teeth descend over her lower lip; and her tongue lolls out. She is often shown standing on the inert form of her consort, Shiva. When portrayed in sexual union with him, she straddles his prone body, showing her domination and breaking from traditional gender roles. She is sometimes accompanied by she-demons. In certain representations, her four arms hold weapons or the severed head of a demon, while also making the 'peace' and 'boon-giving' gestures: these symbolize both her creative and her destructive power, for in some traditions Kali personifies the ambivalence of deity, which manifests itself, according to much of Indian tradition, in the unceasing cycle of life and death, creation and destruction.

Recent Iconographical development

More recent Bengali images go against these traditons to varying degrees. Some old icons have clothes or jewelerry added to cover Kali's nudity, and newer icons often beautify her, making her appear more like an attractive young mother than a demonness or hag. Such iconography as remains is also re-interpreted: the form of Kali dancing on Shiva is explained as him lying before her when she is in a rage, so that when she steps on him she will be embarassed by the impropriety and come to her senses. Similarly, the lolling tongue, previously considered to drink the blood of her enemies, is instead stuck out in shame. Some of her biggest temples are to be found in the North-East of India, in particular in Kolkata, West Bengal: Kalighat and Dakshineshwar, and in the equally famed Kamakhya in Assam. Her poor reputation in the West came from the cult of the Thuggee, Hindus who took the goddess Kali as their deity. They robbed and murdered travellers as sacrifices to Kali and were broken up by the British. The common English word thug is derived from this.

External links

Category:Hindu goddesses Category:Destroyer goddesses ja:カーリー

Kali (disambiguation)

Kali or KALI could refer to:
- Kali, a Hindu goddess
- Kali, Filipino Martial Art.
- Kali, a Filipino term for fighting knife
- Kali, a game browser.
- Kali, a painting by Tyeb Mehta.
- For chemicals whose names include the component kali, see potassium.
- Kali, a character from The Matrix films.
- Two broadcast stations in the United States:
- KALI, a radio station broadcasting at 900 kHz on the FM band, licensed to West Covina, California.
- KALI-FM, a radio station broadcasting at 106.3 MHz on the FM band, licensed to Santa Ana, California.

Shiva

:This article is about the Hindu God Śiva. For other uses of the word, see Śiva (disambiguation) Śiva (disambiguation) poison that came out of the Samudra manthan.]] Shiva (Sanskrit: शिव, and written Śiva in the official IAST transliteration, pronounced as "shιvə") is a form of Ishvara or God in the later Vedic scriptures of Hinduism. Adi Sankara interprets the name Śiva to mean "One who purifies everyone by the utterance of His name" or the Pure One. That is, Śiva is unaffected by the three gunas (characteristics) of Prakrti (matter): Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas. In some sects, and widely in the West, Śiva is commonly known as "the destroyer", though this title can be misleading as Shiva appears in a multitude of roles. Additionally, Śiva can also mean, "the Auspicious One." He is often depicted as the husband of Uma or Parvati. In the process of manifestation, Lord Shiva is the primeval consciousness and creates the other members of the trimurti. He is symbolized by the wisdom of the Serpent. He has many other names, for example Shankara and Mahadev.

Introduction

trimurti, India is one of the most famous temples dedicated to Lord Siva.]] Shiva is referred to as 'the good one' or the 'auspicious one'. Shiva - Rudra is considered to be the destroyer of evil and sorrow. Shiva - Shankara is the doer of good. Shiva is 'tri netra' or three eyed, and is 'neela kantha' - blue necked (having consumed poison to save the world from destruction). Shiva - Nataraja is the Divine Cosmic Dancer. Shiva - Ardhanareeswara is both man and woman. He is both static and dynamic and is both creator and destroyer. He is the oldest and the youngest, he is the eternal youth as well as the infant. He is the source of fertility in all living beings. He has gentle as well as fierce forms. Shiva is the greatest of renouncers as well as the ideal lover. He destroyes evil and protects good. He bestows prosperity on worshipers although he is austere. He is omnipresent and resides in everyone as pure consciousness. Shiva is inseparable from Shakti - Parvati the daughter of Himavaan - Haimavati. There is no Shiva without Shakti and no Shakti without Shiva, the two are one - or the absolute state of being - consciousness and bliss. The five mantras that constitute Shiva's body are Sadyojaata, Vaamadeva, Aghora, Tatpurusha and Eesaana. Eesaana is Shiva not visible to the human eye, Sadyojaata is Shiva realized in his basic reality (as in the element earth, in the sense of smell, in the power of procreation and in the mind). The Vishnudharmottara Purana of the 6th century CE assigns a face and an element to each of the above mantras. (Sadyojaata - earth, Vaamadeva - water, Aghora - fire, Tatpurusha - air and Eesaana - space). The names of the deified faces with their elements are Mahadeva (earth), Bhairava (fire), Nandi (air), Uma (water) and Sadasiva (space). In some views Śiva is the third form of God as one of the Trimurti (popularly called the "Hindu trinity"). In the Trimurti, Śiva is the destroyer, while Brahma and Vishnu are creator and preserver, respectively. However, even though he represents destruction, he is viewed as a positive force (The Destroyer of Evil), since creation follows destruction. Other views contend that Śiva produces Vishnu who produces Brahma and thus creation begins, within which the cycle of the Trimurti exists. Śiva also assumes many other roles, including the Lord of Ascetics (Mahadeva), the Lord of Boons (Rudra), and also the Universal Divinity (Mahesvara). Worshippers of Śiva are called Śaivites who consider Śiva as representing the Ultimate Reality (see Ishta-Deva for fuller discussion). Śiva is not limited to the personal characteristics as he is given in many images and can transcend all attributes. Hence, Śiva is often worshipped in an abstract manner, as God without form, in the form of linga. This view is similar in some ways to the view of God in Semitic religions such as Islam or Judaism, which hold that God has no personal characteristics. Hindus, on the other hand, believe that God can transcend all personal characteristics yet can also have personal characteristics for the grace of the embodied human devotee. Personal characteristics are a way for the devotee to focus on God. Śiva is also described as Anaadi (without beginning/birth) and Ananta (without end/death). According to the Bhagavata Purana, Lord Śiva manifested in his multiple forms from the forehead of Lord Brahma. When Lord Brahma asked his sons, the Four Kumaras, to go forth and create progeny in the universe, they refused. This angered Lord Brahma and in his anger a child appeared from his forehead, which split into two - a male part and a female part. The male half started crying inconsolable and as a result, Brahma named him Rudra. The child cried seven more times and each time Brahma gave him a separate name. The eight names thus given to the child were Rudra, Sharva, Bhava, Ugra, Bhima, Pashupati, Ishana, and Mahadeva. Each of these eight names are said to be associated with specific elements of the cosmos, namely the earth, water, fire, wind, sky, a yogi called Kshetragya, the sun, and the moon respectively. This male child became Lord Śiva, who was asked to go forth and create progeny, but when Lord Brahma observed the power, as they shared the qualities of Lord Śiva, he asked him to observe austerities instead of creating progeny. A slightly different version is told in the Shiva Purana: in the Śiva Purana, Śiva promises Brahma that an aspect of his, Rudra, will be born and this aspect is identical to Him. The tale about Lord Śiva being born and immediately splitting into two halves of male and female indicates the origin of the Ardhanarishvara - the union of substance and energy, the Being and his Shakti (force). Śiva is the supreme God of Śaivism, one of the three main branches of Hinduism today (the others being Vaishnavism and Shaktism). His abode is called Kailasa. His holy mount (Skt: Vahana) is Nandi, the Bull. His attendant is named Bhadra. Śiva is usually represented by the Śiva linga (or lingam), usually depicted as a clay mound with three horizontal stripes on it, or visualised as a flaming pillar. In anthropomorphised images, he is generally represented as immersed in deep meditation on Mount Kailash (reputed to be the same as the Mount Kailash in the south of Tibet, near Manasarovar Lake) in the Himalaya, his traditional abode.

Consorts, and the Burning of Kamadeva

Śiva's consort is Devi, God's energy or God as the Divine Mother who comes in many different forms, one of whom is Kali, the goddess of death. Parvati, a more pacific form of Devi is also popular. Śiva also married Sati, another form of Devi and daughter of Daksha, who forbade the marriage. Sati disobeyed her father. Daksha once held a Yajna (ritual sacrifice) to Vishnu, but did not invite Śiva. In disgust, Sati burned herself through yogic meditation (or, in another version, in the same fire Daksha used in his sacrifice). When Śiva's attendants reported the matter, Shiva tore off a lock of his hair and lashed it against the ground. The stalk split in two, one half transforming into the terrifying gana Virabhadra, while the other caused Mahakali to manifest on the scene. The pair immediately led Śiva's army of ganas to Daksha's yajna and destroyed it. Daksha was decapitated by Virabhadra, but was later given the head of a goat to humble him, once the rishis and Brahma had pleaded with Śiva for lenience. Sati was later reborn in the house of Himavat (Himalaya mountain-range personified) and performed great penance (Skt: Tapasya) to win over Śiva's attention. Her penance brought Kamadeva and his consort Rati to the scene, whereupon they attempted to interrupt Shiva's meditation with Kamadeva's arrow of passion. It caused Śiva to break his Samadhi, but he was so infuriated by Kamadeva's assault that he burned the deva of passion to ashes on the spot with his glare. It was only after Rati's pleading that Śiva agreed to reincarnate Kamadeva. Parvati would try again without Kamadeva's aid to win over Shiva, and this time, through her devotion and the persuasion of other rishis, yogis, and devas, he eventually accepted her.

Other Legends

Śiva gave Parashurama, an avatar of Vishnu, his axe. Śiva's great bow is called Pināka and thus he is also called Pinaki. Most depictions of Śiva show the three-pointed spear Trishula, another of his weapons, in the background. He is also known for having given the kshatriya Arjuna the divine weapon (Skt: Astra) Pashupata, with the stipulation of using it against someone of equal strength, for the weapon would otherwise lay waste to the mortal realm.

The Sons of Shiva

Śiva and Parvati are the parents of Karttikeya and Ganesha. Ganesha, the elephant-headed God of wisdom, acquired his head by offending Śiva, by refusing to allow him to enter the house while Parvati was bathing. Śiva sent his ganas to subdue Ganesha, but to no avail. As a last resort, he bade Vishnu confuse the stalwart guardian using his powers of Maya. Then, at the right moment, Śiva hurled Trishula and cut Ganesha's head from his body. Upon finding her guardian dead, Parvati was enraged and called up the many forms of Shakti to devour Shiva's ganas and wreak havoc in Swargaloka. To pacify her, Śiva brought forth an elephant's head from the forest and set it upon the boy's shoulders, reviving him. Shiva then took Ganesha as his own son and placed him in charge of his ganas. Thus, Ganesha's title is Ganapati, Lord of the Ganas. In another version, Parvati presented her child to Shani (the planet Saturn), whose gaze burned his head to ashes. Brahma bade Śiva to replace with the first head he could find, which happened to be that of an elephant. Karttikeya is a six-headed god and was conceived to kill the demon Tarakasura, who had proven invincible against other gods. Tarakasura had terrorised the devas of Swargaloka so thoroughly that they came to Śiva pleading for his help. Shiva thus assumed a form with five faces, a divine spark emanating from the third eye of each. He gave the sparks to Agni and Vayu to carry to Ganga and thereupon release. In Ganga's river, the sparks were washed downstream into a pond and found by the Karittikas, five forest maidens. The sparks transformed into children and were suckled by the Karttikas, When Śiva, Parvati, and the other celestials arrived on the scene, there was a debate of who the child belonged to. Further, Parvati, who was the most likely to care for the child, was puzzled as to how she would suckle five children. Suddenly, the child merged into a single being and Shiva blessed him with five separate names for his five sets of parents to settle the debate. The child, despite having been born from five sparks, had a sixth head, a unifying principle which brought together the five aspects of his father's power into a single being. From here, the campaign in which Karttikeya would vanquish Tarakasura and liberate Swargaloka began.

Other Forms and Legends

According to the foundation of Kaalism, Kali (pronounced Kaahli) came into existence when Śiva looked into himself. She is considered his mirror image, the divine Adi-shakti or primordial energy while he is the primordial substance. In another version, she had gone out to destroy the Asuras storming Swargaloka, but became enraged and erratic. To calm her, Śiva went and lay down on the ground in front of her path. When she stepped on him, she looked down and realized that she had just stepped on Śiva. Taken aback by his actions, she bit her tongue and calmed her fury. As Nataraja, Śiva is the Lord of the Dance, and symbolises the dance of the Universe, with all its heavenly bodies and natural laws complimenting and balancing each other. At times, he is also symbolized as doing his great dance of destruction, called Tandava, at the time of pralaya, or dissolution of the universe at the end of every Kalpa. Some Hindus, especially Smartas, believe Śiva to be one of many different forms of the universal Atman, or Brahman. Others see him as the one true God from whom all the other deities and principles are emanations. This view is usually related to the bhakti sects of Śaivism. Although he is defined as a destroyer (or rather re-creator), Śiva, along with Vishnu, is considered the most benevolent God. One of his names is Aashutosh, he who is easy to please, or, he who gives greatly in return for little. Unlike Vishnu, Śiva does not traditionally have avatars. However, several persons have been claimed as embodiments of him, such as Adi Shankara, and there are instances in many legends and teachings where Śiva manifests spontaneously to intervene in human events. Some people also consider Hanuman to be an aspect of Śiva.

Schools and Views of Śivaism

[[Image:Shiva and Uma 14th century.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This [[14th century]] statue depicts Śiva (on the left) and his wife Uma (on the right{{{

Durga

In Hinduism, Durga is a form of Saraswati, Parvati, Lakshmi or Devi, the supreme goddess. She is depicted as a woman riding a lion with multiple hands carrying weapons and assuming mudras, or symbolic hand gestures. This form of the Goddess is the embodiment of feminine and creative energy (Shakti). According to the narrative from the Devi_Mahatmyam of the markandeya purana, the form of Durga was created as an warrior goddess to fight the demon Mahisashur who could not be defeated by any of god or man due to a boon he received after intense prayers to Brahma. By virtue of this power, he invaded the gods, who went for help to the supreme trinity - Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, but Mahishashur defeated all of them and unleashed a reign of terror on earth, heaven and the nether worlds. Eventually, since only a woman could kill him the gods got together with the trinity and created a dazzling beam of energy out of which Durga was born. Her form was blindingly beautiful, with a face sculpted by Shiva, torso by Indra, breasts by Chandra (the moon), teeth by Brahma, bottom by the Earth, thighs and knees by Varuna (wind), and her three eyes by Agni (fire). Each god also gave her their own most powerful weapons - Shiva's trident, Vishnu's discus, Indra's thunderbolt, etc. The word Shakti, meaning strength, reflects the warrior aspect of the goddess, embodying a traditional male role. But she is also strikingly beautiful, and initially Mahishasur tries to marry her. In her other incarnations such as Annapurna or Parvati, she is more mother-like, and as Karunamayi (karuna = kindness), she is softer. Mahishasur's story is also of interest. His father Rambha, king of the demons, once fell in love with a water buffalo, and mahishasur was born out of this union. He is therefore able to change between human and buffalo form at will ("mahisha" means buffalo). After conquering the three worlds, he is finally challenged by Durga. After several days of battle during which his army is decimated, he is finally killed on the tenth day of the waxing moon. This day of victory is celebrated as Vijaya Dashami (East and South India), Dashain (Nepal) or Dussehra (North India) - all these words literally mean "the tenth day". In Kashmir she is worshipped as shaarika (the main temple is in Hari Parbat in Srinagar). The actual period of the worship however may be over the nine preceding days Navaratri (N. India) or the five days (Bengal / Orissa).

The Worship of Durga (Durga Puja)

shaarika The worship of Durga in the autumn month of Sharat is the major festival in Bengal. Puja means worship, and Durga's Puja is celebrated from the sixth to tenth day of the waxing moon in the month of Ashvin, which is the sixth month in the Hindu Calendar. Occasionally however, due to a misalignment between the lunar cycle and the solar months, it may also be held in the following month, Kartik. In the Gregorian calendar, this corresponds to the months of September/October. In the Krittibas Ramayana, Rama invokes the goddess Durga in his battle against Ravana. Although she was traditionally worshipped in the Spring, due to contingencies of battle, Rama had to invoke her in the autumn ([akaal bodhan]). Today it is this Rama's date for the puja that has gained ascendancy, although the spring Puja, known as Basanti puja, is also present in the Hindu almanac. Since the season of the puja is sharat (autumn), it is also known as shaaradiya. The Puja's are held over a five-day period, which is traditionally viewed as the coming of the married daughter, Durga, to her father, Himalayas' home. It is the most important festival in Bengal, and Bengalis celebrate with new clothes and other gifts, which are worn on the evenings when the family goes out to see the pandals. Although it is a Hindu festival, many religious groups participate in the ritual. In Kolkata alone more than a thousand galleries (a.k.a. pandals) are set up, all clamouring for the fickle attention of the populace. Across the world, Durga Puja serves as a community gathering and a connection to roots for the widespread Bengali diaspora. Tokyo has nearly ten Pujas, and North America has several hundred. Bangladesh, with its 10% hindu population has at least a thousand pujas.

Durga Puja in Bengal

Kolkata, Durga, Saraswati and Kartik.]] A considerable literature exists around Durga in the Bengali language and its early forms, including Durgotsavnirnaya (11th century), Durgabhaktitarangini by Vidyapati (14th century), etc. Durga Puja was popular in Bengal in the medieval period, and records exist of it being held in the courts of Rajshahi (16th century) and Nadia (18th century). It was during the 18th century, however, that the worship of Durga became popular among the landed elite of Bengal. Today, the culture of Durga Puja has shifted from the princely houses to Sarvojonin (literally, "involving all") forms. During the week of Durga Puja, in the entire state of West Bengal as well as in large enclaves of Bengalis everywhere, life comes to a complete standstill. In play grounds, traffic circles, ponds -- wherever space may be available -- elaborates structures called pandals are set up, many with nearly a year's worth of planning behind them. The word pandal means a temporary structure, made of bamboo and cloth, which used to be the venue of the worship (pujaa) of the goddess. West Bengal] Somewhere inside these complex edifices is a stage on which durga reigns, standing on her lion mount, wielding ten weapons with her ten hands. This is the religious epicenter of the festivities, and the crowds gather to offer flower worship on the mornings of the main days. Ritualized drummers, carrying large leather-strung dhaaks show off their skills during ritual dance worships called arati. But today's Puja goes far beyond religion. In fact, visiting the pandals recent years, one can only say that Durgapuja the largest outdoor art festival on earth. In the 1990s, a preponderance of architectural models came up on the pandal exteriors, but today the art motif extends to elaborate interiors, executed by trained artists, with consistent stylistic elements, carefully executed and bearing the name of the artist. The sculpture of the idol itself has evolved. The worship always depicts Durga with her four children, and occasionally two attendant deities and some banana-tree figures. In the olden days, all five idols would be depicted in a single frame, traditionally called pata. Since the 1980's however, the trend is to depict each idol separately. At the end of the six days, the idol is taken in a procession amid loud chants and drumbeats to the river or other water body, and it is cast in the waters symbolic of the departure of the deity to her home with her husband in the Himalayas. After this, in a tradition called Vijaya Dashami, families visit each other and sweetmeats are offered to visitors (Dashami is literally tenth day and Vijay is victory). 1990] Also associated with Durga is a myth that Rama invokes her in his battle with Ravana. For this reason, the same tenth day is celebrated in North India as Dussehra, when huge straw effigies of Ravana are burnt.

External links

- [http://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/durga Durga - Narrative Art of an 'Independent' Warrior Goddess]
- [http://www.rudraksha-ratna.com/navratri.htm Navratri Festival] Goddess Durga Festival (N. India) for 9 nights.
- [http://www.anandautsav.com/ The Bengali Durga Puja experience] Multimedia photos of thousands of pujas - including faraway places such as Helsinki, Auckland, or Lagos.
- [http://Durgapuja.VisitNorthEast.com/ The True Fantasy of Durga Puja of the Bengali Community] Extensive coverage of Durga Puja along wih other related Information and Muktimedia Presentations.
Category:Hindu goddesses

Dakshayani

(on the left) and Uma (on the right{{

Uma (goddess)

:Dakshayani

Kumari

Kumari, or Kumari Devi is a living Hindu goddess in Nepal. Kumari means literally virgin in Nepali. A Kumari is a prepubescent girl selected from the Shakya caste of the Nepalese Newari community. The Kumari she is revered and worshipped by the country's Hindus as well as the Nepali Buddhist not the Tibetan Buddhist. While there are several Kumaris throughout Nepal, with some cities having several, the best known is the Royal Kumari of Kathmandu. The selection process for her is especially rigorous, and she lives in the Kumari Ghar, a palace in the center of the city. The current Royal Kumari, Preeti Shakya was installed on 10 July, 2001 at the age of four. A Kumari is believed to be the bodily incarnation of the goddess Taleju until she menstruates, after which it is believed that the goddess vacates her body. Serious illness or a major loss of blood from an injury are also causes for her to revert to common status.

History

Whilst the veneration of a living Kumari in Nepal is relatively recent, dating only from the 17th century, the tradition of Kumari-Puja, or virgin worship, has been around for much longer. There is evidence of virgin worship taking place in India for more than 2,600 years. It appears to have taken hold in Nepal in the 6th century. There is written evidence describing the selection, ornamentation and worship of the Kumari dating from the 13th century. There are several legends circulating about how the current cult of the Kumari began. Most of the legends, however, lead back to King Jayaprakash Malla, the last Nepalese king of the Malla Dynasty. According to the most popular legend, a red serpent approaches the King's chambers late one night as he plays tripasa a dice game with the goddess Taleju. The King begins to admire the surpassing beauty of Taleju, the patroness of his royal lineage, realizing that her beauty surpasses that of his own wife. His amorous thoughts, however, are found out as the goddess is able to read his thoughts. Standing abruptly, Taleju rebukes the king for his lustful thoughts and declares that if he is ever to see her again, it will be in the form of a young girl from a low caste. Hoping to make amends with his patroness, the King left the palace in search of the young girl who was possessed by Taleju's spirit. Even today, a mother's dream of a red serpent is believed to portend the elevation of her daughter to the position of Royal Kumari. And each year, the Nepalese King seeks the blessing of the Royal Kumari at the festival of Indra Jatra. A variation of this and other legends names King Gunkam Dev, a 12th century ancestor of King Jayaprakash Malla as the main character rather than Jayaprakash Malla. Another legend of the origins of the cult of the Kumari is more disturbing. According to this legend, King Jayaprakash Malla had intercourse with a pre-pubescent girl who later died as a result. The King, overcome with guilt, began having dreams that told him that he must begin to search for each young incarnation of Taleju. To make penance for his actions, he must then worship the Kumari and ask for her blessing each year. A third variation of the legend says that during the reign of King Jayaprakash Malla, a young girl was banished from the city because it was feared that she was possessed by the goddess Durga. When the Queen learned of the young girl's fate, she became enraged and insisted that the King fetch the girl and install her as the living incarnation of Durga.

Selection process

Once Taleju has left the sitting Kumari, there is a frenzy of activity to find her successor. Some have compared the selection process to the process used in nearby Tibet to find the Dalai Lama or the Panchen Lama. The selection process is conducted by five senior Buddhist Vajracharya priests, the Panch Buddha, the Bada Guruju or Chief Royal Priest, Achajau the priest of Taleju and the royal astrologer . The King and other religious leaders that might know of eligible candidates are also informed that a search is underway. Eligible girls are Buddhists from the Newar Shakya caste of silver and goldsmiths. She must be in excellent health, never have shed blood or been afflicted by any diseases, be without blemish and must not have yet lost any teeth. Girls who pass these basic eligibility requirements are examined for the battis lakshanas, or 'thirty-two perfections' of a goddess. Some of these are poetically listed as such:
- A neck like a conch shell
- A body like a banyan tree
- Eyelashes like a cow
- Thighs like a deer
- Chest like a lion
- Voice soft and clear as a duck's In addition to this, her hair and eyes should be very black, she should have dainty hands and feet, small and well-recessed sexual organs and a set of forty teeth. The girl is also observed for signs of serenity and fearlessness (after all, she is to be the vessel of the fierce goddess Durga) and her horoscope is examined to ensure that it is complementary to the King's. It is important that there not be any conflicts as she must confirm the King's legitimacy each year of her divinity. Her family is also scrutinized to ensure its piety and devotion to the King. Once the priests have chosen a candidate, she must undergo yet more rigorous tests to ensure that she indeed possesses the qualities necessary to be the living vessel of Durga. Her greatest test comes during the Hindu festival of Dashain. On the kalratri, or 'black night', 108 buffaloes and goats are sacrificed to the god Kali. The young candidate is taken into the Taleju temple and released into the courtyard, where the severed heads of the animals are illuminated by candlelight and masked men are dancing about. If the candidate truly possesses the qualities of Taleju, she shows no fear during this experience. If she does not, another candidate is brought in to attempt the same thing. The fearless candidate has proven that she has the serenity and the fearlessness that typifies the goddess who is to inhabit her. Only a small test remains. She must be able to pick out the personal effects of the previous Kumari from an assortment of things laid out before. If she is able to do so, there is no remaining doubt that she is the chosen one. Once the Kumari is chosen, she must be purified so that she can be an unblemished vessel for Taleju. She is taken by the priests to undergo a number of secret Tantric rituals to cleanse her body and spirit of her past experiences. Once these rituals are completed, Taleju enters her and she is presented as the new Kumari. She is dressed and made up as a Kumari and then leaves the Taleju temple and walks across the square on a white cloth to the Kumari Ghar that will be her home for the duration of her divinity.

Life of the Royal Kumari

Once the chosen girl completes the Tantric purification rites and crosses from the temple on a white cloth to the Kumari Ghar to assume her throne, her life takes on an entirely new character. She will leave her palace only on ceremonial occasions. Her family will visit her rarely, and then only in a formal capacity. She will neither work nor attend school. Her playmates will be drawn from a narrow pool of Newari children from her caste, usually the children of her caretakers. She will always be dressed in red, wear her hair in a topknot and have the agni chakchuu or ‘fire eye’ painted on her forehead as a symbol of her special powers of perception. The Royal Kumari's new life is vastly different than the one to which she has been accustomed in her short life. Whilst her life is now free of material troubles, she has ceremonial duties to carry out. Although she is not ordered about, she is expected to behave as befits a goddess. She has shown the correct qualities during the selection process and her continued serenity is of paramount importance; an ill-tempered goddess is believed to portend bad tidings for those petitioning her. The Kumari's walk across the Durbar Square is the last time her feet will touch the ground until such time as the goddess departs from her body. From now on, when she ventures outside of her palace, she will be carried or transported in her golden palanquin. Her feet, like all of her, are now sacred. Petitioners will touch them, hoping to receive respite from troubles and illnesses. The King himself will kiss them each year when he comes to seek her blessing. She will never wear shoes; if her feet are covered at all, they will be covered with red stockings. The power of the Kumari is perceived to be so strong that even a glimpse of her is believed to bring good fortune. Crowds of people wait below the Kumari's window in the Kumari Chowk, or courtyard, of her palace, hoping that she will pass by the latticed windows on the third floor and glance down at them. Even though her irregular appearances last only a few seconds, the atmosphere in the courtyard is charged with devotion and awe when they do occur. The more fortunate, or better connected, petitioners visit the Kumari in her chambers where she sits upon a gilded lion throne. Many of those visiting her are people suffering from blood or menstrual disorders since the Kumari is believed to have special power over such illnesses. She is also visited by bureaucrats and other government officials. Petitioners customarily bring gifts and food offerings to the Kumari, who receives them in silence. Upon arrival, she offers them her feet to touch or kiss as an act of devotion. During these audiences, the Kumari is closely watched. Here is how some of her actions are interpreted:
- Crying or loud laughter: Serious illness or death
- Weeping or rubbing eyes: Imminent death
- Trembling: Imprisonment
- Hand clapping: Reason to fear the King
- Picking at food offerings: Financial losses If the Kumari remains silent and impassive throughout the audience, her devotees leave elated. This is the sign that their wishes have been granted. Many people attend to the Kumari's needs. These people are known as the Kumarimi and are headed by the Chitaidar (patron). Their job is very difficult. They must attend to the Kumari's every need and desire whilst giving her instruction in her ceremonial duties. Whilst they cannot directly order her to do anything, they must guide her through her life. They are responsible for bathing her, dressing her and attending to her makeup as well as preparing her for her visitors and for ceremonial occasions. Traditionally, the Kumari received no education as she was widely considered to be omniscient. More recently, however, she has been visited by a tutor, as modernization has made it necessary for her to have an education once she re-enters mortal life. Her tutors, however, are unable to require her to do anything, so they must also find ways to interest her in applying herself to her studies. Similarly, her limited playmates must learn to respect her. Since her every wish must be granted, they must learn to surrender to her whatever they have that she may want and to defer to her wishes in what games to play or activities to engage in.

Former Kumaris

The end of a Kumari's divinity is abrupt and totally unplanned. As soon as she mentruates Durga 'vacates her body' and she reverts to being a mere mortal. Once a new Kumari has been selected, the former Kumari undergoes a number of rituals that formally divest her of her status. Over four days, the symbols of her divinity are taken away from her. Once this 'unfolding of the plait' is complete, she is left with but a gold coin and a piece of the regal red fabric in which she has been clothed during her years as Kumari. Former Kumaris receive a pension from the state of 6000 rupees per month ($80). This is around twice the official minimum wage and around four times the average income in this poverty-stricken country. They often continue to be called Kumari rather than by the names given to them at birth. Although they are once again part of the ordinary world, they are often unable to fully shake off the mystique associated with having been a Kumari and often have trouble adjusting to 'normal' life. Popular superstition says that a man who marries a Kumari is doomed to die within six months by coughing up blood. In reality, however, it seems that most Kumaris do not have trouble eventually finding husbands. All of the living former Kumaris with exception of the youngest ones have married.

Name	Hometown	Dates as Kumari	Marital Status
Hira Maiya Shakya	Wotu	1922-1923	married, 0 children
Chini Shova Shakya -	Lagan	1923-1931	married, 2 daughters
Chandra Devi Shakya -	Asonchuka	1931-1933	married, 2 daughters
Dil Kumari Shakya	Lagan	1933-1942	married, 3 sons ,1 daughter
Nani Shova Shakya	Ombahal	1942-1949	married, 4 sons, 2 daughters
Kayo Mayju Shakya -	Kwahiti	1949-1955	married, 1 son, 1 daughter
Harsha Laxmi Shakya	Naghal	1955-1961	married, 2 sons
Nani Mayju Shakya	Naghal	1961-1969	married, 1 son, 2 daughters
Sunina Shakya	Ombahal	1969-1978	married, 1 son, 1 daughter
Anita Shakya	Sikamoobahal	1978-1984	unmarried
Rashmila Shakya	Kwahiti	1984-1991	unmarried
Amita Shakya	Asanbahal	1991-2001	unmarried
Preeti Shakya	Itumbahal	2001-	unmarried

(
- = deceased) Source: The Kathmandu Post

References

- Ashford, Lindsay (2004). Kumari: The Living Goddess. Retrieved July 12, 2004 from [http://kumari.puellula.org]
- Shakya, Durga, Kumari House. Retrieved July 12, 2004 from [http://www.nepalnews.com.np/contents/englishweekly/sundaypost/2001/jul/jul29/head.htm]

External links

- [http://www.catmando.com/casinosnepal/july/kumari.htm Kumari]
- [http://www.visitnepal.com/nepal_information/kumari.htm Nepal Information: Details about Kumari Devi]
- [http://www.mypage.bluewin.ch/raonline/pages/np/npkumari.html Kumari - The Living Goddess]
- [http://users.skynet.be/ragini_art/kumari.htm Virgin Goddess Kumari and her Worship] Category:Buddhism Category:Goddesses

Rama

: This article is about the incarnation of God Vishnu and king of ancient India, for other meanings see Rama (disambiguation). Rama (disambiguation) and devotee Hanuman. Rama and Lakshman are always shown to be ready for battle (with bow and arrow) as it is their Kshatriya dharma to fight. Rama is shown having blue skin which is a characteristic of Vishnu]] Rama (Rāma in IAST transliteration, राम in Sanskrit, sometimes referred to as Ramachandra and also as Shri Rama) is the Seventh Avatara of Vishnu. He is the embodiment of the absolute Brahman and Dharma. He is the Mariyada Purushottama or The Perfect Man. The life and heroic deeds of Rama are related in the Sanskrit epic the Ramayana. A great devotional work on him is the Ramcharitmanas by Tulsidas, which builds on the Hindu bhakti movements of devotion and love of God. Rama is the most famous and popular manifestation of the Supreme God for a vast majority of the 900 million Hindus across the world, including the nations of South East Asia such as Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Burma and Cambodia. He is recognized as the image, spirit and consciousness of Hinduism, the world's oldest organized religion, and of human civilization from the Indian perspective. The spelling and pronunciation of Rama follows the original Sanskrit; it continues to be followed in several modern languages of India. In modern Indian vernaculars, however, it is sometimes pronounced as 'Ram'.

Prince of Ayodhya

Rama is born in the city of Ayodhya, which is the capital of the ancient kingdom of Kosala. The city and the area are located in the central region of the modern state of Uttar Pradesh in India. King Dasaratha performs a putrakami yajna, a sacrifice to obtain offspring by pleasing the Gods. He gives the sacred, sacrificial nectar to his three wives according to their seniority: Kousalya, Sumitra and Kaikeyi. Rama is born the eldest son of Kousalya and Dasaratha. He is the prince of the Suryavanshi (Sun Dynasty) House of Ikshvaku, descendant of great monarchs like Ikshvaku, Raghu and Bhagiratha. He is the eldest brother to Bharata, son of Kaikeyi, and the twin sons of Sumitra, Lakshmana and Shatrughna. The Ramayana describes their relationship as intensely loving and devotional, although Rama and Lakshmana share a special, inseparable bond, while Bharata is especially close to Shatrughna. Rama and his brothers are trained by the Guru Vasishta in the Vedas, religion, philosophy and the sciences. Guru Vishwamitra is the preceptor of Rama and Lakshmana in the advanced military arts and advanced religion.

The Avatara

Upon his birth, only a few highly learned and experienced sages know of his true identity as the Avatara of the Supreme Lord Vishnu. Amongst them are Vasishta and Vishwamitra. Neither his parents, nor his brothers or any of the people of Kosala know who his true identity. Rama is born with a blueish skin color and effulgence, which denotes divinity. Throughout the course of his life, Rama does not himself know of his true origin and mission. Despite his exceptional prowess as a warrior, he does not realize his true strength and mission in life. Only after he completes his primary mission of slaying Ravana, the evil emperor of Lanka is he confronted by all the Gods and celestial sages, headed by Brahma and including Indra and Shiva, who explain his true identity. His brother and close companion Lakshmana is considered a part of the Seventh Avatara, but in a secondary role to Rama, the prime form.

With Vishwamitra

When Rama is around 14-15 years old, he and his brother Lakshmana are taken by Vishwamitra to the forests, with the purpose of killing rakshasas who are wrecking the tapasya and sacrifices of brahmins. Rama and Lakshmana are taught the advanced military arts and given the knowledge of all celestial weapons by Vishwamitra. Rama proceeds to slay Tataka, a cursed demoness. When asked to slay the yaksha demon, Rama demurrs, considering it sinful to kill a woman. But Vishwamitra explains to him that evil has no gender. The killing of Tataka liberates the yaksha soul who was cursed for a sin, and had to adopt a rakshasa's body. It restores the purity of the sacrifices of the brahmins who live nearby, and protects the animals who live in the forest, and travelers. The main purpose of Vishwamitra's exursion is to conduct his yagna without interruption from two evil demons, Maricha and Subahu. Rama and Lakshmana guard the sacrifice, and when the two demons appear, Rama fires a missile that carries Maricha across the lands and into the ocean, but does not kill him. Rama and his brother then proceed to kill Subahu and accompanying demons. Rama explains to Lakshmana that leaving Maricha alive was an act of compassion, but the others did not heed the point and chose to attack.

Marriage to Sita

Sita is the Avatara of the Goddess Lakshmi, who is the eternal consort and female form of Vishnu. Just as Rama is the manifestation of perfect manhood, Sita idealizes the Perfect Woman through her performance of her duties to religion, as a wife to her husband and as a mother to her children, and collectively as a woman in human society. Sita is the adopted daughter of king Janaka, and the daughter of Goddess Bhoomi, or Earth. When he is approximately 15 years of age, his Guru Vishwamitra takes the two princes to the Swayamvara ceremony for Sita. The challenge is to string the bow of Siva, and fire an arrow with it. This task is considered impossible for any ordinary king or living being, as this is the personal weapon of Siva, more powerful, holy and of divine creation than conceivable. While attempting to string the bow, Rama breaks it into two. This feat of unbelievable strength, to have broken the personal weapon of Siva, spreads his fame across the worlds and seals his marriage to Sita.

Rama's Arrow

After Rama weds Sita and the entire royal family and the Ayodhya army begin their journey back, the great rishi Parashurama Bhargava appears before them, having descended from his mountainous hermitage. Parashurama is an extremely powerful rishi, responsible for killing all of the world's warriors and kings 21 times. He was formerly the sixth Avatara of Vishnu, and finds it unbelievable that anybody could break the bow of Siva. Considering himself to still be the most powerful warrior-rishi on earth, he brings with them the bow of Vishnu, and intends to challenge Rama to prove his strength by stringing it, and then fighting a battle with him to prove superiority. Although the entire Ayodhya army is dazzled by his mystical aura, and the king Dasaratha begs Parashurama not to hurt Rama, Rama is himself angered. He respectfully bows to Parashurama, and within a twinkling of an eyelid snatches the bow of Vishnu, strings it, places an arrow and points it straight at the challenger's heart. Rama asks him what will he give his arrow in return for his life? At this point, Parashurama feels himself devoid of the tremendous mystical energy he possessed for so long. He realizes that Rama is Vishnu incarnate, his successor and definitely his superior. He accepts Rama's superiority, devotes his tapasya to him, pays homage to Rama and promises to return to his hermitage and not return to the world of men. Rama then fires the arrow up into the sky with Vishnu's bow, performing a feat true to his Supreme nature and with his natural weapon. His overpowering Parashurama and using the supreme weapon with incredible ease and perfection dazzle the spectators and his relatives, but no one save Parashurama and Vasishta associate this with his true identity. The myth of Rama's arrow is that the trajectory is still flying across space, across time and across all of the universe. The day it will return to earth, it is said, will bring the end of the world.

Banishment to the Forest

The Destruction of Khara

Rama is asked to help and protect the rishis of the forest who were being terrorized by Khara, a powerful half-brother of Ravana, who had been assigned to rule this area by Ravana. Khara and his demonic legions would kill rishis, disrupt their sacrifices, undertake sinful activities, and oppress the people. According to the Valmiki Ramayana, an area of the forest was under Surpanaka, sister of Ravana, and he was passing by Panchawati. She witnesses Rama, Sita and Lakshmana passing, and tries to flatter and seduce Rama. Rama tells her that he is married and committed to Sita, but if she wishes she can go ask Lakshmana, his younger brother. Lakshmana gets angry, insults her and cuts her nose. To take a revenge, she went to her cousin brothers, Khara. With 14,000 powerful rakshasas, Khara attacks Rama. Rama instructs Lakshmana to take Sita away and protect her, and single-handedly razes Khara's army and kills Khara's most powerful brothers and commanders, and finally Khara himself.

The Kidnapping of Sita

Surpanaka goes to Lanka, and tells the whole story to Ravana. She suggests that he kidnap Sita and marry her, so that Rama would be insulted and devastated. Ravana convinces Maricha, one of the mayawi rakshasas, possessors of mystic powers. He tells him to convert himself to a golden deer and go near Panchwati so that Sita will be attracted to it. And the same happens. Sita asks Rama to bring him. Rama chases the deer, but sensing mischief, that the deer is simply a decoy for some evil purpose, fires an arrow at it and Maricha dies. But while dying, he shouts in Rama's voice "Help Laxman Help". Sita and Laxman who are still in Panchwati, listen to this voice. Sita begs Laxman to go and help Rama. Firstly he was not ready to leave Sita alone in that jungle. But as Sita is panicking and inconsolable, he draws a Laxman Rekha in front of hut. Here Ravana dressed like a muni and went to Panchwati for Bhiksha. Bhiksha is some fruits or eatable to be given to brhmins or rishis. Firstly Sita was not ready to cross Laxman Rekha.But then Ravana blackmailed her in the name of Dhrama. Thus Sita crossed Laxman Rekha. And Ravana kidnapped her. He took Sita to his place Sri Lanka. He has number of big halls called 'Mahal' and different forests. After going to Lanka, he proposed marriage to Sita. Even his wife Mandodari and younger brother Vibheeshana also opposed but he didnot listen to them.He kept Sita in one of his gardens called Ashokawan.

In Kishkindya

Rama went to seek help from the king of the monkeys, Sugreeva, in the monkey kingdom of Kishkinda. He raised an army there and went to to fight Ravana at Lanka.

The War

Sri Lanka

Rama Rajya

Invested as King of Ayodhya and Kosala, Rama begins a 10,000 year reign that is known as Rama Rajya, which is considered to be the time when God, as the most Perfect Man ruled the earth, and evil was extinguished from the hearts of all men and women. This most perfect period is described as extremely prosperous and peaceful, with all its people adhering to religious virtues and duties, and where crime, injustice and suffering were non-existent. Rama also performs the ashwamedha sacrifice 1,000 times to establish himself as the Emperor of the World.

In History and Mythology

Astronomical data in the Ramayana has been interpreted to suggest that his reign would have been at approximately 2015 BC. This makes little sense, however, given that Shri Rama assumed human form in the Treta Yuga (see yuga for more detail). It is known that the Ramayana was written before the other great Hindu epic, the Mahabharata, whose tradition of oral transmission is accepted to have existed around 1000 BC although there is little indication of when it actually began (the writing coming much later). Thus, the Ramayana may have been documented anywhere from around 1500 BC to more conservative estimates of 500 BC. It should be noted that Indian culture has had a tradition of oral transmission of knowledge, considering it sacred and confidential. The Ramayana is a great literary work and piece of devotional and philosophical literature revered by both Hindus and individuals of other cultures.

Modern Portrayal India

Ramayana] Dussera, the day of Rama's victory over Ravana, and Diwali, his return to Ayodhya are the biggest festivals of the year in India. The Ramayana was created into a major epic television series in India in the late 1980s, and was tirelessly watched by hundreds of millions of people across the country, even though television sets were scarce.

Portrayal in South East Asia

Rama and the legendary epic of Ramayana is an extremely popular tale in Thailand, Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia and Cambodia, where ancient Hindu kingdoms existed. In Thailand exists an ancient city called Ayutthaya, where the legend is commemorated and Rama worshipped. Many of the kings of Southeast Asian nations were named Rama. Category:Vaishnavism Category:Ramayana epic Category:Forms of Vishnu

External Links

- [http://www.ram.net.in Rama's Preachings] Site providing the preachings of Lord Rama and Lord Krishna
- [http://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/rama Rama The Ideal Man: The Epic Adventure of a Hero] by Sri Nitin Kumar. ko:라마 (신화) ja:ラーマ

Tantra

Tantra (Sanskrit: loom), tantric yoga or tantrism is any of several esoteric traditions rooted in the religions of India. It exists in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, Bönpo, and New Age forms. Tantra's roots are in the village life of ancient India. The word "tantra" first appears in the written record in the middle of the first millennium CE. Tantra has persisted and often thrived throughout Asian history. Its practitioners have lived in India, China, Japan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Korea, Cambodia, Burma, Indonesia and Mongolia. No form of medieval Hinduism, Buddhism, or Jainism has been without a Tantric component. Some South-Asian Islamic traditions have also borne a tantric stamp. David Gordon White while cautioning us about attempting a rigorous definition of what for centuries has defied such attempts, offers the following working definition : " [It] is that Asian body of beliefs and practices which, working from the principle that the universe we experience is nothing other than the concrete manifestation of the divine energy of the godhead that creates and maintains that universe, seeks to ritually appropriate and channel that energy,within the human microcosm in creative and emancipatory ways." In its Indian forms, tantra can be summarized as a family of voluntary rituals modeled on those of the Vedas, together with their attendant texts and lineages. These rituals typically involve the visualization of a deity, offerings (real or visualized), and the chanting of his or her mantra. These practices are usually said to require permission from a qualified teacher or guru who belongs to a legitimate guruparampara or teacher-student lineage. Thus tantra shares some similarities with yoga. (See the "Yoga" entry for a fuller discussion of their relationship.) Common variations include visualizing the deity in the act of sexual union with a consort; visualizing oneself as the deity; and/or "transgressive" acts such as token consumption of meat or alcohol. Occasionally ritualized sex may be undertaken in imitation of the divine model. This accounts for tantra's mixed reputation, and its reception in the West primarily as a collection of sexual practices.

History of Tantra

Legend ascribes the origin of Tantra to Dattatreya, a semi-mythical Hindu yogi and the assumed author of the Jivanmukta Gita ("Song of the liberated soul"). Others see Lord Adinath, or Shiva, as the first Guru of Tantra. Things become a little more clear with Matsyendranath ("Master of fish" - so-called either because he was a fisherman, or, less probably, because he discovered a tantra inside a fish). He is accredited with authorship of the Kaulajnana-nirnaya, a voluminous ninth-century tantra dealing with a host of mystical and magical subjects, and occupies an important position in the Hindu tantric lineage, as well as in Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism. His disciple, Gorakhnath, founded laya yoga. Hatha Yoga was penned by Swami Swatamarama as the secrets of Lord Adinath (another name for Shiva) in the 15th century. Tantra evolved into a number of orders (sampradaya) and with a primary classification of either "left-hand tantra" (vaama marg), in which sexual yoga and other antinomian practices occurred or "right-hand tantra", in which such practices were merely visualised. Both groups, but in particular the left-hand tantrists, opposed many features of orthodox Hindu culture, particularly the caste system and patriarchy. Despite this, Tantra was accepted by some high-caste Hindus, most notably the Rajput princes. Hindu tantra even briefly enabled a yogic/sufi synthesis among some Indian Muslims. Nowadays Tantra has a large, though not always well-informed, following worldwide. Buddhist and Hindu Tantra, though having many similarities from the outside, do have some clear distinctions. Scholars are unable to determine whether the Hindu or the Buddhist version of Tantra appeared first in history. Buddhist Tantra is always part of the Mahayana school of Buddhism, which has as main aim to help all sentient beings becoming free from problems (Dukkha), in order to achieve this aim, one should try to achieve Buddhahood oneself, in order to be the most profound teacher for others.

Hindu tantra

Tantra exists in Vaisnava, Shaiva, and Shakta forms, among others. Extolled as a short-cut to self-realization and spiritual enlightenment by some, left-hand tantric rites are often rejected as dangerous by most orthodox Hindus. The popular perception of tantra among Hindus, for example as expressed in Indian journalism, makes it more or less synonymous with black magic. This sentiment has also influenced the self-perception of tantrikas themselves. Some distinguish between two "paths" in Hindu Tantra: dakshinachara (also known as samayachara), the "Right-Hand Path", and vamachara, the "Left-Hand Path". The terms Left-Hand Path and Right-Hand Path have been adopted by Western occultists. According to another popular view, Hindu Tantra is classified as either red (rajas or heat, fire, restlessness, anger), black (tamas or darkness, ignorance, stagnation) or white (sattva pure, moderate, divine). These correspond to three Hindu conceptions of the qualities of existence (the three gunas) first posited in Samkhya. Some tantric aspirants simply feel the union is accomplished internally and with spiritual entities of various kinds. For this reason, almost all tantric writing has a gross, higher and subtle meaning. This tripartite system of understanding readily obscures the true purport of many passages for those without the necessary background or deeper understandings so crucial to tantra. Thus, a 'union' could mean the actual act of sexual intercourse, ritual uniting of concepts through chanting and sacrifice, or realisation of one's true self in the cosmic joining of the divine principles of Shiva and Shakti in Para Shiva. According to John Woodroffe, one of the foremost Western scholars on Tantra, and translator of its greatest works (including the Mahanirvana Tantra): :"The Indian Tantras, which are numerous, constitute the Scripture (Shastra) of the Kaliyuga, and as such are the voluminous source of present and practical orthodox "Hinduism." The Tantra Shastra is, in fact, and whatever be its historical origin, a development of the Vaidika Karmakanda, promulgated to meet the needs of that age. Shiva says: "For the benefit of men of the Kali age, men bereft of energy and dependent for existence on the food they eat, the Kaula doctrine, O auspicious one! is given" (Chap. IX., verse 12). To the Tantra we must therefore look if we would understand aright both ritual, yoga, and sadhana of all kinds, as also the general principles of which these practices are but the objective expression." :- Introduction to Sir John Woodroffe's translation of "Mahanirvana Tantra.." While Hinduism is typically viewed as being Vedic, the Tantras are not considered part of the orthodox Hindu/Vedic scriptures. They are said to run alongside each other, The Vedas of orthodox Hinduism on one side and the Agamas of Tantra on the other. However, the practices, mantras and ideas of the Atharva Veda are markedly different from those of the prior three and show signs of powerful non-Aryan influence. Indeed, the Atharva Veda is cited by many Tantra texts as a source of great knowledge. it is notable that throughout the Tantras, such as the Mahanirvana Tantra, they align themselves as being natural progressions of the Vedas. Tantra exists for spiritual seekers in the age of Kaliyuga, when Vedic practices no longer apply to the current state of morality and Tantra is the most direct means to realization. Thus, aside from Vajrayana Buddhism, much of Tantric thought is Hindu Tantra, most notably those that council worship of Lord Shiva and the Divine Mother, Kali. A tantra typically takes the form of a dialogue between the Hindu gods Shiva and Shakti/Parvati, being that Shiva is known in Hinduism as being 'Yogiraj' or 'Yogeshwara,' 'The King of Yoga' or 'God of Yoga' and that his consort is known to be his perfect feminine equal. Each explains to the other a particular group of techniques or philosophies for attaining moksha (liberation/ enlightenment), or for attaining a certain practical result. (Agamas are Shiva to Shakti, and Nigamas are Shakti to Shiva.) This extract from the beginning of the Yoni Tantra (translated by Mike Magee) gives an idea of the style. :Seated upon the peak of Mount Kailasa the God of Gods, the Guru of all creation was questioned by Durga-of-the-smiling-face, Naganandini. :Sixty-four tantras have been created O Lord, tell me, O Ocean of Compassion, about the chief of these. Mahadeva (Shiva) said: :Listen, Parvati, to this highly secret one, Dearest. Ten million times have you wanted to hear this. Beauteous One, it is from your feminine nature that you continually ask me. You should conceal this by every effort. Parvati, there is mantra-pitha, yantra-pitha and yoni-pitha. Of these, the chief is certainly the yoni-pitha, revealed to you from affection.

Tibetan tantra

In Tibetan Buddhism tantra (also known as Vajrayana) plays a central role, and is universally acknowledged as constituting the highest teachings of that religion. Tibetan lineages disagree as to whether tantric practice ought to be reserved for senior monks (which policy distinguishes the Gelugpa), or extended to laypeople and junior clergy (as in the other monastic lineages, notably the Nyingmapa). The suggested motivation for practicing tantra is no different from that of Mahayana Buddhism in general--the bodhisattva ideal, in which the practitioner aspires to liberate not only him/herself but also all sentient beings throughout the universe. The difference is one of technique, tantra being a "quick path" to enlightenment for those capable of following it. Thus esoteric tantric practice is tightly integrated with the exoteric (non-esoteric) tradition so that the two work together as a unified system. Within Vajrayana Buddhist circles, sexual tantra is apparently rare but not unknown, even among theoretically celibate monks. June Campbell's book "Traveller in Space" tells the story of her recruitment as a tantric consort by Kalu Rinpoche, who also strongly urged her silence. Vajrayana principles might justify the resulting violation of his monastic vows with an appeal to the bodhisattva principle, on the theory (which is by no means universally accepted) that even a monk ought to have sex if that will help him attain enlightenment sooner. Nevertheless, a more typical example of Tibetan tantra would be the chanting of the well-known mantra of Avalokiteshvara Aum Mani Padme Hum.

Japan's Shingon sect

Buddhist tantrism is also practiced to a lesser extent in East Asia. Japan's Shingon sect, for example, practices tantric veneration of the deity Vairocana.

New Age tantra or Neo Tantra

New Age appropriations of tantra usually disregard requirements involving guruparampara and ritual conduct, though they otherwise adopt many of the terms and concepts of Indian tantra. In these circles, "tantra" is often a synonym for sacred sexuality, i.e. a belief that sex ought to be recognized as a sacred act which is capable of elevating its participants to a higher spiritual plane. At other times "tantra" comes to mean a set of techniques for cultivating a more fulfilling sexual or love relationship, like the otherwise unrelated Kama Sutra, regardless of its metaphysical import. Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh later known as Osho, used tantra in combination with breathing technique, bioenergetic, yoga and massage in some of his groups, his students continued this concept and developed it. The most successful and well known is Margot Anand.

Tantric practices

Because of the wide range of groups covered by the term "tantra", it is hard to describe tantric practices definitively. The basic practice, the Hindu image-worship known as "puja" may include any of the elements below. Mantra and Yantra: As in all of Hindu and Buddhist yogas, mantras plays an important part in Tantra, not only for focusing the mind, often through the conduit of specific Hindu gods like Shiva, Ma Kali (mother Kali, another form of Shakti) and even Ganesh, the elephant-headed god of wisdom (refer to the Ganesha Upanishad). Similarly, puja will often involve concentrating on a yantra or mandala. Identification with deities: Tantra, being a development of early Hindu-Vedic thought, embraced the Hindu gods and goddesses, especially Shiva and Shakti, along the Advaita (nondualist Vedic) philosophy that each represents an aspect of the ultimate Para Shiva, or Brahman. These deities may be worshiped externally (with flowers, incense etc.) but, more importantly, are used as objects of meditation, where the practitioner imagines him- or herself to be experiencing the darshan or 'vision' of the deity in question. The ancient devadasi tradition of sacred temple-dance, seen in the contemporary Bharata Natyam is the example of such meditation in movement. The divine love is expressed in Sringara and Bhakti. Concentration on the body: Tantrikas generally see the body as a microcosm; thus in the Kaulajnana-nirnaya, for example, the practitioner meditates on the head as the moon, the heart as the sun and the genitals as fire. Many groups hold that the body contains a series of energy centres (chakra - "wheel"), which may be associated with elements, planets or occult powers (siddhi). The phenomenon of kundalini, a flow of energy through the chakras, is controversial; most writers see it as essential to Tantra, while others regard it as unimportant or as an abreaction. As it is, kundalini is nothing but the flow of the central sushumna nadi, a spiritual current, that, when moving, opens chakras, and is fundamental to the siddhi concept that forms a part of all tantra, including hatha yoga. Tantra and sex: As stated before, actual sexual intercourse is not a part of every form of tantric practice, but it is the definitive feature of left-hand Tantra. Contrary to popular belief, "Tantric sex" is not always slow and sustained, and may end in orgasm. For example, the Yoni Tantra states: "there should be vigorous copulation". However, all tantra states that there were certain groups of personalities who were not fit for certain practices. Tantra was personality specific and insisted that those with pashu-bhava (animal disposition), which are people of dishonest, promiscuous, greedy or violent natures who ate meat and indulged in intoxication, would only incur bad karma by following Tantric paths without the aid of a Guru who could instruct them on the correct path. In Buddhist tantra, actual ejaculation is very much a taboo, as the main goal of the sexual practice is to use the sexual energy towards achieving full enlightenment, rather than ordinary pleasure. Taboo-breaking: Sexual intercourse, preferably with a low-caste partner, was one method by which traditional left-hand practice forced practitioners to confront their conditioned responses. Others include the eating of meat (particularly beef and pork) and drinking of alcohol. Fear has also been used as a method to break down conditioning; rites would often take place in a cremation ground amidst decomposing corpses. This, of course, also falls under the prerequisite of the practitioner's nature, in such cases demanding a vir- (heroic) or even devya- (godlike) -bhava (disposition of purity, suppression of pride, respect to parents and guru and often celibacy). In the Kaula and Vamachara schools of tantra the Panchamakara (i.e. "five things") the five taboos ritually/sacramentally broken in order to free the practitioner from binding convention:
- maithuna (sex)
- madya (liquor)
- mudra (money)
- mamsa (flesh)
- matsya (fish) The "sacramental" or ritual breaking was only for the "heroic"/vira- practitioner, not the "godly"/divya- or "beastly"/pashu- levels. The "beastly" would misunderstand and get caught up in the literal act while the "godly" will have already progressed beyond and not need the literal act to understand the inner meaning. There are tantric schools that substitute innocuous items for the taboo substances and acts, claiming that literal interpretations of the Panchamakara miss the real inner truth of the rite.

Tantra in the modern world

Tantra is used in the West, as a general term which relates to sexual practice as a spiritual evolutionary scheme. There are in fact many different approaches as to how this manifests in American society - and also examples of the same development in Europe, see further down. There have been many civilizations which have deified sexuality as the most approximate expression of cosmic love or God. Regardless, the point is that tantra is moldable. It changes with each moment and environment. It especially depends on the nature of the practitioner. In traditional pockets of Tantric practice in India, such as in Assam near the venerated Hindu temple of Kali, Kammakha, in parts of West Bengal, in Siddhanta temples of South India, and in Kasmiri Shiva temples up north, Tantra has retained its true form. Its variance in practice is seen, where many tantrics are known to frequent cremation grounds in attempts to transcend their worldly attachment to life, and others are assuredly performing still more arcane acts. But what is common to them all is the intense secrecy in which their secrets are kept and the almost godlike reverence paid to the Guru, who is seen as the pinnacle of Tantra. It would be safe to say that every single Hindu Tantra Yogin in India is a Shiva and/or Shakti worshipper, and the more wide-spread practices to which all Hindus commit themselves, like pooja and worship through devotion, are maintained while more occult yogic practices involving sacred rites continue. Tibet too has a very strong Buddhist Tantric background which continues, albeit many have been transplanted to monasteries in India, and claims to be a right-hand path, in contrast to the more varied Hindu counterparts (that include both left and right-hand practices). Tibetan Tantra or Vajrayana, on the other hand, flourishes in America and other countries in a relatively pure and genuine, if somewhat attenuated form, under the guidance of many Tibetan teachers of the first generation to escape from Tibet or the next generation. There are hundreds of Tibetan Buddhist centers outside Tibet and India, primarily in the Americas and Europe, but also in eastern countries such as Malaysia, Taiwan, Russia and others. Practices in these centers, with Tibetan gurus or those trained directly by them, emphasize the true Mahayana ideal of rapidly gaining the enlightenment that characterizes a Buddha entirely for the purpose of relieving the suffering of others. This is claimed to be the Bodhisattva ideal of Mahayana Buddhism represented historically and mythologically by Avaloketishvara, Tara and others, as well as today in the person of the Dalai Lama and other Tibetan teachers. In the Tantric or Vajrayana aspects of this system, harnessing the energies of the body, emotions and mind, including, joy, wrath and sexual energy, is not an end in itself but a potent means to the ultimate goal of realizing the true nature of reality, emptiness or Shunyata, thus attaining complete spiritual enlightenment and relief from the endless dissatisfaction of life, and using the power thus gained exclusively to help others do so as well. Modern Tantra may be divided into practices based on Hinduism and Buddhism, Indian and Tibetan, traditions. The form of Hindu Tantra popularly practiced In America is said by Hindu Tantra traditionalists to represent a mutilated and extremely narrow-minded, sensationalist approach encompassing only a misguided thinking about "sacred sexuality," with little reference to its true practice. Traditional Tantrists say their practise involves much more than mere wizardy or sexual titillation: like the rest of Yoga (Hindu), it requires self-analysis and conquering of material ignorance, often through the body, but always through a pure outlook of the mind. 'Real Tantra' is about transforming one's sexual energy into spiritual progress, and has nothing to do with 'sex just for fun'. Those without a guru or lacking in discipline of the mind and body are unfit. It is telling that a Tantrica in West Bengal, a devotee of the Hindu goddess Kali, once said that "those most fit for Tantra almost never take it up, and those least fit pursue it with zeal."
- For three Tantric practitioners (two well-known and one lesser-known), see the Dalai Lama (Buddhist), Shri Ramakrishna (Hindu) and Shri Gurudev Mahendranath (Hindu). The musician Sting also claims to be a practitioner.

References

- Bagchi, P.C. (ed.), Magee, Michael (trans.) Kaulajnana-nirnaya of the School of Matsyendranath. Varanasi: Prachya Prakashan, 1986.
- Feuerstein, Georg. Tantra: The Path of Ecstasy. Boston: Shambhala, 1998.
- Geshe Kelsang Gyatso. Tantric Grounds and Paths. Glen Spey: Tharpa Publications, 2003.
- Mookerji, Ajit. The Tantric Way: art, science, ritual. London: Thames and Hudson, 1977. A general introduction.
- Woodroffe, John. Mahanirvana Tantra (Tantra of the Great Liberation). Available online at [http://www.sacred-texts.com/tantra/maha/]. A late Hindu tantra, but one of the best known.

External links

General Resources
- [http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/gthursby/tantra/ Shiva Shakti Mandalam:] The most comprehensive Tantric resource site on the Internet
- [http://www.livingtantra.net Living Tantra:] A wide variety of articles, books, and other resources relating to authentic nondual Tantra
- [http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/devot/tant.html An academic summary]
- [http://hinduism.about.com/od/tantra/index.htm Tantra on About.com] Category:Hindu philosophical concepts Category:New Age Category:Sexuality and religion Category:Yoga ja:タントラ教

Disease

A disease is any abnormal condition of the body or mind that causes discomfort, dysfunction, or distress to the person affected or those in contact with the person. Sometimes the term is used broadly to include injuries, disabilities, syndromes, symptoms, deviant behaviors, and atypical variations of structure and function, while in other contexts these may be considered distinguishable categories. Pathology is the study of diseases. The subject of systematic classification of diseases is referred to as nosology. The broader body of knowledge about diseases and their treatments is medicine.

Syndromes, illness and disease

Medical usage sometimes distinguishes a disease, which has a known specific cause or causes (called its etiology), from a syndrome, which is a collection of signs or symptoms that occur together. However, many conditions have been identified, yet continue to be referred to as "syndromes". Furthermore, numerous conditions of unknown etiology are referred to as "diseases" in many contexts. Illness, although often used to mean disease, can also refer to a person's perception of their health, regardless of whether they in fact have a disease. A person without any disease may feel unhealthy and believe he has an illness. Another person may feel healthy and believe he does not have an illness even though he may have a disease such as dangerously high blood pressure which may lead to a fatal heart attack or stroke.

Transmission of disease

Some diseases, such as influenza, are contagious or infectious, and can be transmitted by any of a variety of mechanisms, including droplets from coughs and sneezes, by bites of insects or other vectors, from contaminated water or food, etc. Other diseases, such as cancer and heart disease are not considered to be due to infection, although micro-organisms may play a role.

Social significance of disease

The identification of a condition as a disease, rather than as simply a variation of human structure or function, can have significant social or economic implications. The controversial recognitions as diseases of post-traumatic stress disorder, also known as "shell shock"; repetitive motion injury or repetitive stress injury (RSI); and Gulf War syndrome has had a number of positive and negative effects on the financial and other responsibilities of governments, corporations and institutions towards individuals, as well as on the individuals themselves. The social implication of viewing aging as a disease could be profound, though this classification is not yet widespread. A condition may be considered to be a disease in some cultures or eras but not in others. Oppositional-defiant disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and, increasingly, obesity are conditions considered to be diseases in the United States and Canada today, but were not so-considered decades ago and are not so-considered in some other countries. Conversely, the number of people in the West who consider homosexuality to be a disease became widespread in the 20th century but has been decreasing in the last two decades. To consider a condition to be a disease can sometimes involve a negative social value judgement. Lepers were a group of afflicted individuals who were historically shunned and the term "leper" still evokes social stigma. Fear of disease can still be a widespread social phenomena, though not all diseases evoke extreme social stigma.

Other uses of the term

In biology, disease refers to any abnormal condition of an organism that impairs function. The term disease is often used metaphorically for disordered, dysfunctional, or distressing conditions of other things, as in disease of society.

External links

- [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html Health Topics], MedlinePlus descriptions of most diseases, with access to current research articles.
- [http://www.cdc.gov/health/default.htm Center for Disease Control Health Topics A-Z], fact sheets about many common diseases
- [http://rarediseases.about.com/ Rare/Orphan Diseases]
- [http://www.national-health.org/rarediseases/ National Organization for Rare Disorders] Extensive, useful information on rare diseases.
- [http://www.merck.com/pubs/mmanual/sections.htm The Merck Manual], detailed description of most diseases, freely searchable online. Category:Diseases Category:Medical terms als:Krankheit zh-min-nan:Pīⁿ ms:Penyakit ja:病気 simple:Disease th:โรค

India

The Republic of India is a country in South Asia which comprises of the majority of the Indian subcontinent. India has a coastline which stretches over seven thousand kilometres, and shares its borders with Pakistan to the west, the People's Republic of China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, and Bangladesh and Myanmar on the east. On the Indian Ocean, it is adjacent to the island nations of the Maldives on the southwest, Sri Lanka on the south, and Indonesia on the southeast. India also claims a border with Afghanistan to the northwest. India is the fourth largest economy in the world in terms of purchasing power parity. It is the second most populous country in the world, with a population of over one billion, and is the seventh largest country by geographical area. It is home to some of the most ancient civilizations, and a centre of important historic trade routes. Four major world religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism have originated from India. Formerly a major part of the British Empire as the British Raj before gaining independence in 1947, during the past twenty years the country has grown significantly, especially in its economic and military spheres, regionally as well as globally. The name India , is derived from the Old Persian version of Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the river Indus; see Origin of India's name. The Constitution of India and general usage also recognises Bharat ( ), which is derived from the Sanskrit name of an ancient Hindu king, whose story is to be found in the Mahabharata, as an official name of equal status. A third name, Hindustan ( ) , or Land of the Hindus in Persian, has been used since the twelfth century, though its contemporary use is unevenly applied due to domestic disputes over its representiveness as a national signifier.

History

Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago and developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation, which peaked between 2600 BC and 1900 BC. It was followed by the Vedic Civilisation. From around 550 BC onwards, many independent kingdoms came into being. In the north, the Maurya dynasty, which included Ashoka, contributed greatly to India's cultural landscape. From 180 BC, a series of invasions from Central Asia followed, with the successive establishment in the northern Indian Subcontinent of the Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian kingdoms, and finally the Kushan Empire. From the 3rd century AD onwards the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's "Golden Age". Gupta dynasty built by emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC]] In the south, several dynasties including the Chalukyas, Cheras, Cholas, Kadambas, Pallavas and Pandyas prevailed during different periods. Science, art, literature, mathematics, astronomy, engineering, religion and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings. Following the Islamic invasions in the beginning of the second millennium, much of north and central India came to be ruled by the Delhi Sultanate, and later, much of the entire subcontinent by the Mughal dynasty. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms remained or rose to power, especially in the relatively sheltered south. Vijayanagara Empire was notable among such kingdoms. During the middle of the second millennium, several European countries, including the Portuguese, Dutch, French and British, who were initially interested in trade with India, took advantage of fractured kingdoms fighting each other to establish colonies in the country. After a failed insurrection in 1857 against the British East India Company, popularly known in India as the First War of Indian Independence and most commonly known in the West as the Indian Mutiny, most of India came under the direct administrative control of the crown of the British Empire. British Empire, Orissa built in the 13th century, is one of the most famous monuments of stone sculpture in the world.]] sculpture in the 10th century AD.]] In the early part of the 20th century, a prolonged and largely non-violent struggle for independence, the Indian independence movement, followed, to be eventually led by Mahatma Gandhi, regarded officially as the Father Of The Nation. The culmination of this path-breaking struggle was reached on 1947-08-15 when India gained full independence from British rule, later becoming a republic on 1950-01-26. As a multi-ethnic and multi-religious country, India has had its share of sectarian violence and insurgencies in different parts of the country. Nonetheless, it has held itself together as a secular, liberal democracy barring a brief period from 1975 to 1977 during which the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared a "state of emergency" with the suspension of civil rights. India has unresolved border disputes with China, which escalated into a brief war in 1962, and Pakistan which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, and 1971, and a border altercation in the northern state of Kashmir in 1999. India was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations. In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test, making it an unofficial member of the "nuclear club", which was followed up with a series of five more tests in 1998. Significant economic reforms beginning in 1991 have transformed India into one of the fastest growing economies in the world and added to its global clout.

Government

The Constitution of India states India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic. India is a federal republic, with a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. It has a three branch system of governance consisting of the legislature, executive and judiciary. The President, who is the head of state, has a largely ceremonial role. His roles include interpreting the constitution, signing laws into action, and issuing pardons. He is also the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. The President and Vice-President are elected indirectly by an electoral college for five-year terms. The Prime Minister is the head of government and most executive powers are vested in this office. He (or she) is elected by legislators of the political party, or coalition, commanding a parliamentary majority, and serves a five-year term incumbent upon enjoying this majority. The constitution does not provide for a post of Deputy Prime Minister, but this option has been exercised from time to time. The legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament which consists of the upper house known as the Rajya Sabha, or Council of States, the lower house known as the Lok Sabha, or House of the People, and the President. The 245-member Rajya Sabha is chosen indirectly through an electoral college and has a staggered six year term. The 545-member Lok Sabha is directly elected for a five year term, and is the determinative constituent of political power and government formation. All Indian citizens above the age of eighteen are eligible to vote. The executive arm consists of the President, Vice-President and the Council of Minis

Kali

Origin

Development

Iconography

Recent Iconographical development

See also

External links

Kali (disambiguation)

Shiva

Introduction

Consorts, and the Burning of Kamadeva

Other Legends

The Sons of Shiva

Other Forms and Legends

Schools and Views of Śivaism

Durga

The Worship of Durga (Durga Puja)

Durga Puja in Bengal

External links

Dakshayani

Uma (goddess)

Kumari

History

Selection process

Life of the Royal Kumari

Former Kumaris

See also

References

External links

Rama

Prince of Ayodhya

The Avatara

With Vishwamitra

Marriage to Sita

Rama's Arrow

Banishment to the Forest

The Destruction of Khara

The Kidnapping of Sita

In Kishkindya

The War

Rama Rajya

In History and Mythology

Modern Portrayal India

Portrayal in South East Asia

External Links

Tantra

History of Tantra

Hindu tantra

Tibetan tantra

Japan's Shingon sect

New Age tantra or Neo Tantra

Tantric practices

Tantra in the modern world

See also

Hindu tantra

Buddhist tantra

References

External links

Disease

Syndromes, illness and disease

Transmission of disease

Social significance of disease

Other uses of the term

See also

External links

India

History

Government