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Kamboja

Kamboja

Kamboja was the ancient name of a country, and the Indo-Iranian warrior tribe, the Kambojas, settled therein. The country is listed as one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas or great nations in ancient Buddhist texts, and was located in the Uttarapatha in extreme north-west of the Indian sub-continent, contiguous to the kingdom of Gandhara. It initially included the Pamirs, Badakshan, and territories as far as the Zeravshan valley in the doab of Oxus/Jaxartes. It approximated what is known today as the Galcha speaking region of Central Asia. Later, some sections of the trans-Hindu Kush Kambojas moved to southern side of the Hindukush and planted colonies in Kunar/Swat and as far as Rajauri in Kashmir. The Kambojas are attested to have had Indian as well as Iranian affinities (Macdonnel, Keith, W. K. Fraser, M. C. Gillet, etc).

Related Uses

- Camboja is the Portuguese name for Cambodia.
- Kamboja is also the Indonesian name for Cambodia.
- Kamboja also refers to: # The prince of the Kamboja Nation or Tribe (Panini, IV.1.168-175). # A descendant of the Kamboja Kshatriyas (Panini, IV.1.168-175). # A horse raised and bred in ancient Kamboja (also Kambojaka, Kamboji) (See: Halayudh Kosha). # An elephant native to, or coming from, Kamboja (also Kambu) (See: Nanaratha.manjari-421). # Silver or gold native to, or coming from Kamboja (also Kambu). # Name of a conch or shell native to Kamboja (also Kambu). # Name of Supari or Punnag (Rottleria tinctoria) native to or coming from Kamboja (See: Shabd.rattan.samanyavakosha). # Name of Somavalak or Karanj native to or coming from Kamboja (See: Shabd.rattan.samanyavakosha). # Name of Ayurvedic herbal medicine Mashaparni and Hingparni, imported from Kamboja (also called Kamboji) (See: Shabd.rattan.samanyavakosha). # Name of an ancient Raaga/Raagini (musical mode) originated in Kamboja country (also called Kamboji, Kambhoji & Kambodi). # A gold or silver bracelet, or bracelet in general (also Kambu). # Name of a mountain located in ancient Kamboja (Afghanistan), famous for its Kambu or Kambuka silver (Kautiliya Arthashastra, 02.13.10). Silver mines of Anderab, Wakhan and other locations in Badakshan were noted during Arabic rule (Geographical and Economical Studies in the Mahabharata, Upayana Parava, Journal of U.P. Historical Research Society, Vol XVI, Part II, p 46, Dr. Moti Chandra). Therefore, Kambu appears to be the name of a range of the Hindukush mountains in south-east Badakshan. # Kamboji: the language of the ancient Kambojas.

Some Time/Space Variants of "Kamboja"

- Kaamboja (In the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Vedic literature etc., hence Kaamboj).
- Kambhoja (Southern Indian texts, as in Kautiliya's Arthashastra, hence Kambhoj).
- Kaambhoja (In Southern Indian versions of ancient Sanskrit texts, hence Kaambhoj).
- Kumbhoja (Same as Kambhoja; name of an ancient town in Maharashtra; also, the name of an ancient Kamboja sage referenced in some recensions of the Ramayana).
- Camboja (Common variant spelings).
- Kambuja (as in dakshinatah Kambujaa.naam Vasisthaa.naam: See Paraskara Grhya-Sutram (2.1.23)).
- Kambuj (one from Kambuja, like a Kamboj is from Kamboja).
- Kaanboja (a variant of Kamboja; See Triya Chritra 217/verse 14 of Chritropakhyana of Dasam Granth; Hence Kaanboj). See also pages 21-23 of [http://www.gobindsadan.org/institute/dasam/pdf/v5_1.pdf].
- Kanboj (variant of Kamboj).
- Kanbuj (as in a coin: Kharal-putras Kanbuj Raspag: See Bharat ke Prachin Mudrank, by Swami Om Nand ji Sarasvati, 1973, Rohtak. Apparently Kanbuj is a variant of Kambuj/Kambuja, since m easily becomes n in Indo-Aryan languages, e.g Kambujiya = 'Kanbujiya).
- Kabuj (See Triya Chritra 217/verse 14 of the Charitropakhyana of Dasam Granth Sahib. Dasam Granth attests the term Kabuj as well as Kaanboj).
- Cambuja (Variant spellings of Kambuja).
- Kamboza (As in the name of the Kamboza-thadi Palace of Bayintnaung, Myanmar).
- Kamodza, (as in Kamodza-radza referenced in the tenth century Sanskrit-Tibetan Formulary [Ed J. Hacklin, Formulair sanskrit-tibetain du xe siecle, 59, 1.16; See also Ancient Kamboja in Iran and Islam, p 66, Dr H. W. Bailey])
- Kamoz, Caumoje, Camoje (Pushtu names for a clan of the Siah-Posh Kafirs of the Hindukush).
- Kamtoz (Another Pushtu name for a Katir clan of the Siah-Posh Kafirs of the Hindukush. Said to be a variant of Kamboz).
- Kambu (As in the name of an Asura clan, in conflict with Vedic Aryans, as referenced in (Markendeya Purana (8.1-6), Devi Mahatam (5.28.1-12)).
- Kaaboja (See Luders' Inscriptions No 176, 472. It references a Kamboja Buddhist Bhikshu from Nandinagar of ancient Kamboja).
- Kabojha or Kabojhiya or Kabhojika (In ancient Sinhalese cave inscriptions).
- Khamboja or Khaamboja ((Sometimes) Southern Indian spellings of Kamboja).
- Khamboj (from Khamboja).
- Kamboda, Kambhoda (alternative name for Kamboja or Kambhoja Raga; also Kambodi or Kambhodi).
- Kambojaka or Kambojika (Buddhist texts).
- Kamboika, Kamboi (name of a "landlocked port" town in Gujarat. Tenth century Grant records of Chalukya rulers show it as Kamboika (See Indian Antiquary VI, 1877, pp 191-92). The name is said to be a corruption of Pali Kambojika or Kambojaka.
- Kapisha (equivalent to Kamboja, as in the Ramayanamanjri by Pt Kshmendra of Kashmir.)
- Kau-fu (equivalent to Kambu; the Kamboja of Hiuen Tsiang: Dr. R. K. Mukerjee, Dr. Law).
- Kieu-feou (name of Kamboja in the Chinese recension of Tathagata Grhya-Sutra (Ratnakutsangraha).
- Kam-po-ce or Kam-po-ji (name of Kamboja in the Tibetan recension of Tathagata Grhya-Sutra (Ratnakutsangraha).
- Kan-po-chih (as in the writings of Chinese traveller Chou Ta-kuan (1296 A.D.))
- Kampu-chih (ancient Burmese name for Kamboja.)
- Kamuia, Kamuio (See Inscriptions A2, A3, E1/E' of Mathura Lion Capital; See also: [http://depts.washington.edu/ebmp/etext.php?cki=CKI0048].)
- Kambocha (as in Ashoka's Rock Edicts of Bhubneshwar, Orissa).
- Kambosh (as in the Chidambram inscriptions of Tamil-Nadu.)
- Kabusha (as in the Buddhist text Mahamayuri; see also Indian Antiquaries, 52, part 2, 1923, S Levi)
- Kalbhoj (as in the name of prince Kalbhoj, eighth ruler of the Guhilot Dynasty and founder of the Mewar Dynasty of Rajasthan. Probably a variant of Kambhoj, since in Indo-Aryan languages, the consonant M can easily interchange with N and then L.)
- Komdei (a Ptolemian name for Komuda (?) or Komdesh/Kamdesh?; from Kambodesh(?), probably "Kambojdesh".)
- Kamboya or Kamboy (modern Kamboh; Shahbazgarhi Edicts of king Ashoka; also in Jain canon Uttaradhyana-Sutra 11/16.)
- Kamboi & Kamoi (as in some ancient Sikh writings, like those of Giani Gian Singh. cf Kamboy of Ashoka's Shabaazgarhi Edicts).
- Kamboh or Kanboh (as in medieval Muslim writings)
- Kambuh or Kanbuh (variants of Kamboh/Kanboh. In medieval Muslim writings).
- Kambho (obviously from Kambhoj).
- Kumbho (same as Kambho, obviously from Kumbhoj).
- Kumboh (as in The Martial Races of India, p 251, Sir George Fletcher MacMunn. Same as Kamboh).
- Kamo ("Ultra-prakrit/vulgate" form of Kamboj, used in the illiterate circles of Panjab).
- Komoi (a Ptolemian name for a tribe north of Bactria/Badakshan in Central Asia. Perhaps from Kamboi, which may be an alternative of Kamboika / Kamboyika /Kambojika).
- Tambyzoi (a Ptolemian name for a region on the Oxus/Badakshan, north of Hindukush, said to be a poor transliteration of Sanskrit Kamboja (Dr. S Levi).)
- Ambautai (from Kambautai, Ptolemian transliteration for Kamboja, a people/region in Paropamisadae, south of Hindukush (Dr. M. Witzel).
- Kambojan (adjectival use of Kamboja)
- Sanskrit Kamboja appears as K.b.u.ji.i.y, Kabujiya or perhaps Kabaujiya/Kaboujiya and Kambujiya or perhaps Kambaujiya ( OR with -n- in place of -m- as Kanbujiya or Kanbaujiya) of Old Persian inscriptions, and Cambyses of Greek writings. The same name appears as C-n-b-n-z-y in Aramaic, Kambuzia in Assyrian, Kambythet in Egyptian, Kam-bu-zi-ya or Ka-am-bu-zi-ya in Akkadian, Kan-bu-zi-ia or Kan-bu-si-ya in Elamite, and Kanpuziya in Susian language (cf: Ancient Kamboja in Iran and Islam, p 69, Dr H. W. Bailey). It appears to have been quite a popular name among the ancient Iranians, of whom the ancient Kambojas are said to have formed a clan. Category:Iranian peoples Category:Ancient peoples Category:Indo-European Category:Mahajanapadas

Tribe
Viewed historically or developmentally, a tribe consists of a social formation existing before the development of, or outside of, states. Many people use the term to refer to any non-Western or indigenous society. Some social scientists use the term to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of kinship, especially corporate descent groups (see clan and lineage). In some countries, such as the United States and India, tribes are Indigenous peoples that have been granted legal recognition and limited autonomy by the state. See also Hunter gatherer. Considerable debate takes place over how best to characterize tribes. Some of this debate stems from perceived differences between pre-state tribes and contemporary tribes; some of this debate reflects more general controversy over cultural evolution and colonialism. In the popular imagination, tribes reflect a way of life that predates, and is more "natural", than that in modern states. Tribes also privilege primordial social ties, are clearly bounded, homogeneous, parochial, and stable. Thus, many believed that tribes organize links between families (including clans and lineages), and provide them with a social and ideological basis for solidarity that is in some way more limited than that of an "ethnic group" or of a "nation". Anthropological and ethnohistorical research has challenged all of these notions. In his 1972 study, The Notion of the Tribe, Morton Fried provided numerous examples of tribes the members of which spoke different languages and practised different rituals, or that shared languages and rituals with members of other tribes. Similarly, he provided examples of tribes where people followed different political leaders, or followed the same leaders as members of other tribes. He concluded that tribes in general are characterized by fluid boundaries and heterogeneity, are not parochial, and are dynamic. Archeologists continue to explore the development of pre-state tribes. Current research suggests that tribal structures constituted one type of adaptation to situations providing plentiful yet unpredictable resources. Such structures proved flexible enough to co-ordinate production and distribution of food in times of scarcity, without limiting or constraining people during times of surplus. Fried, however, proposed that most contemporary tribes do not have their origin in pre-state tribes, but rather in pre-state bands. Such "secondary" tribes, he suggested, actually came about as modern products of state expansion. Bands comprise small, mobile, and fluid social formations with weak leadership, that do not generate surpluses, pay no taxes and support no standing army. Fried argued that secondary tribes develop in one of two ways. First, states could set them up as means to extend administrative and economic influence in their hinterland, where direct political control costs too much. States would encourage (or require) people on their frontiers to form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses and taxes, and would have a leadership responsive to the needs of neighboring states (the so-called "scheduled" tribes of the United States or of British India provide good examples of this). Second, bands could form "secondary" tribes as a means to defend themselves against state expansion. Members of bands would form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses that could support a standing army that could fight against states, and they would have a leadership that could coordinate economic production and military activities.
References
Fried, Morton H. The Notion of Tribe. Cummings Publishing Company, 1975. ISBN 0846515482
See also

Regional Tribes

- Indigenous Peoples of the Americas
- List of Native American Tribal Entities
- List of Australian Aboriginal tribes
- Germanic tribes
- List of Celtic tribes
Other Links

- Iwi
- Patriclan
- Tribal sovereignty Category:Native American tribes Category:Anthropology ja:部族

Kambojas

Kambojas are a very ancient people of north-western parts of ancient India, frequently mentioned in ancient texts, although not in the Rig Veda. They are known to belong to the ancient Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. The Kambojas still live as Kamboj and Kamboh in the greater Panjab, and as Kams/Kamoz and Katirs/Kamtoz of the Siyaposh tribe in the Nuristan province of Afghanistan. Their numbers have greatly dwindled, and the total population still known by these forms of their ancient name is currently estimated to be about 1.5 million.

Ethnicity & Language of Kambojas

:Main article: Ethnicity of Kambojas Numerous classical sources all indicate that ancient Kamboja was a center of Iranian civilization. This is evident from the Mazdean religious customs of the ancient Kambojas, as well as from the Avestan language they spoke. Avestan It is now widely accepted among scholars that the Kambojas were an Avestan-speaking group of East Iranians, and were located mainly in north-eastern Afghanistan and parts of Tajikstan. Some scholars also believe that the Zoroastrian religion originated in eastern Iran in the land of the Kambojas. The tribal name Kamboja has been traced to the royal name Kambujiya of the Old Persian Inscriptions (known as Cambyses to the Greeks). Kambujiya or Kambaujiya was the name of several great Persian kings of the Achaemenid line. This name also appears written as C-n-b-n-z-y in Aramaic, Kambuzia in Assyrian, Kambythet in Egyptian, Kam-bu-zi-ia in Akkadian, Kan-bu-zi-ia in Elamite, and Kanpuziya in Susian language. Susian] Cambyses III, son of Cyrus the Great, is famous for his conquest of Egypt (525 BCE), and for the havoc he wrought upon that country.

Original Home of Kambojas

:Main article: Kamboja Location Analysis of ancent Sanskrit texts and inscriptions place the Kambojas, Gandharas, Yavanas, Madras, and the Sakas in the Uttarapatha - the northern division of Jambudvipa (the innermost concentric island continent in Hindu scripture). Geographically, this area sat along, and was named for, the main trade route from the mouth the Ganges to Balkh, now a small town in Northen Afghanistan. Some writers suggest that Uttarapatha included the whole of Northern India and extended deep into Central Asia. Linguistic evidence, combined with this literary and inscriptional evidence, has led many noted scholars to conclude that ancient Kambojas originally belonged to the Galcha-speaking area of Central Asia. For example, Yasaka's Nirukata (II/2) attests that verb shavati in the sense "to go" was used by only the Kambojas. It has been proved that the modern Galcha dialects, Valkhi, Shigali, Sriqoli, Jebaka (also called Sanglichi or Ishkashim), Munjani, Yidga and Yagnobi, mainly spoken in Pamirs and countries on the headwaters of Oxus, still use terms derived from ancient Kamboja shavati in the sense "to go". The Yagnobi dialect spoken in Yagnobe around the headwaters of Zeravshan in Sogdiana, also still contains a relic from ancient Kamboja shavati in the sense "to go". Further, the former language of Badakshan was also a dialect of Galcha, said to have been replaced by Persian only in the last few centuries. Thus, the ancient Kamboja probably included the Pamirs, Badakshan, and possibly parts of Tajikstan, including Yognobi region in the doab of the Oxus. On the east it was bounded roughly by Yarkand and/or Kashgar, on the west by Bahlika (Uttaramadra), on the northwest by Sogdiana, on the north by Uttarakuru, on the southeast by Darada, and on the south by Gandhara. Later, some sections of the Kambojas crossed the Hindukush and planted Kamboja colonies in Paropamisadae and as far as Rajauri. This view is fully supported by the Mahabharata, which specifically draws attention to the Kambojas in the cis-Hindukush region as being neighbors to the Daradas, and the Parama-Kambojas across the Hindukush as being neighbors to the Rishikas (or Tukharas) of Ferghana/Sogdiana. The two separate Kamboja settlements are also substantiated from Ptolemy's Geography, which references a geographical term Tambyzoi located on the river Oxus in Badakshan, and an Ambautai people living on the southern side of Hindukush in the Paropamisadae. Scholars have identified both the Ptolemian Tambyzoi and Ambautai with Sanskrit Kamboja. The Yidga sub-dialect of Galcha Munjani is still spoken on the southern sides of Hindukush in Paropamisadae, further strengthening the view that some Kambojas crossed south of the Hindukush. With time, the trans-Hindukush Kambojas remained essentially Iranian in culture and religion, while those in the cis-Hindukush region came under Indian cultural influence. This is probably why the ancient Kambojas are attested as having Indian as well as Iranian affinities. Still later, some sections of the Kambojas apparently moved even farther, to Arachosia, as attested by the Aramaic version of Greco-Aramaic inscriptions of king Ashoka found in Kandahar. Some scholars have identified the original Kamboja with Arachosia, but this view does not seem to be correct.

Kambojas: A Warrior Clan

In India, the Kambojas seem to have belonged to the Kshatriya caste of Indo-Aryan society. The earliest and most powerful reference endorsing the Kshatriya-hood of the Kambojas is Panini's fifth century BCE Ashtadhyayi. Panini refers to the Kamboja Janapada, and mentions it as "one of the fifteen powerful Kshatriya Janapadas" of his times, inhabited and ruled by Kamboja Kshatriyas (Ashtadhyayi, 4.1.168-175). See: Kambojas of Panini The Harivamsa attests that the clans of Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas etc. were "formerly Kshatriyas". It was king Sagara who had deprived the Kambojas, and other allied tribes, of their Kshatiya-hood (Harivamsa 14/19) and forbidden them to perform Svadhyayas and Vasatkaras (Harivamsa, 14/17). The Harivamsa also calls this group of Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas "Kshatriya-pungava", i.e., foremost among the Kshatriyas. The Manusmriti further attests that the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas etc were originally "noble Kshatriyas", but were gradually degraded to the status of Sudras, on account of their omission of the sacred rites without consulting the Brahmanas (X/43-44). The Mahabharata likewise specifically notes that the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, et al. were originally "noble Kshatriyas", who later got degraded to barbaric status due to their neglect of the Brahmanas (MBH 13/33/31-32). The Arthashastra of Kautiliya (11/1/04) attests Kshatriya Shrenis (Companies of Warriors) of the Kambojas, Surashtras, and some other nations, and notes them as living by agriculture, trade and warfare. The legend of Daivi Khadga or Divine Sword detailed in Shantiparva of Mahabharata (12/166/1-81) also powerfully endorses the Kshatriya-hood of the Kambojas. The sword as the "symbol of Kshatriya-hood" was wrested by the warrior king Kamboja from the Kosala king Kuvalashava alias Dhundhumara, from whom it went to a Yavana king, Muchukunda (MBH 12/166/77-78). Bhagavata Purana (2.7.35) references a king of the Kambojas, and calls him a "powerfully armed mighty warrior" (samiti-salina atta-capah Kamboja). Kalika Purana (20/40) refers to a war between the Buddhist king Kali (Maurya Brihadratha) and the Brahmanical king Kalika (Pusyamitra Sunga), where the Kambojas came as military supporters to Brihadratha, (187-180) BCE. The Purana notes the Kamboja warriors as Kambojai...bhimavikramaih, i.e. the Kambojas of terrific military prowess", again suggesting the Kshatriya-hood of the Kambojas. There are more such references in the Puranas, Mahabharata, Ramayana and other ancient Sanskrit and Pali literature, that further document the Kshatriya-hood of the Kambojas.

Kambojas: Master Horsemen

:Main article: Kamboja Horsemen The horses of the Kambojas were famous throughout all periods of ancient history. Ancient literature is overflowing with excellent references to the famed Kamboja horses. The Puranas, the Epics, ancient Sanskrit plays, the Buddhist Jatakas, the Jaina Canon, and numerous other ancient sources, all agree that the horses of the Kambojas were a foremost breed. Jain In Buddhist texts like Manorathpurani, Kunala Jataka and Samangavilasini, the Kamboja land is spoken of as the "birth place of horses" (Kambojo assánam áyatanam.... Samangalavilasini, I, p. 124). The Aruppa-Niddesa of Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa mentions Kamboja as the "base of horses" (10/28). The Jaina Canon Uttaradhyana-Sutra (11/16) tells us that a trained Kamboja horse exceeded all other horses in speed and no noise could ever frighten it. The Bhishamaparva of Mahabharata (6/90/3-4) lists the best horses from various lands, but places the steeds from Kamboja at the head of the list, and specifically designates them as the leaders among the best horses (Kamboja....mukhyanam). In the great battle fought on the field of Kurukshetra, the fast and powerful steeds of Kamboja were of greatest service (Dr. B. C. Law). The Ramayana (1/6/22), Kautiliya's Arthashastra (2/30/32-34), the Brahmanda Purana (II,2.16.16), Somes'ara's Manasollasa (4.4.715-30), Ashva.Chakitsata by Nakula (p. 415), Raghuvamsha (4/70) and Mandakraanta of Kalidasa, Karanabhaar (19) of Bhaasa, Vamsa-Bhaskara, Madhypithika, and numerous other ancient texts and inscriptions make highly laudatory references to Kamboja horses, and state them the finest breed. Vishnuvardhana, the real founder of Hoysala greatness, who later on became ruler of Mysore, made the earth tremble under the tramp of his powerful Kamboja horses. These references amply demonstrate that Kamboja horses were sleek, very powerful and a foremost breed. They have been especially noted for their great fleetness and remarkable behavior on the battle field. No doubt, Kamboja steeds were the prized possession of kings and warriors in ancient times. It was on account of their supreme position in horse (Ashva) culture that the ancient Kambojas were also popularly known as Ashvakas, i.e. horsemen. Their clans in the Kunar andSwat valleys have been referred to as Assakenois and Aspasios in classical writings, and Ashvakayanas and Ashvayanas in Panini's Ashtadhyayi. The Mahabharata specifically refers to the Kambojas as Ashva-Yudha-Kushalah, i.e., expert cavalrymen (MBH 12/101/5). Dronaparva highly applauds the Kamboja cavalry as extremely fast and fleet (Kambojah... yayur.ashvair.mahavegaih... MBH 7/7/14). The Mahabharata, Ramayana, numerous Puranas and some foreign sources amply attest that "Kamboja cavalry-troopers were frequently requisitioned in ancient wars" (see Ashvaka#Kamboja_cavalry_in__ancient_wars). Therefore, there is no exaggeration in the Mahabharata statement portraying the ancient Kambojas as horse-lords and masters of horsemanship.

Kambojas in Indian Literature

See Kambojas in Indian Traditions

The Kambojas and Alexander the Great

Because the Kambojas were famous for their horses (ashva) and as cavalry-men (ashvaka) they were also popularly called "Ashvakas". The Ashvakas inhabited Eastern Afghanistan, and were included within the more general term Kambojas.French scholars like Dr. E. Lamotte also identify the Ashvakas with the Kambojas. According to one line of scholars, the name Afghan is evidently derived from Ashvakan, the Assakenoi of Arrian. Afghan The Kambojas entered into conflict with Alexander the Great as he invaded Central Asia: "The Macedonian conqueror made short shrifts of the arrangements of Darius and over-running Achaemenid Empire, dashed into Afghanistan and encountered stiff resistance of the Kamboja tribes called Aspasios and Assakenois known in the Indian texts as Ashvayana and Ashvakayana". These Ashvayana and Ashvakayana Kamboja clans fought the invader to a man. When worse came to worse, even the Ashvakayan Kamboj women took up arms and joined their fighting husbands, thus preferring "a glorious death to a life of dishonor". The Ashvakas fielded 30,000 strong cavalry, 30 elephants and 20,000 infantry against Alexander. The Ashvayans (Kambojas) were also good cattle breeders and agriculturists. This is clear from large number of bullocks, 230,000 according to Arrian, of a size and shape superior to what the Macedonians had known, that Alexander captured from them and decided to send to Macedonia for agriculture See also List of country name etymologies

The Kambojas and the Mauryan Empire

The Mudrarakshas play of Visakhadutta as well as the Jain work Parisishtaparvan refers to Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka. The Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite army made up of Yavanas, Kambojas, Sakas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas (Bactrians) (Mudrarakshas, II). With the help of these frontier martial tribes from the northwest, Chandragupta was able to defeat the Greek successors of Alexander the Great, as well as the Nanda rulers of Magadha, and succeeded in founding the Maurya Empire in northern India. The Kambojas find prominent mention as a unit in the 3rd century BCE Edicts of Ashoka. Rock Edict XIII tells us that the Kambojas had enjoyed autonomy under the Mauryas. The republics mentioned in Rock Edict V are the Yonas, Kambojas, Gandharas, Nabhakas and the Nabhapamkitas. They are designated as araja vishaya in Rock Edict XIII, which means that they were kingless i.e. republican polities. In other words, the Kambojas formed a self-governing political unit under the Maurya Emperors. Gandhara King Ashoka sent missionaries to the Kambojas to convert them to Buddhism, and recorded this fact in his Rock Edict V. Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa attest that Ashoka sent thera Maharakkhita to Yona, and Majjhantika to Kashmra and Gandhara, to preach Dharma among the Yonas, Gandharas and Kambojas. Sasanavamsa specifically attests that Maharakkhita thera went to Yonaka country and established Buddha's Sasana "in the lands of the Kambojas and other countries" (Sasanavamsa (P.T.S.), p. 49) Thus, the Zoroastrian as well as the Brahmanised Hindu Kambojas appear to have embraced Buddhism in large numbers, due to the efforts of king Ashoka and his envoys. See also: Edicts of Ashoka

Kambojas' migration to India and beyond

:Main article: Migration of Kambojas

Modern Kamboj and Kamboh

The population of the modern people who still call themselves Kamboj (or prikritic Kamboh, or Kamoz) or Kambhoj is estimated to be around 1.5 million and the rest of their population, over the time, submerged with other occupationalized castes/groups of the Indian subcontinent. The Kambojs, by tradition, are divided into 52 and 84 clans. 52 line is stated to be descendants of Cadet branch and 84 from the elder Branch. This is claimed as referring to the young and elder military divisions under which they had fought the Bharata war. Numerous of their clan names overlap with other Kshatriyas and the Rajput castes of the north-west India, thereby suggesting that some of the Rajput clans of north-west must have descended from the Ancient Kambojas. The Kambojs/Kambohs practiced weapon-worship in the past but the practice is now going out of vogue.

Diaspora

The Kamboj or Kamboh living in upper India (Greater Panjab) are identified as the modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas. They are found as Hindus, Sikhs, Muslims, Buddhists and the Jains. Kambojs are known as adventurous and enterprising people. Therefore, as a colonists, servicemen, and businessmen, they have also spread, after the partition, into various parts of India, including a belt of Haryana from Karnal to Yamunanagar, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Ganganagar in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. A minuscule agrarian community called Kambhoj is stated to be living since olden times in Maharashtra, which may have descended from those Kambojas who had settled in South-West India around Christian era. The Tajiks, Siyaposh tribe (Kam/Kamoz, Katir/Kamtoz) of Nuristan, Yashkuns and the Yusufzais of Eastern Afghanistan and NWFP of Pakistan are said by various scholars to have descended from the ancient Kambojas.

Traditions

The Kambohs are stated to be the ancient inhabitants of Persia The Sikh Kamboj of Kapurthala & Jullundur (Punjab) claim descent from Raja Karan. They also have a tradition that their ancestors came from Kashmir. Hindu Kambohs claim to be related to the Rajputs and to have come from Persia through southern Afghanistan. The Kambohs of Bijnor claim to have come from Trans-Indus country and Mr Purser accepts this as evidently true. The Hindu Kambohs from Karnal claim their origin from Garh-Gajni. Their Pandits still pronounce the following couplet at the phera during their marriage ceremony to give information about their original home: Garh Gajni nikaas, Lachhoti Ghaggar vaas (Trans: Originated from the fort of Gajni, and settled down in Ghaggar region (in Haryana or Punjab)). One Gajni or Ghazni is located in Afghanistan, but based on another tradition of the Karnal Kamboj, the eminent ethnographers like H. A. Rose and several other scholars have identified this Gajni in Kambay in Saurashtra (port of Vallabhi). Muslim Kambohs have a tradition that they descended from ancient Kai dynasty of Persia, to which the emperors Kaikaus, Kaikhusro, Kaikubad, Kai-lehrashab and Darius all belonged. On the last king of the dynasty having been dethroned, and expelled from the country, he wandered about some time with his family and dependents in the neighboring countries and finally settled in Punjab

During Muslim Rule

Muslim Kambohs/Kambojs were very influential and powerful in the early days of Moghul rule. General Shahbaz Khan Kamboh was the most trusted general of Akbar. Sheikh Gadai Kamboh was the Sadar-i-Jahan in Akbar's reign. Numerous other Kamboj are known to have occupied very key civil and military positions during Lodhi, Pathan and the Moghul reign in India. The Sayyids and the Kambohs among the Indian Muslims were specially favored for high military and civil positions during Moghul rule. The Kambohs held Nakodar in Jullundur and Sohna in Gurgaon some centuries ago; and the tombs and mosques that they have left in Sohna show that they must have enjoyed considerable position

Agriculturists

The modern Kamboj are still found living chiefly by agriculture, business and military service which were the chief professions followed by their Kamboja ancestors some 2500 years ago as powerfully attested by Arthashastra and Brhat Samhita. Numerous foreign and Indian writers have described the modern Kambojs/Kambohs as one of the finest class of agriculturists of India. British colonial writers like Rose and Denzil note the Kamboj and Ahir agriculturists as the first rank husbandmen and they rate them above the Jatts. They occupy exactly the same position in general farming as the Ramgarhias occupy in general industry. The Kambojs have made great contributions in agriculture and military fields. The majority of Krishi Pandit awards in Rajasthan/India have been won by the Kamboj agriculturists . Col Lal Singh Kamboj, a landlord from Uttar Pradesh, was the first Indian farmer to win the prestigious Padam Shri Award for progressive farming in 1968 from President of India. According to Dr M. S. Randhawa (Ex-Vice Chancellor, Punjab University), the Kamboj farmers have no equals in industry and tenacity

Physical Characteristics

Several foreign observers have described the modern Kambojs as a very industrious, stiff-necked, turbulent, skillful, provident and enterprising race. Some British ethnologists have described the Kambohs as ethnically more akin to the Afghans than to any of the Hindu races among whom they have now settled for generations There is a medieval Persian proverb current in the north-west to the effect that of the Afghans, the Kambohs (Kamboj) and the Kashmiris... all three are rogues . This old proverb conveys the indisputable fact that in the distant past, the Persians, the Afghans, the Kambojs/Kambohs and the Kasmiris lived more or less as neighbors and were one inter-related racial group. The Kambojs have been noted for their courage, tenacity and stamina for fighting. They (Kamboj) make excellent soldiers, being of very fine physique and possessing great courage.....They have always been noted for their cunning strategy, which now, being far less 'slim' than in former times, has developed into the permissible strategy of war The modern Kamboj are a generally tall, well-built, sharp featured, and generally very fair (gaura varna) race, with brown, sometimes reddish hair, brown or sometimes gray eye color, and long sharp noses. Kamboj women are noted for their beauty from ancient times. In ancient references also, the Kambojas have been described as a very handsome race. Ancient Kamboj princes have also been noted as tall, exceedingly handsome, of gaura varna, with faces illustrious like the full moon, lotus eyed, handsome like the lord-moon among the stars. Even Ramayana calls the Kambojas ravisanibha i.e with faces illustrious like the Sun.

Kamboj in Sports

- The Kamboj have made outstanding contributions in wrestling, field hockey and Kabaddi.
- Jodh Singh, Natha Singh, Hazara Singh, Santa Kharasia, Bakshisha, Chhiba, Khushal, Chanan and Maula Bakhsh are the few foremost Punjabi Kamboj wrestlers of yester-years who had earned great name and fame in wrestling.
- Olympian Prithipal was probably the greatest hockey full-back of the 20th century. Known as King of short-corner and the Mahabahu of Indian hockey, Prithipal was the first Indian to win the Arjuna Award, and later Padma Shri Award for his achievements in hockey.
- Rasool Akhtar, President of Pakistan Hockey Federation, is one of the greatest hockey Olympians from Pakistan.
- A fifteen year old Chandita is the most brilliant emerging roller hockey player of India.
- Rattan Singh alias Rattu has been the greatest defender in freestyle Kabaddi.

Notes

# Sources include the Buddhist Jatakas, Yasaka's Nirukata, Herodotus (I.140), Brahmanical literature, and Avestan texts. # According to noted authorities like Dr. Christian Lassen, Dr. E. Kuhn, Dr S. Levi, Dr. M. Witzel. # See Mahabharata verses (12/201/40), (6/11/63-64), 5/5/15, 5/159/20 etc; Also Kirfels text of Uttarapatha countries of Bhuvankosha; See: Brahama Purana 27/44-53, Vayu Purana 45/115; Brahmanda Purana 12/16-46; Vamana Purana 13/37 etc. # Linguistic Survey of India, X, p. 456 # Mahabharata 2/27/23-25 # Dr. K. P. Jayswal; Dr. Raychaudhury, Dr. B. N. Mukherjee; Dr. Singh, Dr. L.M. Joshi, etc # Histoire du Bouddhisme Indien, p 110, E. Lamotte # C. Lassen, J. W. McCrindle, Saan Martin, Phillip Smith, etc. # Panjab Past and Present, pp. 9-10; History of Porus, pp. 12, 38, Dr. Buddha Parkash # Diodorus in McCrindle, p 270 # History of Panjab, I, p 226 # cf: Glossary, II, p 444, fn. iii. # Jatt Tribes of Zira, p 138; Glossary , II, p 444 # Denzil Ibbetson, H. A. Rose, S. S. Gill, Chaudhri Wahhab Ud-Din. # H. A. Rose, A. H. Bingley, H. M. Elliot, Dr G. S. Mansukhani, R. C. Dogra, etc. # Akbar Nama by Abu-L-Fazl, Trans H. Blochman, p 122 # The composition of the Mughal nobility, Concise Encyclopedia Britannica, Online; # The Mughal Nobility Under Aurangzeb, 2002, p 21, M. Athar Ali; # Cultural History of India, 1975, p 261, A. L. Basham. # Arthashastra(11/1/04) # Brhat Samhita(5/35) # Panjab Castes, 1974, p 149, D. Ibbetson; Glossary, II, pp 6, 442, H. A. Rose. # Origin of names of Castes and Clans, 2004,Principal Sewa Singh. # Out of Ashes,p 60,Dr M. S. Randhawa. # Bingley, Rose # The Sikhs, A. H. Bingley, p 57. # The Sikhs and the Wars by Reginald Holder From Panjab: Past & Present Vol IV, Part I, 1970, S. No 7, Edited by Dr Ganda Singh # Hindu World, p 520, Benjamin Walker; # Mahabharat 11/25/1-8 # Mahabharat 7/23/43 # Mahabharat 8/56/113 # Mahabharat, 7/92/74, 8/56/113 # Mahabharat 1/67/31 # Ramayana 1/55/2 Category:Indo-European

Mahajanapadas

The political process among the ancient Indo-Aryans appears to have originally started with semi-nomadic tribal units called Jana (meaning tribe). Early Vedic texts attest several Janas or tribes of the Aryans, living in semi-nomadic tribal state, fighting among themselves and with other Non-Aryan tribes for cows, sheeps and green pastures. These early Vedic Janas later coalesced into Janapadas of the Epic age. Term "Janapada" literally means the foothold of a tribe. The derivative meaning of Janapada from Jana points to an early stage of land-taking by the Jana (tribe) for a settled way of life. This process of first settlement on land had completed its final stage prior to the times of Buddha and Panini. The Pre-Buddhist North-west region of Indian sub-continent was divided into several Janapadas demarcated from each other by boundaries. In Panini, Janapada stands for country and Janapadin for its citizenry. These Janapadas were named after the tribes or the Janas who had settled in them. By circa 600 BCE, many of these Janapadas had further evolved into larger political entities by the process of land-grabbing which eventually led to the formation of kingdoms known in Buddhist traditions as the Mahajanapadas or the great nations (Sanskrit: Maha = great, Janapada = country). The Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations (Solasa Mahajanapadas) which were in existence before the time of Buddha. They do not give any connected history except in the case of Magadha. The Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya, at several places, gives a list of sixteen nations: #Kasi #Kosala #Anga #Magadha #Vajji (or Vriji) #Malla #Chedi #Vatsa (or Vamsa) #Kuru #Panchala #Machcha (or Matsya) #Surasena #Assaka #Avanti #Gandhara #Kamboja Another Buddhist text Digha Nikaya mentions only first twelve Mahajanapadas and omits the last four in the above list (Digha Nikaya, Vol II, p 200). Chulla-Niddesa, another ancient text of the Buddhist canon, adds Kalinga to the list and substitutes Yona for Gandhara, thus listing the Kamboja and the Yona as the only Mahajanapadas from Uttarapatha. The Jaina Bhagvati Sutra gives slightly different list of sixteen Mahajanapadas viz: Anga, Banga (Vanga), Magadha, Malaya, Malavaka, Accha, Vaccha, Kochcha (Kachcha?), Padha, Ladha (Lata), Bajji (Vajji), Moli (Malla), Kasi, Kosala, Avaha and Sambhuttara. Obviously, the author of Bhagvati has a focus on the countries of Madhydesa and of far east and south only. He omits the nations from Uttarapatha like the Kamboja and Gandhara. The more extended horizon of the Bhagvati and the omission of all countries from Uttarapatha clearly shows that the Bhagvati list is of later origin and therefore less reliable (Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 86; History & Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Unity, p 15-16). The main idea in the minds of those who drew up the Janapada lists was basically more tribal than geographical, since the lists include names of the people and not the countries. As the Buddhist and Jaina texts only casually refer to the Mahajanapadas with no details on history, the following few isolated facts, at best, are gleaned from them and other ancient texts about these ancient nations.

Kasi

The Kasis were Aryan people who had settled in the region around Varanasi (modern Benares). The capital of Kasi was at Varanasi. The city was bounded by rivers Varuna and Asi on north and south which gave Varanasi its name. Before Buddha, Kasi was the most powerful of the sixteen Mahajanapadas. Several Jatakas bear witness to the superiority of its capital over other cities of India and speaks high of its prosperity and opulence. The Jatakas speak of long rivalry of Kasi with Kosala, Anga and Magadha. A struggle for supremacy went on among them for a time. Kasi was later incorporated into Kosala during Buddha’s time. The Kasis along with the Kosalas and Videhans find mention in Vedic texts and appear to have been a closely allied people. Matsya Purana and Alberuni read Kasi as Kausika and Kaushaka respectively. All other ancient texts read Kasi.

Kosala

The country of Kosalas was located to the north-west of Magadha with its capital at Savathi (Sravasti). It was located about 70 miles to north-west of Gorakhpur and comprised territory corresponding to the modern Awadh (or Oudh) in Uttar Pradesh. It had river Ganga for its southern, river Gandhak for its eastern and the Himalaya mountains for its northern boundaries. The kingdom was ruled by king Prasenjit followed by his son Vidudabha. There was struggle for supremacy between king Prasenjit and king Ajatasatru of Magadha which was finally settled once the confederation of Lichchavis became aligned with Magadha. Kosala was ultimately merged into Magadha when Vidudabha was Kosala’s ruler. Ayodhya, Saketa and Sravasti were the three chief cities of Kosala.

Anga

The first reference to the Angas is found in the Atharva-Veda where they find mention along with the Magadhas, Gandharis and the Mujavats apparently as a despised people. The Jaina Prajnapana ranks Angas and Vangas in the first group of Aryan peoples. Based on Mahabharata evidence, the country of Anga roughly corresponded to the region of Bhagalpur and Monghyr in Bihar. River Champa formed the boundaries between the Magadha in the west and Anga in the east. Anga was bounded by river Ganga on the north. Its capital Champa, formerly known as Malini, was located on the right bank of river Ganga, near its junction with river Champa. It was one of the very flourishing cities and is referred to as one of six principal cities of ancient India (Digha Nikaya). It was also a great center of trade and commerce and its merchants regularly sailed to distant Suvarna-bhumi. Anga was annexed by Magadha in the time of Bimbisara.

Magadha

The first reference to the Magadhas occurs in the Atharva-Veda where they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis and the Mujavats as a despised people. The bards of Magadha are, however, referred to in early Vedic literature and are spoken of in terms of contempt. The Vedic dislike of the Magadhas in early times was due to the fact that the Magadhas were not yet wholly Brahmanised. Rigveda mentions a king Pramaganda as a ruler of Kikata. Yasaka declares that Kikata was a non-Aryan country. Later Vedic literature refers to Kikata as synonym of Magadha. With the exception of Rigvedic Pramaganda, no other king of Magadha appears to be mentioned in Vedic literature. According to Mahabharata and the Puranas, the earliest ruling dynasty of Magadha was founded by king Brihadratha, but Magadha came into prominence only under king Bimbisara and his son Ajatasatru. In the war of supremacy which went on for long between the nations of Majjhimadesa, kingdom of Magadha finally emerged victorious and became a predominant empire in Mid India. The kingdom of the Magadhas roughly corresponded to the modern districts of Patna and Gaya in southern parts of Bihar. It was bounded on the north by river Ganga, on the east by the river Champa, on the south by Vindhya mountains and on the west by river Sona. During Buddha’s time, its boundaries included Anga. Its earliest capital was Girivraja or Rajagriha modern Rajgir in Patna district of Bihar. The other names for the city were Magadhapura, Brihadrathapura, Vasumati, Kushagrapura and Bimbisarapuri. It was an active center of Jainism in ancient times. The first Buddhist council was held in Rajagriha in the Vaibhara Hills. Later on, Pataliputra became the capital of Magadha.

Vajji or Vriji

The Vajjians or Virijis included eight or nine confederated clans of whom the Lichchhavis, the Vedehans, the Jnatrikas and the Vajjis were the most important. Mithila (modern Janakpur in district of Tirhut) was the capital of Vedeha which became the important center of political and cultural activities of northern India. It was in the time of king Janaka that Vedeha came into prominence. The last king of Vadeha was Kalara who is said to have perished along with his kingdom on account of his attempt on a Brahmin maiden. On the ruins of his kingdom arose the republics of Lichchhavis, Vadehans and seven other small republics. The Lichchhavis were very independent people. Mother of Mahavira was a Lichchhavi princess. The Vaisali (modern Basarh in Muzzaferpur district of North Bihar) was the capital of Lichchhavis and the political headquarters of powerful Varijian confederacy. Vaisali was located 25 miles north of river Ganga and 38 miles from Rajagriha and was a very prosperous town. The second Buddhist council was held at Vaisali. The Lichchhavis were followers of Buddha. Buddha is said to have visited Lichchavis on many occasions. The Lichchhavis were closely related by marriage to the Magadhas and are said to be the ancestors of the royal family of Nepal. According to one school of scholars, the Lichchavis were of Persian origin. The Lichchavis are represented as (Vratya) Kshatriyas in Manusmriti. The Vaisali, the headquarters of the powerful Vajji republic and the capital of Lichchavis was defeated by king Ajatasatru of Magadha.

Malla

The Mallas are frequently mentioned in Buddhist and Jain works. They were a powerful people dwelling in Eastern India. Panduputra Bhimasena is said to have conquered the chief of the Mallas in course of his expedition of Eastern India. Mahabharata mention Mallas along with the Angas, Vangas, and Kalingas as eastern tribes. The Mallas were republican people with their dominion consisting of nine territories (Kalpa Sutra; Nirayavali Sutra), one of each of the nine confederated clans. Two of these confederations...one with Kusinara (modern Kasia near Gorakhpur) as its capital, second with Pava (modern Padrauna, 12 miles from Kasia) as the capital, had become very important at the time of Buddha. Importance of Kusinara and Pava is very great in the history of Buddhism since Buddha took his last meal and was taken ill at Pava and breathed his last at Kusinara. The Mallas, like the Lichchhavis, are mentioned by Manusmriti as Vratya Kshatriyas. They are called Vasishthas (Vasetthas) in the Mahapparnibbana Suttanta. The Mallas originally had a monarchical form of government but later they switched to Samgha (republic) of which the members called themselves rajas. The Mallas were a brave and warlike people. The Jainism and Buddhism found many followers among the Mallas. The Mallas appeared to have formed alliance with Lichchhavis for self defense. They however, lost their independence not long after Buddha’s death and their dominions were annexed to the Magadhan empire.

Chedi or Cheti

The Chedis, Chetis or Chetyas had two distinct settlements of which one was in the mountains of Nepal and the other in Bundelkhand near Kausambi. According to old authorities, Chedis lay near Yamuna midway between the kingdom of Kurus and Vatsas. In the mediaeval period, the southern frontiers of Chedi extended to the banks of river Narmada. Sotthivatnagara, the Sukti or Suktimati of Mahabharata, was the capital of Chedi. The Chedis were an ancient peoples of India and are mentioned in the Rigveda. A Branch of Chedis found a royal dynasty in the kingdom of Kalinga according to the Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharvela.

Vamsa or Vatsa

The Vatsas, Vamsas or Vachchas are stated to be an offshoot from the Kurus. The Vatsa or Vamsa country corresponded with territory of modern Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh. It had monarchical form of government with its capital at Kausambi (identified with village Kosam, 38 miles from Allahabad). Kausambi had been very prosperous city where large number of millionaire merchants resided. It was most important entreport of goods and passengers from north-west and south. Udyana was the ruler of Vatsa in sixth century BCE at the time of Buddha. He was very powerful, warlike and found of hunting. Initially king Udyana was opposed to Buddhism but later on he became follower of Buddha and made Buddhism the state religion.

Kuru

The Puranas trace the origin of Kurus from Puru-Bharata family. Aitareya Brahmana locates the Kurus in Madhyadesha and also refers to the Uttarakurus as living beyond the Himalayas. According to Buddhist text Sumangavilasini (II. p 481), the people of Kururashtra (the Kurus) came from the Uttarakuru. Vayu Purana attests that Kuru, son of Samvarsana of the Puru lineage, was the eponymous ancestor of the Kurus and the founder of Kururashtra (Kuru Janapada) in Kurukshetra. The country of the Kurus roughly corresponded to the modern Thaneswer, union territory of Delhi and Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh. According to Jatakas, the capital of Kurus was Indraprastha (Indapatta) near modern Delhi which extended on seven leagues. At Buddha’s time, the Kuru country was ruled by a titular chieftain (king consul) named Korayvya. The Kurus of Buddhist period did not occupy the same position as they did in the Vedic period but they continued to enjoy their ancient reputation for deep wisdom and sound health. The Kurus had matrimonial relations with Yadavas, the Bhojas and the Panchalas. There is a Jataka reference to king Dhananjaya introduced as prince from the race of Yudhishtra. Though a well known monarchical people in earlier period, the Kurus are known to have switched to republic form of government during sixth/fifth century BCE. Fourth century BCE Kautiliya’s Arthashastra also attests the Kurus following the Rajashabdopajivin (king consul) constitution.

Panchala

The Panchalas occupied the country to the east of the Kurus between the mountains and river Ganga. It roughly corresponded to modern Budaun, Farrukhabad and the adjoining districts of Uttar Pradesh. The country was divided into Uttara-Panchala and Dakshina-Panchala. The northern Panchala had its capital at Adhichhatra or Chhatravati (modern Ramnagar in the Bareilly District), while southern Panchala had it capital at Kampilya or Kampil in Farrukhabad District. The famous city of Kanyakubja or Kanauj was situated in the kingdom of Panchala. Originally a monarchical clan, the Panchals appear to have switched to republican corporation in the sixth and fifth century BCE. Fourth century BCE Kautiliya’s Arthashastra also attests the Panchalas as following the Rajashabdopajivin (king consul) constitution.

Machcha or Matsya

Country of Matsya or Machcha tribe lied to south of the Kurus and west of the Yamuna which separated them from the Panchalas, It roughly corresponded to former state of Jaipur in Rajasthan, and included the whole of Alwar with portions of Bharatpur. The capital of Matsya was at Viratanagara (modern Bairat) which is said to have been named after its founder king Virata. In Pali literature, the Matsyas are usually associated with the Surasenas. The western Matsya was the hill tract on the north bank of Chambal. A branch of Matsya is also found in later days in Vizagapatam region. The Matsyas had not much political importance of their own during the times of Buddha. King Sujata ruled over both the Chedis and Matsyas thus showing that Matsya once formed a part of Chedi kingdom.

Surasena

Country of the Surasenas lied to south-west of Matsya and west of Yamuna. It had its capital at Madhura or Mathura. Avantiputra, the king of Surasena was the first among the chief disciples of Buddha through whose help, Buddhism gained ground in Mathura country. The Andhakas and Vrishinis of Mathura/Surasena are referred to in the Ashtadhyayi of Panini. In Kautiliya’s Arthashastra, the Vrishinis are described as Samgha or republic. The Vrishinis, Andhakas and other allied tribes of the Yadavas formed a Samgha and Vasudeva (Krishna) is described as the Samgha-mukhya. Mathura, the capital of Surasena was also known at the time of Megasthenes as the centre of Krishna worship. The Surasena kingdom had lost its independence on annexation by Magadhan empire.

Assaka or Ashmaka

The Country of Assaka or Ashmaka tribe was located in Dakshinapatha or a southern India. In Buddha’s time, Assakas were located on the banks of river Godavari (south of Vindhya mountains). The capital of Assakas was Potana or Potali which corresponds to Paudanya of Mahabharata. The Ashmakas are also mentioned by Panini. They are placed in the north-west in the Markendeya Purana and the Brhat Samhita. River Godavari separated the country of Assakas from that of the Mulakas (or Alakas). The commentator of Kautiliya’s Arthashastra identifies Ashmaka with Maharashtra. The country of Assaka lay outside the pale of Madhyadesa. It lied on a southern high road or the Dakshinapatha. At one time, Assaka included Mulaka and their country abutted with Avanti (Dr Bhandarkaar).

Avanti

Country of the Avantis was an important kingdom of western India and was one of the four great monarchies in India when Buddhism arose, the other three being Kosala, Vatsa and Magadha. Avanti was divided into north and south by river Vetravati. Initially, Mahissati (Sanskrit Mahishamati) was the capital of Southern Avanti, and Ujjaini (Sanskrit Ujjayini) was of northern Avanti, but at the times of Mahavira and Buddha, Ujjaini was the capital of integrated Avanti. The country of Avanti roughly corresponded to modern Malwa, Nimar and adjoining parts of the Madhya Pradesh. Both Mahishmati and Ujjaini stood on the southern high road called Dakshinapatha extending from Rajagriha to Pratishthana (modern Paithan). Avanti was an important center of Buddhism and some of the leading theras and theris were born and resided there. King Nandivardhana of Avanti was defeated by king Shishunaga of Magadha. Avanti later became part of Magadhan empire.

Gandhara

The wool of Gandharis is referred to in the Rigveda. The Gandharis, along with the Mujavantas, Angas and the Magadhas, are also mentioned in the Atharavaveda, but apparently as a despised people. Gandharas are included in the Uttarapatha division of Puranic and Buddhistic traditions. Aitareya Brahmana refers to king Naganajit of Gandhara who was contemporary of raja Janaka of Videha. According to Dr Zimmer, Gandharas were settled since the Vedic times on the south bank of river Kubha (Kabol) upto its mouth into Indus itself. Later the Gandhras crossed Indus and expanded into parts of north-west Panjab. Gandharas and their king figure prominently as strong allies of the Kurus against the Pandavas in Mahabharata war. The Gandharas were a furious people, well trained in the art of war. According to Puranic traditions, this Janapada was founded by Gandhara, son of Aruddha, a descendent of Yayati. The princes of this country are said to have come from the line of Druhyu who was a famous king of Rigvedic period. The river Indus watered the lands of Gandhara. Taksashila and Pushklavati, the two cities of this Mahajanapada, are said to have been named after Taksa and Pushkara, the two sons of Bharata, a prince of Ayodhya. According to Vayu Purana (II.36.107), the Gandharas were destroyed by Pramiti aka Kalika, at the end of Kalyuga. Panini has mentioned both Vedic form Gandhari as well as the later form Gandhara in his Ashtadhyayi. The Gandhara kingdom sometimes also included Kashmira (Jataka No 406). Hecataeus of Miletus (549-468) refers to Kaspapyros (Kasyapura i.e Kashmira) as Gandaric city. According to Gandhara Jataka, at one time, Gandhara formed a part of the kingdom of Kashmir. Jataka also gives another name Chandahara for Gandhara. Gandhara Mahajanapada of Buddhist traditions included territories of east Afghanistan, and north-west of the Panjab (modern districts of Peshawar (Purushapura) and Rawalpindi). Its capital was Takshasila (Prikrit Taxila). The Taxila University was a renowned center of learning in ancient times, where scholars from all over the world came to seek higher education. Panini, the Indian genius of grammer and Kautiliya, the Indian Machiavelli are the world renowned products of Taxila University. King Pukkusati or Pushkarasarin of Gandhara in middle of sixth century BCE was the contemporary of king Bimbisara of Magadha. Gandhara was located on the grand northern high road (Uttarapatha) and was a centre of international commercial activities. It was an important channel of communication with ancient Iran and Central Asia. According to some scholars, the Gandharas and Kambojas were same ethnic stock.

Kamboja

Kambojas are also included in the Uttarapatha. In ancient literature, the Kamboja is variously associated with the Gandhara, Darada and the Bahlika (Bactria). Ancient Kamboja is known to have comprised regions on either side of the Hindukush. The original Kamboja was located in eastern Oxus country as neighbor to Bahlika, but with time, some clans of Kambojas appear to have crossed Hindukush and planted colonies on its southern side also. These latter Kambojas are associated with the Daradas and Gandharas in Indian literature and also find mention in the Edicts of Ashoka. The evidence in Mahabharata and in Ptolemy’s Geography distinctly supports two Kamboja settlements. The cis-Hindukush region from Nurestan up to Rajori in southwest of Kashmir sharing borders with the Daradas and the Gandharas constituted the Kamboja country (MBH VII.4.5; II.27.23). The capital of Kamboja was probably Rajapura (modern Rajori) in south-west of Kashmir. The Kamboja Mahajanapada of the Buddhist traditions refers to this cis-Hindukush branch of ancient Kambojas (See: Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 5-6; cf: Geographical Data in the Early Puranas, p 168) The trans-Hindukush region including Pamirs and Badakhshan which shared borders with the Bahlikas (Bactria) in the west and the Lohas and Rishikas of Sogdiana/Fergana in the north, constituted the Parama-Kamboja country (MBH II.27.27). The trans-Hindukush branch of the Kambojas remained pure Iranian but the Kambojas of cis-Hindukush appear to have come under Indian cultural influence. The Kambojas are known to have had both Iranian as well as Indian affinities. The Kambojas were also a well known republican people since Epic times. Mahabharata refers to several Ganah (or Republics) of the Kambojas (MBH 7/91/39). Kautiliya’s Arthashastra (11/1/4) and Ashoka's Edict No. XIII also attest that the Kambojas followed republican constitution. Panini's Sutras (IV.1.168-175), though tend to convey that the Kamboja of Panini was a Kshatriya Monarchy, but the special rule and the exceptional form of derivative he gives to denote the ruler of the Kambojas implies that the king of Kamboja was a titular head (king consul) only (Dr K. P. Jayswal). According to Buddhist texts, the first fourteen of the above Mahajanapadas belong to Majjhimadesa (Mid India) while the last two belong to Uttarapatha or the north-west division of Jambudvipa. In a struggle for supremacy that followed in the sixth/fifth century BCE, the growing state of Magadhas emerged as the most predominant power in ancient India annexing several of the Janapadas of the Majjhimadesa. A bitter line in the Brahmin Puranas laments that Magadhan emperor Mahapadama Nanda exterminated all Kshatriyas, none worthy of the name Kshatrya being left thereafter. This obviously refers to the Kasis, Kosalas, Kurus, Panchalas, Vatsyas and other neo-Vedic tribes of the east Panjab of whom nothing was ever heard except in the legend and poetry. The Kambojans and Gandharans, however, never came into direct contact with Magadhan state until Chandragupta and Kautiliya arose on the scene. But these nations also fell a prey to the Achaemenids of Persia during the reign of Cyrus (558-530 BCE) or in the first year of Darius. Kamboja and Gandhara formed the twentieth and richest strapy of Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus I is said to have destroyed the famous Kamboja city called Kapisi (modern Begram) in Paropamisadae. category: History of India Category:Iron Age Category:Indo-Aryan peoples Category:Mahajanapadas

Uttarapatha

Ancient Buddhist and Brahmanical texts reveal that Uttarapatha was the name of northern division of Jambudvipa of ancient Indian traditions. Initially, the term Uttarapatha referred to the northern high road ..the main trade route that followed along the river Ganges, crossed the Indo-Gangetic watershed, ran through the Punjab to Taxila (Gandhara) and further to Zariaspa or Balkh (Bactria) in Central Asia. The eastern terminus of the Uttarapatha was Tamraliptika or Tamluk located at the mouth of Ganges in west Bengal. It was the longest ancient land route which had become very popular due to increasing maritime contacts with the sea-ports on the eastern coast of India during the Mauryan rule. Later, Uttarapatha was the name lent to the vast expanse of region which the Uttarapatha or the northern high road traversed. The boundaries of Uttarapatha, as a region, are nowhere precisely defined in the Buddhist or any other ancient Indian source. According to some writers, the Uttarapatha included the whole of Northern India, from Anga in the east to Gandhara in the north-west, and from the Himalaya in the north to the Vindhya in the south. The Jambudvipa region to the south of Uttarapatha was known as Majjhimadesa (or the Middle Country) in Buddhist texts and Madhyadesa in Puranic texts. According to Buddhist texts, the Kamboja and Gandhara, two of the sixteen Mahajanapadas or great nations referred to in the Anguttara Nikaya and Chulla-Niddesa belonged to the Uttarapatha. The Buddhist texts include the remaining fourteen of the Mahajanapadas viz Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vamsa (or Vatsa), Kuru, Panchala, Machcha (or Mattsya), Surasena, Avanti and Assaka in the Majjhimadesa division Numerous Puranic literature terms the Bahlikas, Pahlavas, Sakas, Paradas, Ramathas, Kambojas, Daradas, Tushars, Chinas, Barbaras, Keikayas, Abhiras, Sindhus, Soviras etc as the tribes of Uttarapatha (Kirfel list of the Uttarapatha countries of the Bhuvanakosa). According to Puranic geography (Bhuvanakosa list of ancient countries), the Kamboja and Gandhara Mahajanapadas of the Buddhist traditions fell in the Udichya (northern), the Assaka in Dakshinapatha, Avanti in Aparanta (western), the Vajji, Malla, Anga and Magadha in Prachya ( eastern) and the remaining eight of the Mahajanapadas in the Madhyadesa division. A medieval era Brahmanical text Kavyamimamsa by Pandit Rajshekhara attests that Uttarapatha lied to the west of Prithudaka (modern Pehoa near Thaneswar in Haryana. The Kavyamimamsa further lists the Sakas, Vokkanas, Hunas, Kambojas, Keikayas, Bahlikas (Bactrians), Pahlavas, Lampakas, Kulutas, Tanganas, Tusharas, Turushakas (Turks), Barbaras etc as the tribes of Uttarapatha (Kavyamimamsa Chapter 17). Mahabharata, at several places, also notifies that the Kambojas, Sakas, Gandharas, Yavanas, Darunas, Barbaras and Khashas were the tribes of Uttarapatha. (MBH 12/201/40; 5/159/20) The Uttarapatha division probably included the territories of greater Panjab, Sindhu, Sovira, Afghanistan, Kashmir, Bactria and parts of Central Asia. The ancient Trans-Oxian nations of Central Asia including the Uttarakuru, Uttaramadra, Param-Kamboja and parts of Saka-dvipa were also located in the Uttarapatha. According to Dr S. M. Ali, Uttarapatha or northern division of Jambudvipa covers a very vast area from the Urals and the Caspain to the Yenisei River and from the Turkistan, Tien Shan ranges to the Arctic. The Ramayana, and Puranas portray the topography of the whole land very accurately and in some cases picturesquely. Uttarapatha was famous from very early times for its fine breed of horses and the horse-dealers. There are ancient references to an ongoing trade between the nations of Uttarapatha and the states of East India. Buddhist as well as Puranic sources attest that the merchants and horse-dealers from Uttarapatha would bring horses and other goods for sale down to eastern Indian places like Savatthi (Kosala), Benares (Kasi), Pataliputra (Magadha), Pragjyotisha (Assam) and Tamarlipitka (in Bengal). Documentation exists that the nations from the Uttarapatha like Kamboja, Gandhara, Bactria, Kashmira were actively engaged in commercial intercourse not only with the states of Gangetic valley but also with Myanmar, Suvarnabhumi, south-west China and other nations in the Southeast Asia. When the Chinese envoy Chang Kien was in Bactria (circa c 127 BCE), he had found to his great surprise that Bamboos and textiles from south-western China were sold in the local markets in Bactria. On personal enquiry, he learnt that these goods were brought to eastern India (Bengal) through Yunnan, Burma and then carried all the way from eastern India to Bactria across India and Afghanistan along the Uttarapatha or the northern high road. The ancient Pali literature reveals that merchants from the nations of Uttarapatha were engaged in international trade following the well-known Kamboja-Dvaravati Caravan Route. Merchants from Kamboja, Gandhara, Sovira, Sindhu etc used to sail from ports of Bharukaccha (modern Bharoch) and Supparaka Pattana (modern Nalla-Sopara, near Mumbai) for trade with Southern India, Sri Lanka and nations of Southeast Asia. Huge trade ships sailed from there directly to south Myanmar. This trade had been going on for hundreds of years before the Buddha. Some merchants from northern India had settled in Myanmar, in the ports and towns located at the mouths of Irrawati (Irrawaddy), Citranga (Sittang) and Salavana (Salween) rivers. The case in point is of two merchant brothers Tapassu and Bhallika from Pokkharavati (present Carasadda) in Gandhara-Kamboja region who had their settlement in Myanmar (Ref: Vipassana Newsletter Vol. 7, No. 10 Dec 97). Also name Irrawaddy for the chief river of Burma (Myanmar) was copied from river Irrawati (Ravi) of north Panjab Evidence exists that horse-dealers from Kamboja in the Uttarapatha were trading horses as far as Sri Lanka. Dr Don Martino notes that the merchants from north-west Kamboja had been conducting horse-trade with Sri Lanka following the west coast of India since remote antiquity (Epigraphia Zeylanka, Vol II, No 13, p 76). Several ancient cave inscriptions found in Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka powerfully attest the existence of a Kamboja Goshatha or Samgha (Gote Kabojhiana) and a Grand Kamboja Trade Guild (Kabojiya Mahapughyanam) in ancient Sinhala. The terms Kaboja and Kabojiya are the ancient Sinhalese forms of the Uttarapatha Kamboja. A Pali text Sihalavatthu of fourth century specifically attests a group of people known as Kambojas living in Rohana in Sri Lanka. A regular horse-trade between the nations of Uttarapatha and those of eastern, western and southern India is attested to have been going on as late as the medieval ages. King Devapala (810-850 CE)) of Bengal, King Vishnuvardhana Hoysala (1106 – 1152 CE) of Mysore and King Valabhi Deva of Valbhi/Saurashtra (1185 CE) had powerful fleets of Kamboja horses in their cavalries. There is also good archeological evidence of Roman trade (0 C.E. to 200 CE) coming into Gandhara/Kamboja and Bactria region in Uttarapatha through the Gujarati peninsula. The Roman gold coins imported from Rome into Gandhara were usually melted into bullion in these regions. Like Uttarapatha, the Dakshinapatha was the name of southern high road which originated from Rajagriha in Magadha, followed through Ujjaini and Narmada valley to Pratisthana (Paithan) in the Mahajanapada of Ashmaka (in modern Maharashtra), onwards to the western coast of India and running in the southern direction. Later, Dakshinapatha was also the name lent to the region of India lying to the south of Vindya through which the Dakshinapatha passed. Name Deccan for the southern part of India has originated from this ancient Dakshinapatha. The philosophies of the easterners were disseminated precisely by the intercourse that went on along the Uttarapatha and the Dakishinpatha trade routes.

Sub-continent

A subcontinent is a large part of a continent. There is no agreement on what constitutes a subcontinent. Generally, however, a subcontinent is split from the rest of a continent by something like a mountain range or by tectonic plates. The phrase the Subcontinent, used on its own in English, commonly means the Indian subcontinent.

Geological/geographical subcontinents

In plate tectonics, a small continental plate connected to a larger continental plate can be called a subcontinent. In this sense, the Indian subcontinent on the India Plate and the Arabian subcontinent on the Arabian Plate are recognized. The latter is not commonly called a subcontinent geographically because of lack of a geographical border and a variety in climate. Europe is just a peninsula since it is on the Eurasian Plate. In geography, Europe is occasionally described as a subcontinent of Eurasia for its vast area. Likewise, the smallest continent Australia and the largest island Greenland are sometimes called subcontinents. North America and South America are thought to be the two subcontinents of the continent of the Americas in some cases, because they are connected by an isthmus. Africa and Eurasia are sometimes considered to form the continent of Africa-Eurasia for the same reason. However, the Americas and Africa-Eurasia are usually called supercontinents, composed of continents.

Cultural subcontinents

The term the Indian subcontinent is used also culturally and politically. It includes India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, and usually other South Asian countries too. The region has wide geographical variations like desert, plateau, rainforest, mountains and a myriad of languages, races and religions. Sometimes subregions of continents are dubbed subcontinents because their culture is so different from the rest of the continent, such as Central America and the Middle East.
- Category:Plate tectonics Category:Landforms ja:亜大陸

Gandhara

:For the Philippine municipality, see Gandara, Samar. Gandhāra (also Ghandara, Ghandahra, Chandahara, and Persian Gandara) is the name of an ancient country in eastern Afghanistan and north-west province of Pakistan. Gandhara was located mainly on southern side of Kabul River. In the east, it extended beyond Indus River and included within its boundaries parts of the valley of Kashmir (Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 151). It is sometimes identified as the antecedent of present day Kandahar in Afghanistan.

Geography

Kandahar The Gandharas were settled since the Vedic times on the south bank of Kabul River (river Kubha or Kabol) up to its mouth into Indus itself. Later the Gandhras crossed the Indus and invaded into parts of north-west Punjab of Pakistan. Gandhara was located on the grand northern high road (Uttarapatha) and was a centre of international commercial activities. It was an important channel of communication with ancient Iran and Central Asia.

Ancient Gandhara

Gandhara shows an influx of southern Central Asian culture in the Bronze Age with the Gandhara grave culture, likely corresponding to immigration of Indo-Aryan speakers and the nucleus of Vedic civilization. The name of the Gandharis is attested from the Rigveda. The Gandharis, along with the Mujavantas, Angas and the Magadhas, are also mentioned in the Atharavaveda, but apparently as a despised people. Gandharas are included in the Uttarapatha division of Puranic and Buddhistic traditions. Aitareya Brahmana refers to king Naganajit of Gandhara who was contemporary of Shah Janaka of Videha. Gandharas and their king figure prominently as strong allies of the Kurus against the Pandavas in Mahabharata war. The Gandharas were a furious people, well trained in the art of war. According to Puranic traditions, this Janapada was founded by Gandhara, son of Aruddha, a descendent of Yayati. The princes of this country are said to have come from the line of Druhyu who was a famous king of Rigvedic period. The river Indus watered the lands of Gandhara. Taxila and Pushklavati, the two cities of this Mahajanapada, are said to have been named after Taksa and Pushkara, the two sons of Bharata, a prince of Ayodhya. Ayodhya, Sar Dheri, Gandhara, 1st century BCE. Victoria and Albert Museum.]] According to Vayu Purana (II.36.107), the Gandharas were destroyed by Pramiti aka Kalika, at the end of Kalyuga. Panini has mentioned both Vedic form Gandhari as well as the later form Gandhara in his Ashtadhyayi. The Gandhara kingdom sometimes also included Kashmira (Jataka No 406). Hecataeus of Miletus (549-468) refers to Kaspapyros (Kasyapura i.e. Kashmira) as Gandaric city. According to Gandhara Jataka, at one time, Gandhara formed a part of the kingdom of Kashmir. Jataka also gives another name Chandahara for Gandhara. Buddhist texts like Anguttara Nikaya refer to sixteen great nations (solas Mahajanapadas) which flourished in Indian sub-continent during Buddha's time, only two of which viz. the Gandhara and the Kamboja were located in the Uttarapatha or the north-western division. The primary cities of Gandhara country were Purushpura (now Peshawar) and Takshashila (prikrit Taxila). Taxila, the capital of Gandhara, was a renowned center of learning in ancient times, where scholars from all over the world came to seek higher education. Panini, the Indian genius of grammar and Kautiliya, the Indian Machiavelli are the world renowned products of Taxila University. King Pukkusati or Pushkarasarin of Gandhara in middle of sixth century BCE was the contemporary of king Bimbisara of Magadha. At the time of Alexander's invasion, hyparchs Kubhesha, Hastin (Astes) and Ambhi (Omphes) were ruling lower Kabul valley, Puskalavati (modern Charasadda) and Taxila respectively, while Ashvajit (chief of Aspasios or Ashvayanas) and Assakenos (chief of Assakenois or Ashvakayanas) (both being sub-units of the Kambojas) were ruling upper Kabol valley and Mazaga (Mashkavati) respectively.

Persian rule

Both Gandhara and Kamboja soon fell a prey to the Achaemenian Dynasty of Persia during the reign of Achaemenid, Cyrus the Great (558-530 BCE), or in the first year of Darius I. The Gandhara and Kamboja constituted the twentieth and richest satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) is said to have destroyed the famous Kamboja city, Kapisi (modern Begram) in Paropamisadae. In the eighth decade of fourth century BCE, the companions of Alexander the Great did not record the names of Kamboja and Gandhara and rather located a dozen small political units in their territories. This rules out the possibility of rise of Gandhara and Kamboja as great kingdoms in the second and third quarters of fourth century BCE. In 326 BC, most of these political units of the former Gandhara and Kamboja Mahajanapadas were conquered by Alexander the Great. According to some scholars, the people of Gandhara and Kamboja were of same ethnic group.

Gandhara under the Mauryas

Gandhara was won back from the Greeks by Chandragupta Maurya. Having defeated Seleucus Nicator (Alexander's successor in Asia) in 305 BCE, the Mauryan Emperor extended his domains up to and including Southern Afghanistan. With the completion of the Empire's Grand Trunk Road, the region presumably prospered as a center of trade. Gandhara would remain a part of the Mauryan Empire for close to a century and a half. Mauryan control over northern frontagers including the Yonas, Kambojas and the Gandharas is attested from the Rock Edicts left by the third and greatest Emperor of the dynasty, Ashoka, who shows special solicitude for these frontier highlanders. His successors, however, failed to cast such imperial shadows throughout the sub-continent.

Gandhara under Greek rule

Ashoka The decline of the Empire left the sub-continent open to Greco-Bactrian expansion. Southern Afghanistan was absorbed by Demetrius of Bactria in 180 BCE, following his campaign against King Subhagasena. This was eventually followed by gains made along, or possibly past, the trans-Indus by Menander, apparently as far as