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Kalmar

Kalmar

Kalmar is a city in south east Sweden with some 34,000 inhabitants. It is the seat of Kalmar Municipality with roughly 60,000 inhabitants, in turn the seat of the Kalmar County (12 municipalities, 236,000 inhabitants).

History

Kalmar County Kalmar is one of the oldest cities of Sweden. According to the story of the Norwegian patron Saint Olav, Olav had his ships moved to Kalmar 1027. The oldest contemporary records are also from the 11th century, on runestones. There Kalmar is used in the meaning Kalmar Strait, as the city itself had not yet been founded. Kalmar's importance to the defense of Sweden stemmed from its location near the Danish border, since its castle was the Southernmost bulwark against foreign invasion. After Denmark ceded Terra Scania to Sweden in the Treaty of Roskilde 1658, Kalmar's strategic importance diminished. Icelandic saga-writer Snorre Sturlasson visited Kalmar in 1219. In his writings he refers to it as Kaupbaer, which means merchant city. The oldest city seal of Kalmar is from somewhere between 1255-1267, and it is the oldest known city seal from any city in Scandinavia. On July 13, 1397, the Nordic Union treaty, named Kalmar Union, is signed in Kalmar. The union consisted of Sweden, Norway and Denmark and would last until 1520, when rivalling monarchs forced its collapse. Kalmar was also a bishopric until 1903 when it was merged by the bishopric of Växjö.

Today

Växjö In more recent times, Kalmar has been an industrial city with Kalmar Mekaniska Verkstad making steam engines and large machinery. It has a college and a research facility for Telia Sonera. Its castle is a "fist of granite" from the 16th century and Scandinavia's best kept renaissance castle. In 1972, the 6 km long Öland bridge was built from Kalmar to the town of Färjestaden on Öland, replacing the ferries.

Notable natives

Öland
- Ivar Kreuger
- Jenny Nyström

External links

- [http://www.kalmar.se/ Kalmar] - Official site
- [http://www.kalmar.se/templates/Page.aspx?id=3775 Kalmar Castle]
- [http://www.kalmarcity.se/ Kalmar City - pictures from nightlife in Kalmar] Category:Cities in Sweden

Sweden

The Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: ) is a Nordic country in Scandinavia, in Northern Europe. It is bordered by Norway on the west, Finland on the northeast, the Skagerrak Strait and the Kattegat Strait on the southwest, and the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia on the east. Sweden has a low population density except in its metropolitan areas, with most of the inland consisting of forests and mountainous wilderness. Following the decline of the Viking Age, Sweden spent a couple of centuries fighting with its neighbouring countries Denmark (from the 12th century 1710), and Norway (in the 16th and 17th century). In the 17th and 18th centuries Sweden extended its territory through warfare and became a Great Power, twice its current size. The extended territory was subsequently lost within a century. Since 1814, Sweden has been at peace, adopting a policy of keeping free of alliances. Sweden was one of the poorest countries in Europe in the 19th century, shaped by heavy alcohol consumption, until improved transportation and communication allowed it to utilize natural assets from different parts of the country, most notably timber and iron ore, which allowed the creation of a welfare state in the early 20th century. Today, the country is defined by liberal tendencies and a strong national quest for equality, and usually ranks among the top nations in the UN Human Development Index.

History

Pre-history

For details, see: Prehistoric Sweden Soon after the recession of the last ice age, Sweden became populated by hunters and gatherers, during the Stone Age (6000 BC – 4000 BC). The region developed rather slowly compared to southern Europe; while the Romans wrote poetry, Scandinavia had just entered the Iron Age. Sweden was first mentioned in the 1st century, by Roman historian Tacitus, who wrote that the Suiones tribe lived out in the sea and were powerful in both arms and ships. This referred to the inhabitants of eastern Sweden: Svealand, primarily around lake Mälaren; towns of Stockholm, Sigtuna, and Birka. From this tribe, Sweden derived its name. The southern parts, on the other hand, were inhabited by Geats (Götar) in the Götaland territory. Little is known for certain about that time, but chronicles based on Norse sagas and the Beowulf epos go back about 2,000 years. During the Viking Age of the 9th and 10th century, Swedish vikings travelled east setting its mark on the Baltic countries, Russia, the Black Sea, further through the rivers of Russia down south to Constantinople and southern Europe.

Middle Ages

For details, see: Early Swedish history and Foundation of Modern Sweden With Christianization in the 12th century, the country became consolidated, with its centre in the water-ways of the northern Baltic and the Gulf of Finland. In the 14th century Sweden, like the rest of Europe, was struck by the Black Death (the Plague), with all its effect. During the middle ages, the expansion of Sweden into the northern wilderness of Laplandia, the Scandinavian peninsula, and present-day Finland continued. Finland was a part of Sweden proper from 1362 until 1809. In 1389, Norway, Denmark and Sweden were united under a single monarch in a treaty known as the Kalmar Union. After several wars and disputes between these nations, King Gustav I of Sweden (House of Vasa) broke free in 1521 and established a nation state, considered the foundation of modern Sweden. Shortly afterwards he rejected Catholicism and led Sweden to the Protestant Reformation. Gustav I is considered to be Sweden's "Father of the Nation". He was the first monarch from the House of Vasa. The House of Vasa also ruled between 1587 and 1668 in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Between 1592 and 1599 Sweden and Poland were ruled in a personal union by Sigismund I Vasa.

A major power

Sigismund I Vasa (orange) overlayed by present day Sweden (red)]] For details, see: Rise of Sweden as a Great Power, Swedish Empire, Sweden and the Great Northern War, Absolute Monarchy in Sweden, Sweden-Finland and Union between Sweden and Norway The 17th century saw the rise of Sweden as one of the great powers in Europe, due to successful participation, initiated by King Gustav II Adolph, in the Thirty Years' War and by Charles X Gustav of Sweden in the The Deluge of Poland. Mighty as it was, it crumbled in the 18th century with Imperial Russia taking the reins of northern Europe in the Great Northern War, and finally in 1809 when the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland was created out of the eastern half of Sweden. After Denmark was defeated in the Napoleonic wars, Norway was ceded to Sweden in the Treaty of Kiel. This led to the Campaign against Norway, which was fought in 1814, and ended with the Convention of Moss, which forced Norway into a union with Sweden that was not dissolved until 1905. But the campaign also signified the last of the Swedish wars and its 200 years of peace are arguably unique in the world today.

Modern history

For details, see: Modernization of Sweden The 19th century saw a significant population increase, generally attributed to peace, vaccination, and potatoes, doubling the population from 1750 to 1850. Many people in the countryside, where most Swedes lived, found themselves unemployed. The result was poverty, alcoholism, and massive emigration; it is believed that between 1850 and 1910 more than one million Swedes moved to the United States alone. In the early 20th century, more Swedes lived in Chicago than in Sweden's second biggest city, Gothenburg. However, as the Industrial revolution progressed during the century, people gradually began moving into cities to work in factories, and became involved in Socialistic unions. A threatening Socialist revolution was avoided in 1917, following the re-introduction of Parliamentarism, and the country was democratized.

Recent history

For details, see: Industrialization of Sweden and Sweden during World War II
Sweden remained neutral during World War I and World War II, although its neutrality during World War II has been disputed. Sweden was part of the Marshall aid package but continued to stay non-aligned during the Cold War, and is still not a member of any military alliance. Following the second World War, Sweden made use of its natural resources and undemolished state, making it possible to expand its industry to supply the rebuilding of Europe, leading it to be one of the richest countries in the world by 1960. During most of the post-war era, the country was ruled by the Swedish Social Democratic Party that established a welfare state, striving for a "well being for all"-policy. As other economies were re-established, Sweden was surpassed in the 1970s, and had to adjust its politics in the 1990s, but still ranks among the top nations concerning well being of its inhabitants.

Politics

Sweden has been a monarchy for almost a millennium, with its taxation controlled by the Riksdag (parliament). It consisted of four chambers, made up by representatives from the 4 estates: clerics, nobility, townsmen and peasants, until 1866 when Sweden became a Constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament. Its First Chamber was indirectly elected by local governments, and the Second Chamber directly elected in national elections every four years. local government Legislative power was (symbolically) shared between king and parliament until 1975. In 1971 the Riksdag became unicameral. Constitutionally, the 349-member Riksdag holds supreme authority in Sweden, and its acts are not subject to judicial review. Acts of the parliament must be made inapplicable at every level if they are obviously against constitutional laws. Legislation may be initiated by the Cabinet or by members of Parliament. Members are elected on the basis of proportional representation for a four-year term. The Constitution of Sweden can be altered by the Riksdag, which requires a supermajority and confirmation after the following general elections. Sweden has three other constitutional laws: the Act of Royal Succession, the Freedom of Press Act and the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression. Executive power was shared between the King and a noble Privy Council until 1680, followed by the King's autocratic rule initiated by the common estates of the Parliament. As a reaction to the failed Great Northern War, Parliamentarism was introduced in 1719, followed by three different flavours of Constitutional Monarchy in 1772, 1789 and 1809, the latter granting several civil liberties. The monarch remains as the formal, but merely symbolic head of state with ceremonial duties. Social Democracy has played a dominant political role since 1917, after Reformists had confirmed their strength and the revolutionaries left the party. After 1956, the Cabinets have been dominated by the Social Democrats. Only three general elections have given the centre-right bloc enough seats in Parliament to form a government. It is considered the reason for the Swedish post-war welfare state, with a government expenditure of slightly more than 50% of the gross domestic product. Some Swedish political figures that have received worldwide recognition include Joe Hill, Raoul Wallenberg, Dag Hammarskjöld, Olof Palme and Hans Blix.

Energy politics

For details, see Nuclear power phase-out After the 1973 oil crisis, the energy politics were determined to become less dependent on the import of petroleum. Since then, energy has been generated mostly from hydropower and nuclear power. Accidents at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station (USA) prompted the Swedish parliament in 1980 after a referendum to decide that no further nuclear power plants should be built and that a nuclear power phase-out should be completed by 2010. As of 2005, the use of renewables amounted to 26 per cent of the energy supply in Sweden, most important being hydropower and biomass. In 1998, electricity from hydropower accounted for 76 TWh and 48 per cent of the country's production of electricity. At the same time, the use of biofuels, peat etc. produced 92TWh. [http://www.scientific-alliance.org/pdf/essential_programme_to_underpin_government_policy_on_nuclear_power.pdf] (PDF file) In March 2005, an opinion poll with 1027 persons asked, showed 83 per cent support for maintaining or increasing nuclear power [http://www.uic.com.au/nip39.htm]. Since then however, reports about radioactive leakages at a nuclear waste store in Forsmark, Sweden, have been published [http://www.forbes.com/finance/feeds/afx/2005/06/29/afx2116521.html]. This doesn't seem to have changed the public support of continued use of nuclear power.

Economy

PDF] The standard of living has become enviably high under this social democratic system. It features a modern distribution system, excellent internal and external communications, and a skilled labour force. Timber, hydropower, and iron ore constitute the resource base of an economy heavily oriented toward foreign trade. The engineering sector accounts for 50% of output and exports. The public and the trade unions controlled pension funds, non-profit organizations and the reserve funds of the trade-unions owns more than 50% of Sweden capital. 80% of the workforce is organized through the trade-unions. The public sector accounts for 53% of the GDP. Trade unions have the right to elect two representatives to the board in all Swedish companies with more than 25 employees. Agriculture accounts for only 2% of GDP and 2% of the jobs. The government's commitment to fiscal discipline resulted in a substantial budgetary surplus in 2001, which was cut by more than half in 2002, due to the global economic slowdown, revenue declines, and spending increases. The Swedish Riksbank is focusing on price stability with its inflation target of 2%. Growth is expected to reach 3.5% in 2004, assuming a continued moderate global recovery. However, open unemployment has steadily increased since 2001 and stood at 5.6% as of October 2005. Counting everyone who neither studies full-time or has employment, the percentage is around 14% (peaking at 20% in the summer months) . Sweden is known for having an uneven distribution of income, where the income in major towns are higher than in the countryside. Sweden's communication and transportation systems are important components of the infrastructure.

Welfare state

:For details, see Social welfare in Sweden What is known as [http://www.lysator.liu.se/nordic/scn/faq28.html The Scandinavian Model], is usually described as a mean way between socialism and capitalism and has been labelled the most developed form of capitalism. The government provides for childcare, maternity and paternity leave, a ceiling on health care costs, free education (all levels), retirement pensions, free dental care up to 20 years of age and sick leave (partly payed by the employer). Parents are entitled to a total of 480 days partly paid leave between birth and the child's eighth birthday, with 60 days reserved specifically for each parent, in effect providing the father with a so called "daddy-month". In addition, the ceiling on health care costs makes it easier, relative to other nations, for Swedish workers to take time off for medical reasons. The Swedish welfare system remains generous, but a recession in the 1990s forced an introduction of a number of reforms, such as education vouchers in 1992 and decentralisation of some types of healthcare services to municipal control. [http://fcpp.org/main/publication_detail.php?PubID=814] The welfare state requires high taxes, but the population is generally affirmative of this. Sweden has a two step progressive tax scale with a municipal income tax of about 30% and a high income state tax of about 50% that kicks in when you earn more than about 300 000 SEK. The employing company pays an additional 32% of so called Employers fee. In addition, a national VAT of 25% is added to many things bought by private citizens except food (12% VAT), transports and books (6% VAT) with the exception of petrol/diesel which is under heavy taxation.
Education
As part of its social welfare system, Sweden provides an extensive childcare system that guarantees a place for all young children from 1-5 years old in a public day-care facility. Between ages 6-16, children attend compulsory comprehensive school. After completing the ninth grade, 90% continue with a three year upper secondary school leading sometimes to an exam in a technical profession and always to the qualifications for further studies at a university college (högskola) or university.
Geography
university college (högskola) or university] university college (högskola) or university university college (högskola) or university in northern Norrland]] Norrland in northern Götaland]] Götaland]] Götaland Götaland]] Sweden enjoys a mostly temperate climate despite its northern latitude, mainly due to the Gulf Stream. In the south of Sweden leaf-bearing trees are prolific, in the north pines and hardy birches dominate the landscape. In the mountains of northern Sweden a sub-Arctic climate predominates. North of the Arctic Circle, the sun never sets for part of each summer, and in the winter, night is unending for a corresponding period. East of Sweden is the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia, providing a long coastline, and mellowing the climate further yet. To the west is the Scandinavian mountain chain, a range that separates Sweden from Norway. The southern part of the country is chiefly agricultural, with forests covering a larger percentage of the land the further north one goes. Population density is also higher in southern Sweden, with centres being in the valley of lake Mälaren and the Öresund region. Gotland and Öland are the two largest Islands of Sweden.
Counties
For details, see: Counties of Sweden Sweden is divided into 21 counties or län. They are Stockholm County, Uppsala County, Södermanland County, Östergötland County, Jönköping County, Kronoberg County, Kalmar County, Gotland County, Blekinge County, Skåne County, Halland County, Västra Götaland County, Värmland County, Örebro County, Västmanland County, Dalarna County, Gävleborg County, Västernorrland County, Jämtland County, Västerbotten County and Norrbotten County. Each has a County Administrative Board or länsstyrelse which is appointed by the Government. In each county there is also a separate County Council or landsting, which is the municipal representation appointed by the county electorate. Each county further divides into a number of municipalities or kommuner, making a total of 290 municipalities, in 2004. There are also older historical divisions of Sweden, primarily into provinces and lands.
Largest cities
Denotes inhabitants in the municipality (kommun) area. Area is in km². The figures are as of 2005. Detailed list at List of municipalities of Sweden by population.
Demographics
For details, see: Demographics of Sweden Sweden has one of the world's highest life expectancies. As of approximately 12 August 2004, the total population of Sweden for the first time exceeded 9,000,000, according to Statistics Sweden. The country's population includes some 17,000 indigenous Samis. Some 50,000 of the ethnic Finns of Sweden also constitute an indigenous minority, although many more of the Sweden Finns descend from 20th century immigrants. Sweden has been transformed from a nation of emigration ending after World War I to a nation of immigration from World War II onwards. Currently, almost 12% of the residents are born abroad, and about one fifth of Sweden's population are either immigrants or the children of immigrants. The largest immigrant groups are from Finland, the former Yugoslavia, Iraq and then other Nordic Countries, in that order. This reflects the inter-Nordic migrations, earlier periods of labour immigration, and later decades of refugee and family immigration. Soviet intervention against the 1956 Hungarian Revolution and the 1968 Czechoslovakian liberalization resulted in the first surges of intellectual political refugees. Some American deserters from the Vietnam War also found refuge among the Swedes, who in international politics took a clear stand against what they typically viewed as imperialism executed by both the Soviet Union and the United States of America. After the 1973 coup in Chile, and the following military dictatorships in Chile and other South American countries, political refugees came to dominate the image of immigration to Sweden, including refugees from Iran, Iraq and Palestine.
Language
:For details, see: Swedish language Swedish is a Germanic language, related to Danish and Norwegian, but differing in pronunciation and orthography. Like the U.S., Sweden has no official language, but the Swedish language has held a de facto status as such. The dominating language has always been Swedish and there has never been a political issue about making it an official language. However, with the recognition of five minority languages of Sweden (being Finnish, Meänkieli, Sami, Romani and Yiddish) on April 1, 2000, the issue of whether Swedish should be declared the official language was raised. On December 7, 2005, the parliament voted on this issue, and with the count 147 to 145 the earlier position was settled, i.e. swedish is not the official language according to law. It was, however, strengthen as the principal language in that same proposal. Most Swedes, especially those under 50, have no difficulty understanding and speaking English, thanks to trade links, the popularity of overseas travel, and the tradition of subtitling rather than dubbing foreign television programmes and films. English is usually taught from the fourth grade of school. Many students also take additional languages; often French, German or Spanish.
Culture
Spanish cottage in the rural countryside, painted in the traditional Swedish Falu red]] Swedish authors of worldwide recognition include Carolus Linnaeus, Emanuel Swedenborg, August Strindberg, Selma Lagerlöf, Vilhelm Moberg, Harry Martinson and Astrid Lindgren. Many well-known inventions and discoveries, historical and modern, were made by Swedes. Some notable figures are Alfred Nobel, Anders Celsius, Baltzar von Platen, Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Jöns Jakob Berzelius, John Ericsson, Anders Jonas Ångström, Lars Magnus Ericsson, Svante Arrhenius, Arvid Carlsson, Håkan Lans. Swedish 20th century culture is noted by pioneering works in the early days of cinema, with Mauritz Stiller and Victor Sjöström. In the 1920s–1980s, the filmmakers Ingmar Bergman and Bo Widerberg received Academy Awards, and actresses Greta Garbo, Zarah Leander, Ingrid Bergman and Anita Ekberg made careers abroad. More recently, the films of Lukas Moodysson have received international recognition.
Music
:For details, see: Music of Sweden The best-known opera singers are the 19th century soprano Jenny Lind and the 20th century tenor Jussi Björling, who had great success abroad. Also sopranos Christina Nilsson Birgit Nilsson, and tenors Nicolai Gedda, baritone Håkan Hagegård and the contemporary mezzo-soprano Anne-Sofie von Otter are worth mentioning. The most successful Swedish popular music artists are ABBA, Europe, Roxette, Ace of Base, Army of Lovers, The Cardigans, and guitarist Yngwie Malmsteen. A number of bands with less emphasis on pop music have come out of the country in recent years, including Blindside, The Sounds, The Hives, Refused, Millencolin, The (International) Noise Conspiracy, Sahara Hotnights, The Hellacopters, The Soundtrack of Our Lives, Kent, Infinite Mass, A
- Teens, and Looptroop. In underground circles, Sweden is known for a large number of death metal and black metal acts such as Bathory, Meshuggah, The Haunted, Opeth, Naglfar and In Flames. Sweden is also responsible for the Swechno scene, offering a distinct house and techno sound.
Media
:For details, see: Media in Sweden Swedes are among the greatest consumers of newspapers in the world, and every town is served by a local paper. The country's main quality dailies are Dagens Nyheter (centrist), Svenska Dagbladet (right-wing) and Göteborgs-Posten (centrist), main popular dailies are the evening tabloids Aftonbladet (left-wing) and Expressen (centrist). The free international morning paper, Metro International, was originally founded in Stockholm, Sweden. The country's news is reported in English by The Local. The television industry consisted solely of the public service company Sveriges Television and its two channels until 1987, when the first commercial channel, TV3, was started. Today, there are three freely available channels, although most apartment complexes at a low fee provide additional 8-10 channels. It is for this reason that many Swedes pay for Satellite Television. It provides much greater selection, and there is no cable TV infrastructure.
Holidays
:For details, see: Holidays in Sweden Apart from traditional Protestant Christian holidays, Sweden also celebrates some unique holidays, some of a pre-christian tradition. They include Midsummer, celebrating the summer solstice; Walpurgis Night on April 30 lighting bonfires; Labour Day on May 1st is dedicated to Socialistic demonstrations; and December 13th, the day of Saint Lucia the lightgiver. June 6 is National Day of Sweden and as of 2005 a public holiday. Furthermore, there are official flag day observances and a Namesdays in Sweden calendar.
Cuisine
Swedish cuisine, like that the other Scandinavian countries (Denmark and Norway), is traditionally simple. Fish and meat play prominent roles and vegetarianism has historically been non-existent.
Sports
Sport activities are a national movement with half of the population actively participating. The two main spectator sports are soccer and ice hockey. Some notable soccer stars of Sweden include Zlatan Ibrahimovic, Henrik Larsson and Fredrik Ljungberg, while some famous Swedish hockey players include Markus Näslund, Peter Forsberg, Mats Sundin, Daniel Alfredsson, Niklas Lidström, Börje Salming and Pelle Lindbergh. Second to soccer, Horse sports have the highest number of practitioners, mostly women. Thereafter follow golf, track and field, and the team sports of handball, floorball, basketball and in northern parts bandy. American sports such as baseball and American football are also practised but have no widespread popularity. Successful tennis players include former world No. 1's Björn Borg, Mats Wilander and Stefan Edberg; in skiing sports, Ingemar Stenmark, Pernilla Wiberg and Anja Pärson have all had dominating periods in alpine skiing, as have Sixten Jernberg, Gunde Svan and Thomas Wassberg in cross country skiing. In ski jumping, Jan Boklöv revolutionised the sport with his new technique, the V-style. A number of Swedes have been internationally successful in athletics. In the 1940s runner Gunder Hägg dominated middle distance. In recent years, stars include high jumpers such as the European record holder Patrik Sjöberg, Kajsa Bergqvist, and Athens Olympic gold medallist Stefan Holm. Two other Swedish athletes won gold medals in the 2004 Olympic Games: heptathlete Carolina Klüft and triple jumper Christian Olsson. Other famous Swedish athletes include the heavyweight boxing champion Ingemar Johansson, golfer Annika Sörenstam, former five times World table tennis Champion Jan-Ove Waldner and the World Speedway Champion Tony Rickardsson. In schools, on meadows and in parks, the game brännboll, a sport similar to baseball, is commonly played for fun. Other leisure sports are the historical game of kubb and boules among the older generation.
Religion
Before the 11th century, people of Sweden adhered to Norse mythology, worshipping Æsir gods, with its centre at the Temple in Uppsala. With Christianisation in the 11th century, the laws of the country were changed, forbidding worship of other deities. After the Protestant Reformation in the 1530s the Church and State were united, abolishing the authority of the Roman Catholic bishops, and in the long run allowing only Lutheranism to prevail. This was not a process completed until the Uppsala Synod 1593. During the era following the Reformation period, usually known as the period of Lutheran Orthodoxy, in the 17th century, small groups of non-Lutherans, especially Calvinist Dutchmen and Walloons who played a significant role in trade and industry, were quietly tolerated as long as they kept a low religious profile. Not until liberalisation in the late 18th century, were believers of other faiths, including Judaism and Catholicism, allowed to openly live and work in Sweden, although it remained illegal until 1860 for Lutheran Swedes to convert to another religion. The 19th century saw other Christian denominations, such as the Episcopal Church; and towards the end of the century secularism began attracting attention, leading people to distance themselves from Church rituals such as baptism. Leaving the Church of Sweden became legal with the so-called dissenter law of 1860, but only under the provision of entering another denomination. The right to stand outside any religious denomination was established in the Law on Freedom of Religion in 1951. Today about 78% of Swedes belong to the Church of Sweden, but the number is decreasing by about one percent every year, and church services are sparsely attended (hovering in the single digit percentages of the population) - despite this, a majority of Swedes claim to believe in a higher Deity. Also of significance are the approx 100,000 Muslims in Sweden.
Miscellaneous topics

- Allemansrätten (Right of public access to the wilderness)
- Catholic Church of Sweden
- Communications in Sweden
- Ethnic Swedes
- Government agencies in Sweden
- Foreign relations of Sweden
- List of Sweden-related topics
- Swedish Armed Forces
- List of Swedish regiments
- Non-governmental organizations in Sweden
- Postage stamps and postal history of Sweden
- Reporters without borders World-wide Press Freedom Index 2002: Rank 11 out of 139 countries
- Swedish Royal Academies
- Tourism in Sweden
International rankings

- [http://web.amnesty.org/report2005/swe-summary-eng Sweden Summary] Amnesty Report 2005
- [http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html CIA World Factbook - GDP] - PPP per capita
- 2004: 26th of 232 countries [http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html]
- Save the Children: [http://www.savethechildren.org/mothers/report_2004/images/pdf/SOWM_2004_final.pdf State of the World's Mothers (2004) Report] (PDF file)
- Mothers' index rank: 1st of 119 countries
- Women's index rank: 1st of 119 countries
- Children's index rank: 10th of 119 countries
- Infant mortality rate: lowest
- % women with seats in the national government: 50% (highest)
- UN Human Development Index (2004)
- 2nd of 177 countries
- World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report [http://www.weforum.org/pdf/Gcr/Growth_Competitiveness_Index_2003_Comparisons] (2004)
- 3rd of 104 countries
References

- CIA World Factbook - [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sw.html Sweden]
- United States Department of State - [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2880.htm Sweden]
Notes
# For instance expressed thus: As regards social evils generally, however, the low, though undoubtedly improving, standard of Sweden has had one of its chief reasons in the national intemperance. article Sweden in the Online 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. ([http://25.1911encyclopedia.org/S/SW/SWEDEN.htm] # The difference between "open unemployment" and "real unemployment" has been a politically disputed question for a long time in Sweden. Many unemployed are automatically enrolled in Work guidance projects, serving little purpose except keeping them busy, and officially discounting them as unemployed. Figures in the article are calculated based on information from the Moderate Party website [http://www.moderat.se/arbetsloshet.asp] (In Swedish ). # [http://www.svenskakyrkan.se/ Church of Sweden], [http://www.svenskakyrkan.se/statistik/pdf/medlemmar.pdf Members 1978-2004, PDF document] # [http://www.islamiska.org/s/sverige.htm Swedish Muslim Association]
External links

-
- [http://www.badley.info/history/Sweden.country.year.index.html World History Database Chronology of Sweden]
- [http://www.visitsweden.com/ Visit Sweden - The Official Travel and Tourism Site]
- [http://www.sweden.se/ SWEDEN.SE] - The Official Gateway to Sweden
- [http://www.thelocal.se/ The Local] - Sweden's news in English, commercial
- [http://www.radiosweden.org/ Radio Sweden (in English)] Public service
- [http://www.sweden.gov.se/ The Swedish Government] - Official site
- [http://www.studyinsweden.info/ Study in Sweden] - Prospective Students Guide to Sweden Category:European Union member states Category:Monarchies als:Schweden zh-min-nan:Sverige ko:스웨덴 ms:Sweden ja:スウェーデン simple:Sweden th:ประเทศสวีเดน fiu-vro:Roodsi

Kalmar Municipality

Kalmar municipality is a municipality in southeastern Sweden, where the town Kalmar (pop. 34,000) is the seat.

Towns

All urban areas.

- Boholmarna
- Drag och Söregärde
- Dunö
- Ekenäs
- Förlösa
- Hagby
- Halltorp
- Harby
- Kalmar
- Kolboda
- Kåremo
- Lindsdal
- Ljungbyholm

- Läckeby
- Påryd
- Revsudden
- Rinkaby
- Rinkabyholm
- Rockneby
- Smedby
- Trekanten
- Tvärskog
- Törnebyslätt
- Vassmolösa
- Voxtorp och del av Gräsgärde

External links

- [http://www.kalmar.se/defaultInt.aspx?id=3675 Kalmar] - Official site
- [http://www.hik.se/english/ University College of Kalmar] Category:Municipalities of Sweden Category:Municipalities of Kalmar County

Kalmar County

Kalmar County, or Kalmar län is a County or län in southern Sweden. It borders to the counties of Kronoberg, Jönköping, Blekinge and Östergötland. To the east in the Baltic Sea is the island Gotland. The counties are mainly administrative units. Geographically Kalmar County covers the eastern part in the Småland province, and the entire island of Öland. For the areas history and culture, see those areas.

Kalmar län
Öland Image:Kalmar county.png
County	SE-H
Residence City	Kalmar
County Council	Landstinget i Kalmar län
Provinces	Småland Öland
Created	1634
Area - Total - Percent	Ranked 9th 11,171 km² 2.7 %
Population - Total (1999) - Percent - Density	Ranked 17th 236,501 2.7 % 21.2/km²

Administration

Kalmar County was integrated with Kronoberg County until 1672. Blekinge was a part of Kalmar County between 1680 and 1683, due to the foundation of the naval base at Karlskrona. The seat of residence for the Governor or Landshövding is Kalmar. The Governor is the head of the County Administrative Board or Länsstyrelse. The County Administrative Board is nominally a Government Agency headed by a Governor. The current Governor is Sven Lindgren. See List of Kalmar Governors.

Politics

Municipalities

List of Kalmar Governors :On the mainland: :
- Emmaboda :
- Hultsfred :
- Högsby :
- Kalmar :
- Mönsterås :
- Nybro :
- Oskarshamn :
- Torsås :
- Vimmerby :
- Västervik :On Öland: :
- Borgholm :
- Mörbylånga

Heraldry

Main article: Heraldry of Småland The County of Kalmar was formally granted its arms in 1944. Before this the county carried the arms of Småland and Olandia side by side. The current arms is a combination of the arms for Småland and Olandia. Blazon: "Quartered, the arms of Småland and Olandia"

External links

- [http://www.h.lst.se/ Kalmar County Administrative Board]
- [http://www.ltkalmar.se/ Kalmar County Council]
- [http://www.kalmar.komforb.se/ Kalmar Regional Association of Local Authorities in the County]
- [http://www.hotels-sweden.com/site/homep_60034.htm Hotels in Kalmar] Category:Counties of Sweden Category:Småland Category:Öland

Saint Olav

Olav II Haraldsson ( 995 – July 29 1030), king from 1015–1028, (known during his lifetime as the Stout and after his death as Saint Olav), was born in the year in which Olav Tryggvasson came to Norway. His father was Harald Grenske, great-grandchild of Harald I Fairhair.

Concerning the king's name

King Olav II Haraldsson of Norway had the given name Oláfr in the extinct Old Norse and the modern Icelandic. Olav is the modern equivalent in Norwegian, formerly often spelled Olaf. His name in Danish is Oluf, in Swedish Olof. Other names, such as Oláfr hinn helgi, Olavus rex, and Olaf (as used in English) are used interchangeably (see the Heimskringla of Snorri Sturluson).

Reign

After some years' absence in England, fighting the Danes, he returned to Norway in 1015 and declared himself king, obtaining the support of the five petty kings of the Uplands. In 1016 he defeated Earl Sweyn, hitherto the virtual ruler of Norway, at the Battle of Neaje, and within a few years had won more power than had been enjoyed by any of his predecessors on the throne. Battle of Neaje, Nerike, where Olav baptized locals during his escape]] He had annihilated the petty kings of the South, had crushed the aristocracy, enforced the acceptance of Christianity throughout the kingdom, asserted his suzerainty in the Orkney Islands, had achieved peace with king Olof Skötkonung of Sweden through Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker, and was for some time engaged to his daughter, the princess of Sweden, Ingegerd Olofsdotter without his approval, and had conducted a successful raid on Denmark. But his success was short-lived, for in 1026, he lost the Battle of the Helgeå and in 1029 the Norwegian nobles, seething with discontent, rallied round the invading Knut the Great, and Olav had to flee to Kievan Rus. During the voyage he stayed some time in Sweden in the province of Nerike where, according to local legend, he baptized many locals. On his return a year later, seizing an opportunity to win back the kingdom after Knut the Great's vassal Håkon Jarl was lost at sea, he fell at the Battle of Stiklestad, where his own subjects were arrayed against him.

Sainthood

Battle of Stiklestad Owing to Olav's later status as the patron saint of Norway, and to his importance in later medieval historiography and in Norwegian folklore, it is difficult to assess the character of the historical Olav. Judging from the bare outlines of known historical facts, he appears, more than anything else, as a fairly unsuccessful ruler, who had his power based on some sort of alliance with the much more powerful king Knut the Great; who was driven into exile when he claimed a power of his own; and whose attempt at a reconquest was swiftly crushed. This calls for an explanation of the status he gained after his death. Three factors are important: his role in the christianization of Norway, the various dynastic relationships among the ruling families, and the needs for legitimization in a later period.

Christianization

Olav is generally held to be the driving force behind Norway's final conversion to Christianity. This is an exaggeration. Large stone crosses and other Christian symbols suggest that at least the coastal areas of Norway were deeply influenced by Christianity long before Olav's time; with one exception, all the rulers of Norway back to Håkon the Good (c. 920 – 961) had been Christians; and Olav's main opponent, Knut the Great, was a Christian ruler. What seems clear is that Olav made efforts to establish a church organization on a broader scale than before, among other things by importing bishops from England and Germany, and that he tried to enforce Christianity also in the inland areas, which had the least communication with the rest of Europe, and which economically were more strongly based on agriculture, so that the inclination to hold on to the former fertility cult would have been stronger than in the more diversified and expansive western parts of the country.

Olav's dynasty

For various reasons, most importantly the death of king Knut the Great in 1035, but perhaps even a certain discontent among Norwegian nobles with the Danish rule in the years after Olav's death in 1030, Olav's son Magnus the Good, assumed power in Norway, eventually also in Denmark. Numerous churches in Denmark were dedicated to Olav during his reign, and the sagas give glimpses of similar efforts to promote the cult of his deceased father on the part of the young king.

Saint Olav

Among the bishops that Olav brought with him from England, was Grimkell (Grimkillus). He was probably the only one of the missionary bishops who was left in the country at the time of Olav's death, and he stood behind the translation and beatification of Olav on August 3, 1031. At this time, a formal canonization procedure through the papal curia was not customary; in Olav's case, this did not happen until 1888. Grimkell was later appointed bishop in the diocese of Selsey in the south-east of England. This is probably the reason why the earliest traces of a liturgical cult of St Olav are found in England. An office for St Olav is found in the so-called Leofric collectar (c. 1050), which was testamented by bishop Leofric of Exeter to the church of Exeter, the neighbouring diocese of Selsey. This English cult seems to have been short-lived. Adam of Bremen, writing c. 1070, mentions pilgrimage to the saint's shrine in Nidaros, but this is the only firm trace we have of a cult of St Olav in Norway before the middle of the twelfth century. By this time he was also being referred to as "The Eternal King of Norway". In 1152/3, Nidaros was separated from Lund as an archbishopric of its own. It is likely that whatever formal or informal – which, we do not know – veneration of Olav as a saint there may have been in Nidaros prior to this, has been emphasised and formalized on this occasion. During the visit of the papal legate, Nicholas Brekespear (later pope Pope Adrian IV), the poem Geisli ("the ray of sun") was recited. In this poem, we hear for the first time of miracles performed by St Olav. One of these took place on the day of his death, when a blind man got his eye-sight back again after having rubbed his eyes with hands that were stained with the blood from the saint. The texts which were used for the liturgical celebration of St Olav during most of the Middle Ages, were probably compiled or written by Eystein Erlendsson, the second archbishop of Norway (1161–1189). The nine miracles reported in Geisli form the core of the catalogue of miracles in this office. The celebration of St Olav was widespread in the Nordic countries. Apart from the early traces of a cult in England, there are only scattered references to him outside of the Nordic area. Several churches in England were dedicated to him (often as St Olave). St Olave Hart Street in the City of London is the burial place of Samuel Pepys and his wife. Another south of London Bridge gave its name to Tooley Street and to the St Olave's Poor Law Union, later to become the Metropolitan Borough of Bermondsey: its workhouse in Rotherhithe became the St Olave's Hospital, now an old-people's home a few hundred metres from St Olaf's Church, which is the Norwegian church in London. The Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav was founded in 1847 by Oscar I, king of Norway and Sweden, in memory of this king. He is called Rex Perpetuum Norvegiæ, eternal King of Norway, a designation which goes back to the thirteenth century. The only country which keeps July 29th as a holiday are the Faroe Islands, see Ólavsøka.

References

- 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Category:Norwegian monarchs Category:Saints Category:995 births Category:1030 deaths Category:Viking Age Category:Fairhair dynasty

Runestone

Rune stones are standing stones with runic inscriptions dating from the Iron Age (Viking Age) and early Middle Ages.

Traditions

The tradition of raising runestones probably evolved from the old tradition of raising menhirs in honour of a deceased during the Pre-Roman and Roman Iron Ages. The tradition is both mentioned in the Heimskringla and Hávamál. The menhirs probably had painted inscriptions which disappeared over time, but they were later replaced by carvings that lasted longer.[http://www.archaeology.su.se/pdf/caugustsson.pdf] Long before their conversion to Christianity, Old Norse-speaking peoples, like other Germanic peoples, had their own mode of writing with its own distinctive alphabet –– the runic alphabet. Runes were hundreds of years old by the dawn of the Viking Age. Our earliest surviving runic inscriptions date to the second century AD. Although Latin literacy would eventually push out this system of writing, it had a long run after conversion, and hundreds of Viking Age rune stones contain Christian inscriptions.

Locations

Although runes were known throughout the Germanic-speaking world, they were used more broadly, more enthusiastically, and by more people in Scandinavia during the Viking Age than in any other time or place. Between 5,000 and 6,000 runic inscriptions have been found in Scandinavia. More than 3,000 come from modern-day Sweden, so this region was clearly the epicenter of runic inscriptions. Nonetheless, many hundreds have been found elsewhere in Scandinavia. Old Norse runic inscriptions have also been found in Haithabu in northern Germany, Russia, Greenland, northern Scotland, the Isle of Man, England, and Ireland, so the “runic inscription habit” followed the Norse wherever they went.

Types

Ireland Rune stones can be divided into several categories. One of the most widespread of these categories is rune-stone-as-memorial. Rune stones were often set up to commemorate the dead, and many of Scandinavia’s surviving rune stones served as memorials for people who had died far from home. Four will suffice to show the wide range of Norse activities related on rune stones: (1) “Ali had this stone put up in his own honor. He took Cnut’s danegeld in England. May God help his soul.” (2) “Tola had this stone set up in memory of her son Harold, Ingvaur’s companion. Like men, they went to seek gold, and in the east, they fed vultures, when they died in the land of the Arabs.” (3) “This mark of honor is made in the memory of Inga's sons. She has inherited after them, but brothers inherited after her, Gardar and his brothers. They died in Greece." And finally (4): “He bought this estate with the money he made in the east in the emporia of Russia.” Another interesting class of rune stone is rune-stone-as-self promotion. Bragging was a virtue in Norse society, a habit in which the heroes of sagas often indulged, and is exemplified in rune stones of the time. Hundreds of people had stones carved with the purpose of advertising their own achievements or positive traits. Again, a few examples will suffice: (1) "Vigmund had this stone carved in memory of himself, the cleverest of men. May God help the soul of Vigmund, the ship captain. Vigmund and Åfrid carved this memorial while he lived." (U 1011) (2) “Östman Gudfast’s son made the bridge, and he Christianized Jämtland” (Frösö Runestone); or (3) “Eskill Skulkason had this stone raised to himself. Ever will stand this memorial which Eskill made;” and finally (4) “Jarlabanki had this stone put up in his own lifetime. And he made this causeway for his soul’s sake. And he owned the whole of Täby by himself. May God help his soul.” Frösö Runestone] Other rune stones, as evidenced in two of the previous three inscriptions, memorialize the pious acts of relatively new Christians. In these, we can see the kinds of good works people who could afford to commission rune stones undertook. Other inscriptions hint at religious beliefs. For example, one reads: “Ulvshattil and Gye and Une ordered this stone erected in memory of Ulv, their good father. He lived in Skolhamra. God and God's Mother save his spirit and soul, endow him with light and paradise.” Although most rune stones were set up to perpetuate the memories of men, many speak of women, often represented as conscientious landowners and pious Christians (e.g., “Sigrid, Alrik’s mother, Orm’s daughter made this bridge for her husband, Holmgers, father of Sigoerd, for his soul”), as important members of extended families (e.g., “Mael-Lomchon and the daughter of Dubh-Gael, whom Agils had to wife, raised this cross in memory of Mael-Muire, his fostermother. It is better to leave a good fosterson than a bad son”), and as much-missed loved ones (e.g., “Gunnor, Thythrik’s daughter, made a bridge in memory of her daughter Astrid. She was the most skilful girl in Hadeland.”). Rune stones that date to after the introduction of Christianity often include the Christian cross and use the younger futhark runes. But older stones are pagan Norse and use the older futhark. Their inscriptions are the oldest written texts created in the Nordic countries and some give a few clues about mythology and the society in Scandinavia before the conversion. Several inscriptions include works of art; for example, the runes may be inscribed inside a serpent-like creature, and some stones ("image stones") found on Gotland contain artistic imagery without any runes.

Colorization

serpent, has been colorized to protect it from moss and the weather. Finding show that original runestones were starkly painted.]] When the stones were carved, the runic letters were also painted with some color, mostly red (based on archaeological analysis) in order to be easily visible. Newly discovered stones often lack this color because of erosion, but caretakers nowadays make sure they are repainted and readable. It is probable that also the fields formed by the inscriptions were painted in contrasting colors (mainly abundant black, white, and brown), for a greater aesthetic effect. The surface colors were exposed to a higher degree of erosion, and has only fairly recently been proposed as common.

List of Rune Stones articles

Compare Megalithic Standing stones, Gaelic High crosses.
- Björketorp Runestone
- Eggjum stone
- Frösöstenen
- Funbo Runestones
- Högby Runestone
- Jelling stones
- Rök Runestone
- The Ramsund carving
- The Ardre image stones
- The Austers Hangvar Stone
- The Halla Bora stone
- The Husaby Stone
- The Hogrän Stone
- The Klinte Stone
- The Kylver Stone
- The Martebo Stones
- The Pilgards Rune Stone, Boge
- The Sanda Stones
- The Sjonhem Stone
- The Stenkjyrka Stone, Lillebjärs
- The Stora Hammars Stone and the Tägarda Rune Stone, Lärbro parish
- The Timans Rune Stone
- The Tängvida Stone

Sweden

District of Hälsingland

- Hälsingland Rune Inscription 21

District of Medelpad

District of Uppland

District of Östergötland

American Rune Stones

The following rune stones found in America are all surrounded by much controversy:
- The Kensington Runestone is located at Alexandria, Minnesota.
- The Heavener Runestone and others associated with it, in and around Heavener, Oklahoma
- The Vérendrye Runestone, found near Minot, North Dakota
- The Spiritpond Runestone, found in Maine

External link

- [http://home.no.net/ahruner/gotland.htm Photos of rune stones and image stones from Gotland]
Category:Norse mythology Category:Norse art Category:History of the Germanic peoples Category:Runology Category:Viking Age !

Kalmar Castle

Kalmar Castle, located near the site of Kalmar's medieval harbor, has played a crucial part in Swedish history since its initial construction as a fortified tower in the 12th century. King Magnus Ladulås ordered the contruction of a fortress around the tower in the 1280s, and was further expanded in the centuries that followed. One of the most significant political events took place at Kalmar Castle in 1397, when the Kalmar Union was formed - a union of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, organized by Queen Margaret I of Denmark. The fortress was improved during the 16th century under the direction of King Gustav Vasa and his sons Eric XIV and John III, who turned the medieval fortress into a castle fit for a renaissance king. Today, it is one of Sweden's best preserved renaissance castles. Category:Buildings and structures in Sweden

Terra Scania


Skåneland
Skåneland]

Skåneland is a denomination for the area once making up the eastern part of Denmark, which was permanently ceded to Sweden under the Treaty of Roskilde (1658). The proper name for it is Skånelandskapen, which translates to the Provinces of Skåne; sometimes the Latin names terra Scania or terra Scaniæ are used. Skåneland consists of the provinces Skåne, Halland, and Blekinge, in addition the island Bornholm is actually the geographically easternmost frontier of Skåneland, but belongs to Denmark. Skåneland borders the provinces of Västergötland and Småland. The region is accepted by the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organisation under the name of Scania, though this is generally only used as an alternative term for Skåne.

Official status

The term is not used in official contexts and is seldom used or even known by most Swedes, though fairly popular within the region itself; especially by regionalists. When defining the region in more general context the names of the individual provinces are used, or it is considered as being part of Götaland (even if Skåneland historically could be considered a separate region).

Origin of name

The name Skåneland was since long a denomination of the Scanian lands – the eastern territory of Denmark. The Swedish term "Skåneland" was introduced by the Swedish historian and Scandinavist Martin Weibull in his political appeal Samlingar till Skånes historia in 1868 to illuminate the common pre-Swedish history of Skåne, Blekinge, and Halland. The term was basically a translation from the medieval Latin terra Scaniæ ("land of Skåne"). Weibull used the term as a combined term for the three provinces where Skånelagen (" The Scanian law", the oldest provincial law of the Nordic countries) had its jurisdiction, as well as the area of the archdiocese of Lund prior to 1645. This form of Skåneland was then used in the regional historical periodical Historisk tidskrift för Skåneland, beginning in 1901, published by Martin's son, Lauritz Weibull.

History

Early history

The Latin name terra Scaniæ was used in the Middle Ages as a denomination for the easternmost parts of Denmark. At that time, dense forests and boggy ground blocked the northern provinces of Sweden from Skåneland, in comparison to the relative ease of travel by sea. This is documented by Adam of Bremen in the 11th century when he visited Scania and Scandinavia. It therefore became natural to draw the national borders on land. Even in later periods as the roads gradually improved, some parts were still difficult to travel through, even through the 19th century.

From the Kalmar Union to Denmark's Loss of Skåne, Blekinge and Halland

By the end of the fourteenth century, the Finnish coast was under Swedish control, but Denmark was the most powerful of Scandinavian states. As a result, when the Kalmar Union was formed in 1397, the union was administered from Copenhagen. By 1471 Sweden had tired of Danish domination and rebelled under Sture family leadership. In 1503, when Sten Sture the Elder died, eastern Sweden’s independence from Denmark had been established. In 1600 Denmark controlled virtually all land bordering on the Skagerrak, Kattegat, and the restricted Sound (Øresund). The current Swedish provinces of Skåne, Blekinge and Halland were still Danish and the province of Båhuslen was still Norwegian. Skåneland became the site of bitter battles, especially in the 16th and 17th century, as Denmark and Sweden confronted each other for control of the Baltic and of Swedish access to western trade. Danish historians often represent this as a period of unending Swedish aggression during which Sweden was continuously at war, while Swedish historians often represent this as "Sweden's Age of Greatness". During the breakup of the Kalmar Union and 1814, Denmark and Sweden fought 11 times in Skåneland and other border provinces: 1563-70, 1611-1613, 1644-1645, 1657-1658; 1659-1661, 1674-1678, 1700, 1710-1721, 1788, 1808-1809, and 1814. The most notable periods of combat for Skåneland were the Northern Seven Years' War (1563–1570), the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) and the Northern War(1655–1658).
- During the Northern Seven Years' War, attacks were launched on Sweden from Danish Halland in 1563, and Swedish counterattacks were launched against Danish provinces of Halland and Skåne in 1565 and 1569. In 1570 peace was finally agreed when the Swedish king withdrew the claims to Danish Skåne, Halland, Blekinge and Gotland, while the Danes withdrew their claims to Sweden as a whole.
- During the Thirty Years' War extensive combat took place in the Danish provinces of Skåne, Halland, and Blekinge. By the Peace of Brömsebro (1645) Denmark ceded the Norwegian provinces of Jämtland and Härjedalen and agreed Sweden was to occupy the Danish province of Halland for 30 years as a guarantee of the treaty provisions.
- During what has been described as the Northern War (1655–1658), Danish attempts to recover control of Halland ended in a serious defeat administered by Sweden. As a result, in the Treaty of Roskilde (1658) Denmark ceded the provinces of Skåne, Blekinge and Halland (i.e., Skåneland). Moberg, in his history of the Swedish people, provides a thoughtful discussion of the atrocities which were committed by both sides in the struggle over the border provinces, and identified them as the source of propaganda to inflame the peoples’ passions to continue the struggle. This lopsided representation was incorporated into history text books on the respective sides. As an example, Moberg compares the history texts he grew up with in Sweden which represented the Swedish soldier as ever pure and honorable to a letter written by Gustavus Adolphus celebrating the 24 Skånian parishes he’d helped level by fire, with the troops encouraged to rape and murder the population at will. One must infer that this Swedish behavior was mirrored equally on the Danish side. Skåneland was a rather unpleasant place to dwell for an extended period.

Assimiation with Sweden

Following the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658, the Swedish government forcefully demanded Skåneland adopt Swedish customs and laws. Swedish became the only permitted language in the Church liturgy and in schools, books in Danish were not allowed to be printed, and all appointed politicians and priests were required to be Swedish. To promote education in Swedish the University of Lund was inaugurated in 1667, and the inhabitants of Scania were not allowed to enroll in Copenhagen University until the 19th century. The population was initially opposed to the Swedish reforms, as can be ascertained from church records and court transcripts. The Swedes did encounter severe civil revolts in some areas, perhaps most notably in the Göinge district, in dense forest regions, and in northern Scania. The last civil revolts in Skåneland were peasant revolts early in the 19th century, but during that period the region was so integrated that, at the end of the century, Skåneland was declared to have been "fully incorporated with Swedish habits, customs and history". The transformation of age-old customs, commerce and administration to the Swedish model could not be effected quickly or easily. In the first fifty years of the transition, the treatment of the population was rather ruthless, but thereafter it softened. Denmark, on the other hand, made several attempts to recapture Skåneland -- the last attempt in 1710, during which they almost recaptured the entire Skåneland until they were beaten back by Swedish armies and forced to withdraw.

Recent history

The complete history of Skåneland was not taught for a long time in schools in Skåneland, especially during periods with the immediate threat of revolt. Instead a Swedish-centric history was taught, and the Scanian history before 1658, for instance concerning the list of monarchs, was disregarded as a component of Danish history. In reaction, a movement began in the late 19th century to revive awareness of the history and culture of Skåneland. The renewed focus resulted in the publication of several books about Scanian history. It is still disputed whether children of the Scanian Provinces should learn the local Danish-era history or the Swedish history for the period before 1658.

Swedish Governors-General

- Gustaf Otto Stenbock (1658 - 1664)
- Fabian von Fersen (1675 - 1677)
- Rutger von Ascheberg (1680 - 1693)
- Otto Vellingk (1693 - 1698)
- Carl Gustaf Rehnskiöld (July 4, 1698- December 27, 1705)
- Magnus Stenbock (December 27, 1705-1711)
- Jacob von Burenskiöld (1711-1716)
- Carl Gustaf Skytte (1716-1719)
- Carl Gustaf Hård (1717-1719) (See also: Governors-General of Sweden)

Modern usage

The most wide-spread usage of the term Skåneland today is by regionalists who desire to stress the culturally unique features of the region. The proper term Skånelandskap is of historical significance as a common name for Swedish areas formerly belonging to Denmark, though neither is generally used among modern Swedish historians or in government administration. Because of the revived notions of a common cultural heritage, separate from that of the national state of Sweden, Skåneland has become a member of UNPO (Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organisation) and FUEN (Federal Union of European Nationalities) under the name of Scania.

References

- the Swedish encyclopedia Nationalencyklopedin, article Skånelandskapen
- Skånelands historia, ved Ambrius, J, 1997 ISBN 91-971436-2-6
- A History of Sweden by Ingvar Andersson, Praeger, 1956
- Nordens Historie, ved Hiels Bache, Forslagsbureauet i Kjøbenhavn, 1884.
- The Northern Wars, 1558-1721 by Robert I. Frost; Longman, Harlow, England; 2000 ISBN 0-582-06429-5
- The Struggle for Supremacy in the Baltic: 1600-1725 by Jill Lisk; Funk & Wagnalls, New York, 1967
- Fra Bondeoppbud til Legdshær by Trygve Mathisen, Guldendal Norsk Forlag, 1952
- Min Svenska Historia II, by Vilhelm Moberg, P.A. Nordstedt & Söners Förlag, 1971.
- Medieval Scandinavia, by Bridget and Peter Sawyer, University of Minnesota Press, 1993.
-