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Kambojas

Kambojas

Kambojas are a very ancient people of north-western parts of ancient India, frequently mentioned in ancient texts, although not in the Rig Veda. They are known to belong to the ancient Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. The Kambojas still live as Kamboj and Kamboh in the greater Panjab, and as Kams/Kamoz and Katirs/Kamtoz of the Siyaposh tribe in the Nuristan province of Afghanistan. Their numbers have greatly dwindled, and the total population still known by these forms of their ancient name is currently estimated to be about 1.5 million.

Ethnicity & Language of Kambojas

:Main article: Ethnicity of Kambojas Numerous classical sources all indicate that ancient Kamboja was a center of Iranian civilization. This is evident from the Mazdean religious customs of the ancient Kambojas, as well as from the Avestan language they spoke. Avestan It is now widely accepted among scholars that the Kambojas were an Avestan-speaking group of East Iranians, and were located mainly in north-eastern Afghanistan and parts of Tajikstan. Some scholars also believe that the Zoroastrian religion originated in eastern Iran in the land of the Kambojas. The tribal name Kamboja has been traced to the royal name Kambujiya of the Old Persian Inscriptions (known as Cambyses to the Greeks). Kambujiya or Kambaujiya was the name of several great Persian kings of the Achaemenid line. This name also appears written as C-n-b-n-z-y in Aramaic, Kambuzia in Assyrian, Kambythet in Egyptian, Kam-bu-zi-ia in Akkadian, Kan-bu-zi-ia in Elamite, and Kanpuziya in Susian language. Susian] Cambyses III, son of Cyrus the Great, is famous for his conquest of Egypt (525 BCE), and for the havoc he wrought upon that country.

Original Home of Kambojas

:Main article: Kamboja Location Analysis of ancent Sanskrit texts and inscriptions place the Kambojas, Gandharas, Yavanas, Madras, and the Sakas in the Uttarapatha - the northern division of Jambudvipa (the innermost concentric island continent in Hindu scripture). Geographically, this area sat along, and was named for, the main trade route from the mouth the Ganges to Balkh, now a small town in Northen Afghanistan. Some writers suggest that Uttarapatha included the whole of Northern India and extended deep into Central Asia. Linguistic evidence, combined with this literary and inscriptional evidence, has led many noted scholars to conclude that ancient Kambojas originally belonged to the Galcha-speaking area of Central Asia. For example, Yasaka's Nirukata (II/2) attests that verb shavati in the sense "to go" was used by only the Kambojas. It has been proved that the modern Galcha dialects, Valkhi, Shigali, Sriqoli, Jebaka (also called Sanglichi or Ishkashim), Munjani, Yidga and Yagnobi, mainly spoken in Pamirs and countries on the headwaters of Oxus, still use terms derived from ancient Kamboja shavati in the sense "to go". The Yagnobi dialect spoken in Yagnobe around the headwaters of Zeravshan in Sogdiana, also still contains a relic from ancient Kamboja shavati in the sense "to go". Further, the former language of Badakshan was also a dialect of Galcha, said to have been replaced by Persian only in the last few centuries. Thus, the ancient Kamboja probably included the Pamirs, Badakshan, and possibly parts of Tajikstan, including Yognobi region in the doab of the Oxus. On the east it was bounded roughly by Yarkand and/or Kashgar, on the west by Bahlika (Uttaramadra), on the northwest by Sogdiana, on the north by Uttarakuru, on the southeast by Darada, and on the south by Gandhara. Later, some sections of the Kambojas crossed the Hindukush and planted Kamboja colonies in Paropamisadae and as far as Rajauri. This view is fully supported by the Mahabharata, which specifically draws attention to the Kambojas in the cis-Hindukush region as being neighbors to the Daradas, and the Parama-Kambojas across the Hindukush as being neighbors to the Rishikas (or Tukharas) of Ferghana/Sogdiana. The two separate Kamboja settlements are also substantiated from Ptolemy's Geography, which references a geographical term Tambyzoi located on the river Oxus in Badakshan, and an Ambautai people living on the southern side of Hindukush in the Paropamisadae. Scholars have identified both the Ptolemian Tambyzoi and Ambautai with Sanskrit Kamboja. The Yidga sub-dialect of Galcha Munjani is still spoken on the southern sides of Hindukush in Paropamisadae, further strengthening the view that some Kambojas crossed south of the Hindukush. With time, the trans-Hindukush Kambojas remained essentially Iranian in culture and religion, while those in the cis-Hindukush region came under Indian cultural influence. This is probably why the ancient Kambojas are attested as having Indian as well as Iranian affinities. Still later, some sections of the Kambojas apparently moved even farther, to Arachosia, as attested by the Aramaic version of Greco-Aramaic inscriptions of king Ashoka found in Kandahar. Some scholars have identified the original Kamboja with Arachosia, but this view does not seem to be correct.

Kambojas: A Warrior Clan

In India, the Kambojas seem to have belonged to the Kshatriya caste of Indo-Aryan society. The earliest and most powerful reference endorsing the Kshatriya-hood of the Kambojas is Panini's fifth century BCE Ashtadhyayi. Panini refers to the Kamboja Janapada, and mentions it as "one of the fifteen powerful Kshatriya Janapadas" of his times, inhabited and ruled by Kamboja Kshatriyas (Ashtadhyayi, 4.1.168-175). See: Kambojas of Panini The Harivamsa attests that the clans of Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas etc. were "formerly Kshatriyas". It was king Sagara who had deprived the Kambojas, and other allied tribes, of their Kshatiya-hood (Harivamsa 14/19) and forbidden them to perform Svadhyayas and Vasatkaras (Harivamsa, 14/17). The Harivamsa also calls this group of Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas "Kshatriya-pungava", i.e., foremost among the Kshatriyas. The Manusmriti further attests that the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas etc were originally "noble Kshatriyas", but were gradually degraded to the status of Sudras, on account of their omission of the sacred rites without consulting the Brahmanas (X/43-44). The Mahabharata likewise specifically notes that the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, et al. were originally "noble Kshatriyas", who later got degraded to barbaric status due to their neglect of the Brahmanas (MBH 13/33/31-32). The Arthashastra of Kautiliya (11/1/04) attests Kshatriya Shrenis (Companies of Warriors) of the Kambojas, Surashtras, and some other nations, and notes them as living by agriculture, trade and warfare. The legend of Daivi Khadga or Divine Sword detailed in Shantiparva of Mahabharata (12/166/1-81) also powerfully endorses the Kshatriya-hood of the Kambojas. The sword as the "symbol of Kshatriya-hood" was wrested by the warrior king Kamboja from the Kosala king Kuvalashava alias Dhundhumara, from whom it went to a Yavana king, Muchukunda (MBH 12/166/77-78). Bhagavata Purana (2.7.35) references a king of the Kambojas, and calls him a "powerfully armed mighty warrior" (samiti-salina atta-capah Kamboja). Kalika Purana (20/40) refers to a war between the Buddhist king Kali (Maurya Brihadratha) and the Brahmanical king Kalika (Pusyamitra Sunga), where the Kambojas came as military supporters to Brihadratha, (187-180) BCE. The Purana notes the Kamboja warriors as Kambojai...bhimavikramaih, i.e. the Kambojas of terrific military prowess", again suggesting the Kshatriya-hood of the Kambojas. There are more such references in the Puranas, Mahabharata, Ramayana and other ancient Sanskrit and Pali literature, that further document the Kshatriya-hood of the Kambojas.

Kambojas: Master Horsemen

:Main article: Kamboja Horsemen The horses of the Kambojas were famous throughout all periods of ancient history. Ancient literature is overflowing with excellent references to the famed Kamboja horses. The Puranas, the Epics, ancient Sanskrit plays, the Buddhist Jatakas, the Jaina Canon, and numerous other ancient sources, all agree that the horses of the Kambojas were a foremost breed. Jain In Buddhist texts like Manorathpurani, Kunala Jataka and Samangavilasini, the Kamboja land is spoken of as the "birth place of horses" (Kambojo assánam áyatanam.... Samangalavilasini, I, p. 124). The Aruppa-Niddesa of Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa mentions Kamboja as the "base of horses" (10/28). The Jaina Canon Uttaradhyana-Sutra (11/16) tells us that a trained Kamboja horse exceeded all other horses in speed and no noise could ever frighten it. The Bhishamaparva of Mahabharata (6/90/3-4) lists the best horses from various lands, but places the steeds from Kamboja at the head of the list, and specifically designates them as the leaders among the best horses (Kamboja....mukhyanam). In the great battle fought on the field of Kurukshetra, the fast and powerful steeds of Kamboja were of greatest service (Dr. B. C. Law). The Ramayana (1/6/22), Kautiliya's Arthashastra (2/30/32-34), the Brahmanda Purana (II,2.16.16), Somes'ara's Manasollasa (4.4.715-30), Ashva.Chakitsata by Nakula (p. 415), Raghuvamsha (4/70) and Mandakraanta of Kalidasa, Karanabhaar (19) of Bhaasa, Vamsa-Bhaskara, Madhypithika, and numerous other ancient texts and inscriptions make highly laudatory references to Kamboja horses, and state them the finest breed. Vishnuvardhana, the real founder of Hoysala greatness, who later on became ruler of Mysore, made the earth tremble under the tramp of his powerful Kamboja horses. These references amply demonstrate that Kamboja horses were sleek, very powerful and a foremost breed. They have been especially noted for their great fleetness and remarkable behavior on the battle field. No doubt, Kamboja steeds were the prized possession of kings and warriors in ancient times. It was on account of their supreme position in horse (Ashva) culture that the ancient Kambojas were also popularly known as Ashvakas, i.e. horsemen. Their clans in the Kunar andSwat valleys have been referred to as Assakenois and Aspasios in classical writings, and Ashvakayanas and Ashvayanas in Panini's Ashtadhyayi. The Mahabharata specifically refers to the Kambojas as Ashva-Yudha-Kushalah, i.e., expert cavalrymen (MBH 12/101/5). Dronaparva highly applauds the Kamboja cavalry as extremely fast and fleet (Kambojah... yayur.ashvair.mahavegaih... MBH 7/7/14). The Mahabharata, Ramayana, numerous Puranas and some foreign sources amply attest that "Kamboja cavalry-troopers were frequently requisitioned in ancient wars" (see Ashvaka#Kamboja_cavalry_in__ancient_wars). Therefore, there is no exaggeration in the Mahabharata statement portraying the ancient Kambojas as horse-lords and masters of horsemanship.

Kambojas in Indian Literature

See Kambojas in Indian Traditions

The Kambojas and Alexander the Great

Because the Kambojas were famous for their horses (ashva) and as cavalry-men (ashvaka) they were also popularly called "Ashvakas". The Ashvakas inhabited Eastern Afghanistan, and were included within the more general term Kambojas.French scholars like Dr. E. Lamotte also identify the Ashvakas with the Kambojas. According to one line of scholars, the name Afghan is evidently derived from Ashvakan, the Assakenoi of Arrian. Afghan The Kambojas entered into conflict with Alexander the Great as he invaded Central Asia: "The Macedonian conqueror made short shrifts of the arrangements of Darius and over-running Achaemenid Empire, dashed into Afghanistan and encountered stiff resistance of the Kamboja tribes called Aspasios and Assakenois known in the Indian texts as Ashvayana and Ashvakayana". These Ashvayana and Ashvakayana Kamboja clans fought the invader to a man. When worse came to worse, even the Ashvakayan Kamboj women took up arms and joined their fighting husbands, thus preferring "a glorious death to a life of dishonor". The Ashvakas fielded 30,000 strong cavalry, 30 elephants and 20,000 infantry against Alexander. The Ashvayans (Kambojas) were also good cattle breeders and agriculturists. This is clear from large number of bullocks, 230,000 according to Arrian, of a size and shape superior to what the Macedonians had known, that Alexander captured from them and decided to send to Macedonia for agriculture See also List of country name etymologies

The Kambojas and the Mauryan Empire

The Mudrarakshas play of Visakhadutta as well as the Jain work Parisishtaparvan refers to Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka. The Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite army made up of Yavanas, Kambojas, Sakas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas (Bactrians) (Mudrarakshas, II). With the help of these frontier martial tribes from the northwest, Chandragupta was able to defeat the Greek successors of Alexander the Great, as well as the Nanda rulers of Magadha, and succeeded in founding the Maurya Empire in northern India. The Kambojas find prominent mention as a unit in the 3rd century BCE Edicts of Ashoka. Rock Edict XIII tells us that the Kambojas had enjoyed autonomy under the Mauryas. The republics mentioned in Rock Edict V are the Yonas, Kambojas, Gandharas, Nabhakas and the Nabhapamkitas. They are designated as araja vishaya in Rock Edict XIII, which means that they were kingless i.e. republican polities. In other words, the Kambojas formed a self-governing political unit under the Maurya Emperors. Gandhara King Ashoka sent missionaries to the Kambojas to convert them to Buddhism, and recorded this fact in his Rock Edict V. Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa attest that Ashoka sent thera Maharakkhita to Yona, and Majjhantika to Kashmra and Gandhara, to preach Dharma among the Yonas, Gandharas and Kambojas. Sasanavamsa specifically attests that Maharakkhita thera went to Yonaka country and established Buddha's Sasana "in the lands of the Kambojas and other countries" (Sasanavamsa (P.T.S.), p. 49) Thus, the Zoroastrian as well as the Brahmanised Hindu Kambojas appear to have embraced Buddhism in large numbers, due to the efforts of king Ashoka and his envoys. See also: Edicts of Ashoka

Kambojas' migration to India and beyond

:Main article: Migration of Kambojas

Modern Kamboj and Kamboh

The population of the modern people who still call themselves Kamboj (or prikritic Kamboh, or Kamoz) or Kambhoj is estimated to be around 1.5 million and the rest of their population, over the time, submerged with other occupationalized castes/groups of the Indian subcontinent. The Kambojs, by tradition, are divided into 52 and 84 clans. 52 line is stated to be descendants of Cadet branch and 84 from the elder Branch. This is claimed as referring to the young and elder military divisions under which they had fought the Bharata war. Numerous of their clan names overlap with other Kshatriyas and the Rajput castes of the north-west India, thereby suggesting that some of the Rajput clans of north-west must have descended from the Ancient Kambojas. The Kambojs/Kambohs practiced weapon-worship in the past but the practice is now going out of vogue.

Diaspora

The Kamboj or Kamboh living in upper India (Greater Panjab) are identified as the modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas. They are found as Hindus, Sikhs, Muslims, Buddhists and the Jains. Kambojs are known as adventurous and enterprising people. Therefore, as a colonists, servicemen, and businessmen, they have also spread, after the partition, into various parts of India, including a belt of Haryana from Karnal to Yamunanagar, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Ganganagar in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. A minuscule agrarian community called Kambhoj is stated to be living since olden times in Maharashtra, which may have descended from those Kambojas who had settled in South-West India around Christian era. The Tajiks, Siyaposh tribe (Kam/Kamoz, Katir/Kamtoz) of Nuristan, Yashkuns and the Yusufzais of Eastern Afghanistan and NWFP of Pakistan are said by various scholars to have descended from the ancient Kambojas.

Traditions

The Kambohs are stated to be the ancient inhabitants of Persia The Sikh Kamboj of Kapurthala & Jullundur (Punjab) claim descent from Raja Karan. They also have a tradition that their ancestors came from Kashmir. Hindu Kambohs claim to be related to the Rajputs and to have come from Persia through southern Afghanistan. The Kambohs of Bijnor claim to have come from Trans-Indus country and Mr Purser accepts this as evidently true. The Hindu Kambohs from Karnal claim their origin from Garh-Gajni. Their Pandits still pronounce the following couplet at the phera during their marriage ceremony to give information about their original home: Garh Gajni nikaas, Lachhoti Ghaggar vaas (Trans: Originated from the fort of Gajni, and settled down in Ghaggar region (in Haryana or Punjab)). One Gajni or Ghazni is located in Afghanistan, but based on another tradition of the Karnal Kamboj, the eminent ethnographers like H. A. Rose and several other scholars have identified this Gajni in Kambay in Saurashtra (port of Vallabhi). Muslim Kambohs have a tradition that they descended from ancient Kai dynasty of Persia, to which the emperors Kaikaus, Kaikhusro, Kaikubad, Kai-lehrashab and Darius all belonged. On the last king of the dynasty having been dethroned, and expelled from the country, he wandered about some time with his family and dependents in the neighboring countries and finally settled in Punjab

During Muslim Rule

Muslim Kambohs/Kambojs were very influential and powerful in the early days of Moghul rule. General Shahbaz Khan Kamboh was the most trusted general of Akbar. Sheikh Gadai Kamboh was the Sadar-i-Jahan in Akbar's reign. Numerous other Kamboj are known to have occupied very key civil and military positions during Lodhi, Pathan and the Moghul reign in India. The Sayyids and the Kambohs among the Indian Muslims were specially favored for high military and civil positions during Moghul rule. The Kambohs held Nakodar in Jullundur and Sohna in Gurgaon some centuries ago; and the tombs and mosques that they have left in Sohna show that they must have enjoyed considerable position

Agriculturists

The modern Kamboj are still found living chiefly by agriculture, business and military service which were the chief professions followed by their Kamboja ancestors some 2500 years ago as powerfully attested by Arthashastra and Brhat Samhita. Numerous foreign and Indian writers have described the modern Kambojs/Kambohs as one of the finest class of agriculturists of India. British colonial writers like Rose and Denzil note the Kamboj and Ahir agriculturists as the first rank husbandmen and they rate them above the Jatts. They occupy exactly the same position in general farming as the Ramgarhias occupy in general industry. The Kambojs have made great contributions in agriculture and military fields. The majority of Krishi Pandit awards in Rajasthan/India have been won by the Kamboj agriculturists . Col Lal Singh Kamboj, a landlord from Uttar Pradesh, was the first Indian farmer to win the prestigious Padam Shri Award for progressive farming in 1968 from President of India. According to Dr M. S. Randhawa (Ex-Vice Chancellor, Punjab University), the Kamboj farmers have no equals in industry and tenacity

Physical Characteristics

Several foreign observers have described the modern Kambojs as a very industrious, stiff-necked, turbulent, skillful, provident and enterprising race. Some British ethnologists have described the Kambohs as ethnically more akin to the Afghans than to any of the Hindu races among whom they have now settled for generations There is a medieval Persian proverb current in the north-west to the effect that of the Afghans, the Kambohs (Kamboj) and the Kashmiris... all three are rogues . This old proverb conveys the indisputable fact that in the distant past, the Persians, the Afghans, the Kambojs/Kambohs and the Kasmiris lived more or less as neighbors and were one inter-related racial group. The Kambojs have been noted for their courage, tenacity and stamina for fighting. They (Kamboj) make excellent soldiers, being of very fine physique and possessing great courage.....They have always been noted for their cunning strategy, which now, being far less 'slim' than in former times, has developed into the permissible strategy of war The modern Kamboj are a generally tall, well-built, sharp featured, and generally very fair (gaura varna) race, with brown, sometimes reddish hair, brown or sometimes gray eye color, and long sharp noses. Kamboj women are noted for their beauty from ancient times. In ancient references also, the Kambojas have been described as a very handsome race. Ancient Kamboj princes have also been noted as tall, exceedingly handsome, of gaura varna, with faces illustrious like the full moon, lotus eyed, handsome like the lord-moon among the stars. Even Ramayana calls the Kambojas ravisanibha i.e with faces illustrious like the Sun.

Kamboj in Sports

- The Kamboj have made outstanding contributions in wrestling, field hockey and Kabaddi.
- Jodh Singh, Natha Singh, Hazara Singh, Santa Kharasia, Bakshisha, Chhiba, Khushal, Chanan and Maula Bakhsh are the few foremost Punjabi Kamboj wrestlers of yester-years who had earned great name and fame in wrestling.
- Olympian Prithipal was probably the greatest hockey full-back of the 20th century. Known as King of short-corner and the Mahabahu of Indian hockey, Prithipal was the first Indian to win the Arjuna Award, and later Padma Shri Award for his achievements in hockey.
- Rasool Akhtar, President of Pakistan Hockey Federation, is one of the greatest hockey Olympians from Pakistan.
- A fifteen year old Chandita is the most brilliant emerging roller hockey player of India.
- Rattan Singh alias Rattu has been the greatest defender in freestyle Kabaddi.

Notes

# Sources include the Buddhist Jatakas, Yasaka's Nirukata, Herodotus (I.140), Brahmanical literature, and Avestan texts. # According to noted authorities like Dr. Christian Lassen, Dr. E. Kuhn, Dr S. Levi, Dr. M. Witzel. # See Mahabharata verses (12/201/40), (6/11/63-64), 5/5/15, 5/159/20 etc; Also Kirfels text of Uttarapatha countries of Bhuvankosha; See: Brahama Purana 27/44-53, Vayu Purana 45/115; Brahmanda Purana 12/16-46; Vamana Purana 13/37 etc. # Linguistic Survey of India, X, p. 456 # Mahabharata 2/27/23-25 # Dr. K. P. Jayswal; Dr. Raychaudhury, Dr. B. N. Mukherjee; Dr. Singh, Dr. L.M. Joshi, etc # Histoire du Bouddhisme Indien, p 110, E. Lamotte # C. Lassen, J. W. McCrindle, Saan Martin, Phillip Smith, etc. # Panjab Past and Present, pp. 9-10; History of Porus, pp. 12, 38, Dr. Buddha Parkash # Diodorus in McCrindle, p 270 # History of Panjab, I, p 226 # cf: Glossary, II, p 444, fn. iii. # Jatt Tribes of Zira, p 138; Glossary , II, p 444 # Denzil Ibbetson, H. A. Rose, S. S. Gill, Chaudhri Wahhab Ud-Din. # H. A. Rose, A. H. Bingley, H. M. Elliot, Dr G. S. Mansukhani, R. C. Dogra, etc. # Akbar Nama by Abu-L-Fazl, Trans H. Blochman, p 122 # The composition of the Mughal nobility, Concise Encyclopedia Britannica, Online; # The Mughal Nobility Under Aurangzeb, 2002, p 21, M. Athar Ali; # Cultural History of India, 1975, p 261, A. L. Basham. # Arthashastra(11/1/04) # Brhat Samhita(5/35) # Panjab Castes, 1974, p 149, D. Ibbetson; Glossary, II, pp 6, 442, H. A. Rose. # Origin of names of Castes and Clans, 2004,Principal Sewa Singh. # Out of Ashes,p 60,Dr M. S. Randhawa. # Bingley, Rose # The Sikhs, A. H. Bingley, p 57. # The Sikhs and the Wars by Reginald Holder From Panjab: Past & Present Vol IV, Part I, 1970, S. No 7, Edited by Dr Ganda Singh # Hindu World, p 520, Benjamin Walker; # Mahabharat 11/25/1-8 # Mahabharat 7/23/43 # Mahabharat 8/56/113 # Mahabharat, 7/92/74, 8/56/113 # Mahabharat 1/67/31 # Ramayana 1/55/2 Category:Indo-European

Kambojas

Ethnicity & Language of Kambojas

Original Home of Kambojas

Kambojas: A Warrior Clan

Kambojas: Master Horsemen

Kambojas in Indian Literature

See Kambojas in Indian Traditions

The Kambojas and Alexander the Great

The Kambojas and the Mauryan Empire

Kambojas' migration to India and beyond

:Main article: Migration of Kambojas

Modern Kamboj and Kamboh

Diaspora

Traditions

During Muslim Rule

Agriculturists

Physical Characteristics

Kamboj in Sports

Notes

Rig Veda

The Rig Veda ऋग्वेद (Sanskrit ṛgveda from ṛc "praise" + veda "knowledge") is a collection of hymns counted among the four Hindu religious scriptures known as the Vedas, and contains the oldest texts preserved in any Indo-Iranian language. It was first orally passed down in India & then later on finally was documented. It consists of 1,017 hymns (1,028 including the apocryphal valakhilya hymns 8.49-8.59) composed in Vedic Sanskrit, many of which are intended for various sacrifical rituals. These are contained in 10 books, known as Mandalas. This long collection of short hymns is mostly devoted to the praise of the gods. However, it also contains fragmentary references to historical events, notably the struggle between the early Vedic people (known as Vedic Aryans, a subgroup of the Indo-Aryans) and their enemies, the Dasa. The chief gods of the Rig-Veda are Agni, the sacrificial fire, Indra, a heroic god that is praised for having slain his enemy Vrtra, and Soma, the sacred potion, or the plant it is made from. Other prominent gods are Mitra, Varuna and Ushas (the dawn). Also invoked are Savitar, Vishnu, Rudra, Pushan, Brihaspati, Brahmanaspati, Dyaus Pita (the sky), Prithivi (the earth), Surya (the sun), Vac (the word), Vayu (the wind), the Maruts, the Asvins, the Adityas, the Rbhus, the Vishvadevas (the all-gods) as well as various further minor gods, persons, concepts, phenomena and items. Some of the names of gods and goddesses found in the Rig-Veda are found amongst other Indo-European peoples as well: Dyaus is cognate with Greek Zeus, Latin Jupiter, and Germanic Tyr, while Mitra is cognate with Persian Mithra and Ushas with Greek Eos, Latin Aurora and, less certainly, Varuna with Greek Uranos. Finally, Agni is cognate with Latin ignis and Russian ogon, both meaning "fire".
The Text
Hermann Grassmann has numbered the hymns 1 through to 1028, putting the valakhilya at the end. The more common numbering scheme is by book, hymn and verse (and pada (foot) a, b, c ..., if required). E. g. the first pada is
- 1.1.1a agním īḷe puróhitaṃ "Agni I laud, the high priest" and the final pada is
- 10.191.4d yáthāḥ vaḥ súsahā́sati "for your being in good company" From the time of its compilation, the text has been handed down in two versions: The Samhitapatha has all Sanskrit rules of Sandhi applied and is the text used for recitation. The Padapatha has each word isolated in its pausa form and is used for memorization. The Padapatha is, as it were, a commentary to the Samhitapatha, but the two seem to be about co-eval. The 'original' text as reconstructed on metrical grounds lies somewhere between the two, but closer to the Samhitapatha ('original' in the sense that it aims to recover the hymns in the form of their composition by the poets, known as Rishis). The Rig-Veda was translated into English by Ralph T.H. Griffith in 1896. Other (partial) translations by Maurice Bloomfield and William Dwight Whitney. Linguistic (as well as content-related) evidence suggests that books 2-7 are older than the remaining books. Books 1 and 10 are considered the most recent. William Dwight Whitney
- Book 1 :191 hymns. Hymn 1.1 is addressed to Agni, arranged so that the name of this god is the first word of the Rig-Veda. The remaining hymns are mainly addressed to Agni and Indra. Hymns 1.154 to 1.156 are addressed to (the later Hindu god) Vishnu.
- Book 2 :43 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra chiefly attributed to the Rishi gṛtsamda shaunohotra.
- Book 3 :62 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. The verse 3.62.10 gained great importance in Hinduism as the Gayatri Mantra. Most hymns in this book are attributed to vishvāmitra gāthinaḥ
- Book 4 :58 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. Most hymns in this book are attributed to vāmadeva gautama
- Book 5 :87 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra, the Visvadevas, the Maruts, the twin-deity Mitra-Varuna and the Asvins. Two hymns each are dedicated to Ushas (the dawn) and to Savitar. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the atri family
- Book 6 :75 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the bārhaspatya family of Añgirasas.
- Book 7 :104 hymns, to Agni, Indra, the Visvadevas, the Maruts, Mitra-Varuna, the Asvins, Ushas, Indra-Varuna, Varuna, Vayu (the wind), two each to Sarasvati and Vishnu, and to others. Most hymns in this book are attributed to vasiṣṭha maitravaurṇi
- Book 8 :103 hymns, mixed gods. Hymns 8.49 to 8.59 are the apocryphal valakhilya, the majority of them are devoted to Indra. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the kāṇva family
- Book 9 :114 hymns, entirely devoted to Soma Pavamana, the plant of the sacred potion of the Vedic religion.
- Book 10 :191 hymns, to Agni and other gods. In the west, probably the most celebrated hymns are 10.129 and 10.130 dealing with creation, especially 10.129.7: ::He, the first origin of this creation, whether he formed it all or did not form it, / Whose eye controls this world in highest heaven, he verily knows it, or perhaps he knows not. (Griffith) :These hymns exhibit a level of philosophical speculation very atypical of the Rig-Veda, which for the most part is occupied with ritualistic invocation. The Rig-Veda is preserved by two major shakhas ('branches', i. e. schools or recensions), Shakala and Bashakala. Considering its great age, the text is spectacularly well preserved and uncorrupted, so that scholarly editions can mostly do without a critical apparatus. Associated to Shakala is the Aitareya-Brahmana. The Bashakala includes the Khilani and has the Kausitaki-Brahmana associated to it.
Internal Evidence
The Rigveda is far more archaic than any other Indo-Aryan text preserved. For this reason, it has been the in the center of attention of western scholarship from the times of Max Müller. The Rigveda records an early stage of Vedic religion, still closely tied to the pre-Zoroastrian Persian religion. It is thought that Zoroastrianism and Vedic Hinduism evolved from an earlier common religious Indo-Iranian culture. Scholars usually date the Rig-Veda to the 2nd millennium BC both linguistically and on grounds of its references to late bronze age culture. The Rigveda describes a mobile, nomadic culture, with horse-drawn chariots and metal (bronze) weapons. The geography described is consistent with that of the Punjab (Gandhara): Rivers flow north to south, the mountains are relatively remote but still reachable (Soma is a plant found in the mountains, and it has to be purchased, imported by merchants). The text is commonly held to have been completed between 1500 BC and 1200 BC, or the early period of the Gandhara Grave culture. After their composition, the texts were preserved and codified by a vast body of Vedic priesthood as the central philosophy of the Iron Age Vedic civilization. Nevertheless the hymns were certainly composed over a long period, with the oldest elements possibly reaching back into Indo-Iranian times, or the early 2nd millennium BC. Thus there is some debate over whether the boasts of the destruction of stone forts by the Vedic Aryans and particularly by Indra refer to cities of the Indus Valley civilization or whether they hark back to clashes between the early Indo-Aryans with the BMAC (Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex) culture centuries earlier, in what is now northern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan (separated from the upper Indus by the Hindu Kush mountain range, and some 400 km distant). In any case, while it is highly likely that the bulk of the Rigveda was composed in the Punjab, even if based on earlier poetic traditions, there is no mention of either tigers or rice in the Rigveda (as opposed to the later Vedas), suggesting that Vedic culture only penetrated into the plains of India after its completion. Similarly, there is no mention of iron. The Iron Age in northern India begins in the 12th century BC with the Black and Red Ware (BRW) culture. This is a widely accepted timeframe for the beginning codification of the Rigveda (i.e. the arrangement of the individual hymns in books, and the fixing of the samhitapatha (by applying Sandhi) and the padapatha (by dissolving Sandhi) out of the earlier metrical text), and the composition of the younger Vedas. This time probably coincides with the early Kuru kingdom, shifting the center of Vedic culture east from the Punjab into what is now Uttar Pradesh. Some, mostly Indian, writers have used alleged astronomical references in the Rig-Veda to date it to as early as the 4th millennium BC. Mainstream scholarship widely rejects these interpretations as pseudoscientific (e.g. Witzel, 1999).
Hindu Tradition
According to Indian tradition, the Rig-Vedic hymns were collected by Paila under the guidance of Vyāsa, who formed the Rig-Veda Samhita as we know it. According to the Shatapatha Brahmana, the number of syllables in the Rigveda is 432,000, equalling the number of muhurtas (1 day = 30 muhurtas) in forty years. This statement stresses the underlying philosophy of the Vedic books that there is a connection (bandhu) between the astronomical, the physiological, and the spiritual. The authors of the Brāhmana literature described and interpreted the Rigvedic ritual. Yaska was an early commentator of the Rig-Veda. In the 14th century, Sāyana wrote an exhaustive commentary on it. Other Bhāshyas (Hindu commmentaries) that have been preserved up to present times are those by Madhava, Skandasvamin and Venkatamadhava.
More Recent Indian Views
Generally speaking, the Indian perception of the Rig-Veda has moved away from the original ritualistic content to a more symbolic or mystical interpretation. For example, instances of animal sacrifice are not seen as literal slaughtering but as transcendental processes. The Rigvedic view is seen to consider the universe to be infinite in size, dividing knowledge into two categories: lower (related to objects, beset with paradoxes) and higher (related to the perceiving subject, free of paradoxes). Swami Dayananda, who started the Arya Samaj and Sri Aurobindo have emphasized a spiritual (adhyatimic) interpretation of the book. The Sarasvati river, lauded in the hymns as the greatest river flowing from the mountain to the sea is sometimes equated with the Ghaggar-Hakra river, which went dry perhaps before 2600 BC or certainly before 1900 BC. Others argue that the Sarasvati was originally the Helmand in Afghanistan. These questions are tied to the debate about the Indo-Aryan migration (termed "Aryan Invasion Theory") vs. the claim that Vedic culture together with Vedic Sanskrit originated in the Indus Valley Civilisation, a topic of great significance in Hindu nationalism, addressed for example by Amal Kiran and Shrikant G. Talageri. Subhash Kak has claimed that there is an astronomical code in the organization of the hymns. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, based on alleged astronomical alignments in the Rig-Veda, even went as far as to claim that the Aryans originated on the North Pole (Arctic Home in the Vedas, 1903). D. B. Kasar compares the Indus script to Germanic runes and claims that IVC inscriptions contain Rigvedic hymns.
References

- Michael Witzel, The Pleiades and the Bears viewed from inside the Vedic texts, EVJS Vol. 5 (1999), issue 2 (December) [http://users.primushost.com/~india/ejvs/ejvs0502/ejvs0502.txt].
Notes

- Nilotpal Sinha, December, 7, 2005. I found the line as: "Bal Gangadhar Tilak, based on alleged astronomical alignments in the Rig-Veda, even went as far as to claim that the Aryans originated on the North Pole." But, you got a linguistic misunderstanding about the North Pole. Tilak had used the term Sumeru. Unfortunately, in very common dialectics, Sumeru means the North Pole. Though, in the same dialectics, Sumeru also means Sumer [Ref.: Rigveda Samhita, Vol 1, Introduction by Dr. H. Banerjee (Haraf Prakashani, Calcutta, 2000), p. 40], i.e., he had claimed that the Aryans originated on the Sumerian civilization. This is a wellknown misunderstanding in Indian language.
Bibliography
Commentary
- Sri Aurobindo: Hymns of the Mystic Fire (Commentary on the Rig Veda), Lotus Press, Twin Lakes, Wisconsin ISBN 0-914955-22-5 [http://www.mountainman.com.au/rghmf_00.html]
- Sayana: Sayana Bhasya, Commentary on the Rig Veda Western philology
- Griffith, Ralph T.H.: The Rig Veda Samhita (Translation), 1896.
- Oldenberg, Hermann: Die Hymnen des Rig Veda, 1888. Historical
- Frawley David: The Rig Veda and the History of India, 2001.(Aditya Prakashan), ISBN 81-7742-039-9
- Talageri, Shrikant: The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis, ISBN 81-7742-010-0 Archaeoastronomy etc.
- Kak, Subhash: The Astronomical Code of the Rgveda, Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, 2000, ISBN 81-215-0986-6.
- Tilak, Bal Gangadhar: The Artic Home of the Vedas
External links
Text
- [http://wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83 Full text in Sanskrit with Devanagari] (Wikisource)
- [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/index.htm Rig-veda at sacred-texts.com]
- [http://www.intratext.com/ixt/SAN0010/_index.htm Rig-Veda in ITRANS encoding. Quasi-searchable] ja:リグ・ヴェーダ Category:Vedas Category:Sanskrit texts

Indo-European

Indo-European was originally a purely linguistic term, referring to the Indo-European language family. By extension, it became a collective name for cultures and religions associated with these languages. Hypothetically, these cultures arose from the expansion of an ancient people, the Proto-Indo-Europeans, from a homeland that has remained obscured, although opinion is generally divided between southern Russia and eastern Anatolia.

Language Family

See main article Indo-European languages. The Indo-European language family is attested in twelve branches, some of them extinct, with a historical distribution over most of Europe, North India, Pakistan, Anatolia, Armenia, Iran, and parts of Central Asia (East Turkistan). The word Indo specifically refers to India alone. India has the largest single Indo-European speaking population on the planet where 75% of the non-Dravidian population (some 700 million people) speak many different Indo-European languages and dialects, which are descendents of a language called Proto-Indo-Aryan by linguists. During the age of colonialism, Indo-European languages spread from Europe to all continents, and today there are over three billion speakers of Indo-European languages, distributed all over the world. The languages are traditionally separated into a Satem group in the east (Baltic, Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian) and a Centum group in the west (Greek, Italic, Celtic, Germanic), according to their different treatment of PIE velar sounds. The two groups are considered paraphyletic, i.e. there are no separate proto-languages for each group and their common characteristics are likely due to prolonged contact because of their geographical proximity. Also, there is evidence that the Anatolian, Tocharian and Albanian branches belong to neither of the two groups.

Comparative Linguistics

See main article Indo-European studies. The existence of the Proto-Indo-Europeans has been inferred by comparative linguistics. The discovery of the genetic relationship of the various Indo-European languages goes back to William Jones, a British judge in India, who in 1782 observed the strong affinity of Sanskrit, Greek and Latin. The language group was briefly referred to as "Indo-Germanic", until it became apparent that the group included most of the other languages of Europe, as well. "Indo-European", the term now current in English, was coined in 1813 by the British scholar Sir Thomas Young. Franz Bopp performed extensive comparative work. At first, the related languages were simply compared, with no attempt at reconstruction. August Schleicher was the first scholar to compose a tentative text in the extinct "common source" Jones had predicted. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) represents, by definition, a hypothetical model of the common language of the Proto-Indo-Europeans. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, great progress was made due to the discovery of more language material belonging to the Indo-European family, and by advances in comparative linguistics, by scholars such as Ferdinand de Saussure.

Proto-Indo-Europeans

See main article Proto-Indo-Europeans.

Origins

The scholars of the 19th century that originally tackled the question of the original homeland of the Indo-Europeans (also called Urheimat after the German term), were essentially confined to linguistic evidence. A rough localization was attempted by reconstructing the names of plants and animals as well as the culture and technology. The scholarly opinions became basically divided between a European hypothesis, positing migration from Europe to Asia, and an Asian hypothesis, holding that the migration took place in the opposite direction. However, from its early days, the controversy was tainted by romantic, nationalistic notions of heroic invaders at best and by imperialist and racist agendas at worst. The question is still the source of much contention. racist according to the Kurgan hypothesis. The purple area corresponds to the assumed Urheimat (Samara culture, Sredny Stog culture). The red area corresponds to the area which may have been settled by Indo-European-speaking peoples up to ca. 1000 BC.]] In the twentieth century, Marija Gimbutas (1956) created a modern variation on the traditional invasion theory (the Kurgan hypothesis) which regards the Indo-Europeans as nomadic horsemen in what is today South Russia and Eastern Ukraine, expanding in several waves during the 3rd millennium BC. However, others have associalted the Kurgans with the Indo-Iranians. Colin Renfrew (1987) is the main propagator for another theory according to which the Indo-Europeans were farmers in Anatolia who introduced agriculture into southeast Europe around 7000 BC and assimilated the Preindoeuropeans. This is also problematic, however, as the Indo-European language had words for things such as yoke and plough which were not present at the introduction of agriculture to Europe. The rise of Archaeogenetics, which uses genetic analysis to trace migration patterns, added new elements to the puzzle. Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza recently used genetic evidence to in some ways combine Gimbutas' and Renfrew's theory.

Religion

Main article: Proto-Indo-European religion The hypothetical PIE religion was centered on sacrificial rituals where animals were slaughtered to establish good relations with the gods. The chief god of the Proto-Indo-European pantheon, probably mirroring the position of the king in human society, was the sky-god Dyeus.

Kamboh

Kamboh is frequently used as surname or last name by Muslim Kambojs, currently living in Pakistan. See:
- Kamboj

Punjab region

:This article details the geographical region of Punjab. For other meanings see Punjab (disambiguation) Punjab (disambiguation)Punjab (disambiguation) The Punjab (meaning: "Land of five Rivers"; also Panjab, Gurmukhi: ਪੰਜਾਬ, Shahmukhi: پنجاب) is a region straddling the border between India and Pakistan. Punjab, a region in Northern India and the east side of Pakistan, has a long history and rich cultural heritage. The people of the Punjab are called Punjabis and they speak a language called Punjabi. The three main religions in the area are Islam, Hinduism, and Sikhism. The region has been invaded and ruled by many different empires and races, including the Aryans, Persians, Greeks, Turks, Mughals, Afghans and British. Around the time of the 15th Century, Guru Nanak founded the Sikh religion, which quickly came to prominence in the region, and shortly afterwards, Maharaja Ranjit Singh reformed the Punjab into a secular and powerful state. The 19th Century saw the beginning of British rule, which led to the emergence of several heroic Punjabi freedom fighters. In 1947, at the end of British rule, the Punjab was split between Pakistan and India. A historical region of the northwest Indian subcontinent bounded by the Indus and Yamuna rivers. It was a center of the prehistoric Indus Valley civilization and after c. 1500 B.C. the site of early Aryan settlements. Muslims occupied the western part of the region by the 8th century, introducing Islam, and although they later conquered the eastern part, Hinduism remained entrenched there. The Mughals brought the region to cultural eminence until their empire declined in the 18th century. The Punjab was controlled by Sikhs from 1799 to 1849, when it was annexed by Britain. It was partitioned between India and Pakistan in 1947. Once a single entity, it is now split between two nations: Pakistan's Punjab Province and India's Punjab state. The Indian states of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh were also parts of the former undivided Punjab. Delhi had been apart of the British Punjab province. Punjab, India covers an area of 50,362 square kilometres (19,445 square miles). Punjab, Pakistan is 205,344 square kilometres, (79,284 square miles). Population: 24,289,296 (2000) in India: 72,585,000 (1998) in Pakistan. Roughly half of Pakistan's population lives in Pakistani Punjab. Punjabi is spoken by (approx) 90% of population in Pakistani Punjab and 65% in Indian Punjab. The capital city of the Indian Punjab is Chandigarh. The capital city of the Pakistani Punjab is Lahore.

History

Many races of people and religions made up the cultural heritage of the Punjab. Punjab is the land where spiritual aspirations arose. This heroic land bore numerous invasions, and after all its suffering, did not entirely lose its glory and its strength. Here it was that the gentle Nanak preached his marvellous love for the world. Here it was that his broad heart opened and his arms outstretched to embrace the whole world. One of the earliest stone age cultures of South Asia nourished in the Punjab. The Harappa civilization was located in the Punjab. The Vedic and Epic period of the Punjab was socially and culturally very prolific as during this glorious period, the people accelerated in the fields of philosophy and culture. Here the people composed the Rig Veda and the Upanishads. Further, tradition maintains that Valmiki composed the Ramayana near the present Amritsar city and Kaikyee belonged to this region. Lord Krishna gave the divine message of the Gita at Kurukshetra. It was here that people wrote eighteen principal Puranas. The authors of Vishnu Purana and the Shiv Purana belonged to the central Punjab. Right from the invasion of Alexander in 326 B.C., the Punjab bore the brunt of incursions and the aggressive assaults of invaders from the north. At times during the Mughal rule, there was much conflict, chaos, and political upheavals in the Punjab. However, with the Mughals prosperity, growth and relative peace was brought to the Punjab, particularly under the reign of Jahangir in with the Punjab enjoyed its longest era of peace and calm for some time. Appearance of Guru Nanak (1469-1538) was an event significant for the region. He was the founder of a powerful popular movement which has left a lasting impression on the history and culture of Punjab. Born in the district of Sheikhupura, he rejected the division of mankind into rigid compartments of orthodox religions and preached the oneness of humanity, and oneness of God, thus aiming at creating a new order which embraced the all pervasive spirit in man. He condemned and ridiculed the false and unnatural notions of high and low castes practices in Hindu society. Guru Nanak also denounced idolatory and laid stress on meditation for the realization of the Universal self. British intrution had political, cultural, philosophical and literary consequences in the Punjab. The opening of a new system of education introduced a new spirit in the life of the Punjabis. More people realized the greatness of Punjabi culture. During the freedom movement, Punjab played a role worthy of its name. Many heroes emerged from the Punjab such as Lajpat Rai, Ajit Singh, Bhagat Singh, Uddham Singh, Bhal Parmanand and a host of others. Since independence, life in the Punjab proves to be tragic and traumatic. The partition resulted in riots and terror which tore up millions of homes and destroyed many lives. The massive exodus resulting from the newly formed state of Pakistan created problems of uncontrollable dimensions. The Punjabis trekked in blood and shreds. However, the Punjabi spirit of tenacity and toughness sustained the uprooted people. The disillusioned people set to work with no self pity to plough fresh fields. They built new industries and became prominent in sports. Punjabis attained an eminent place in cultural, aesthetic, and literary work, and revived folk art, song, dance and drama. All of this has created a sense of pride and climate of involvement in the heritage of the Punjab.

Religion

Sikhism is the main religion of the Indian Punjab. About 65% of the population is Sikh, 33% is Hindu, and the remaining 2% is mostly Muslim, although there are some Christians. Indian Punjab contains the holy Sikh city of Amritsar. The city is regarded with the same importance by Sikhs as Catholics regard Vatican city. Islam is the religion of about 97% of the population of the Punjab in Pakistan. The language of the region is Punjabi.

Geography

Most of the Punjab is an alluvial plain, bounded by mountains to the North. Despite its dry conditions, it is a rich agricultural area due to the extensive irrigation made possible by the great river system traversing it. The Indian Punjab is the wealthiest state in the country per capita, with most of the revenue generated from agriculture. Punjab region Summer temperatures can reach 47° C (116.6° F). Punjab region temperature range: -10 to 50° C (MIN/MAX).

Agricultural region

This region, historical Punjab, is considered to be one of the most fertile regions on Earth. Both east and west Punjab produce a relatively high proportion of India and Pakistan's food output, respectively. The agricultural output of the Punjab region in Pakistan contributes significantly to Pakistan's GDP. The region is important for wheat growing. In addition, rice, sugar cane, fruit and vegetables are also major crops. Both Indian and Pakistani Punjab are considered to have the best infrastructure of their respective countries. In addition, the Punjabi people, in both of their respective countries are, statistically, on average the wealthiest. Called "The Granary of India", Indian Punjab produces 1% of the world's rice, 2% of its wheat, and 2% of its cotton.

Timeline

- 2500 - 1500 B.C.: Harappa Culture
- 2500 - 700 B.C.: Rigvedic Aryan Civilization
- 599 B.C.: Jainism
- 567 - 487 B.C.: Buddha
- 550 B.C - 600 A.D.: Buddhism remained prevalent
- 550 - 515 B.C.: Persian Invasion to west of Indus River
- 326 B.C.: Alexander's Invasion
- 322 - 298 B.C.: Chandragupta I Maurya Period
- 273 - 232 B.C.: Ashoka's Period
- 125 - 160 B.C.: Rise of the Sakas (Scythians known as Jat ancestors)
- 2 B.C.: Beginning of Rule of the Sakas.
- 45 - 180 A.D.: Rule of the Kushanas
- 320 - 550 A.D.: Gupta Empire
- 500 A.D.: Huns Invasion
- 510 - 650 A.D.: Vardhanas Era
- 647 - 1192 A.D.: Rajput Period
- 713 - 1300 A.D.: Muslim Invaders (Turks and Arabs) famous invaders like Mahmud Gori and Mahmud Ghazni
- 8th Century A.D.: Arabs capture Sind and Multan
- 1450 - 1700 A.D.: Mughal Rulers
- 1469 - 1539 A.D.: Guru Nanak Dev Ji (1st Sikh Guru)
- 1539 - 1675 A.D.: Period of 8 Sikh Gurus from Guru Angad Dev Ji to Guru Tegh Bahadur Ji
- 1675 - 1708 A.D.: Guru Gobind Singh Ji (10th Sikh Guru)
- 1699 A.D.: Birth of the Khalsa
- 1708 - 1715 A.D.: Conquests of Banda Bahadur
- 1716 - 1759 A.D.: Sikh struggle against Moghul Governors
- 1739 A.D.: Invasion of Nadir Shah
- 1748 -1769 A.D.: Ahmed Shah Abdali's nine invasions
- 1762 A.D.: 2nd Holocaust (Ghalughara) from Ahmed Shah's 6th invasion
- 1764 - 1799 A.D.: Rule of the Sikh Misls
- 1799 - 1839 A.D.: Rule by Maharaja Ranjit Singh
- 1849 A.D.: Annexation of Punjab
- 1849 - 1947 A.D.: British Rule
- 1947 A.D.: Partition of India thus Punjab into 2 parts the Eastern part became the Indian Punjab and the Western part the Pakistan Punjab
- 1966 A.D.: Punjab in India divided into 3 parts on Linguistic basis (Haryana, Himachal and Punjabi suba the present Punjab)
- 1984 A.D.: Operation Blue Star and its aftermath

Etymology

The name "Punjab" (pŭn'jăb', pŭn-jäb') means "land of five rivers" and derives from the Persian words 'panj' (پنج) meaning five, and 'āb' (اب) meaning water. The rivers, tributaries of the Indus River, are the Beas, Chenab, Jhelum, Ravi, and Sutlej. The five rivers, now divided between India and Pakistan, merge to form the Panjnad, which joins the Indus.

KAM

ED Kamoz

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Kambojas

Ethnicity & Language of Kambojas

Original Home of Kambojas

Kambojas: A Warrior Clan

Kambojas: Master Horsemen

Kambojas in Indian Literature

The Kambojas and Alexander the Great

The Kambojas and the Mauryan Empire

Kambojas' migration to India and beyond

Modern Kamboj and Kamboh

Diaspora

Traditions

During Muslim Rule

Agriculturists

Physical Characteristics

Kamboj in Sports

See also

Notes

Kambojas

Ethnicity & Language of Kambojas

Original Home of Kambojas

Kambojas: A Warrior Clan

Kambojas: Master Horsemen

Kambojas in Indian Literature

The Kambojas and Alexander the Great

The Kambojas and the Mauryan Empire

Kambojas' migration to India and beyond

Modern Kamboj and Kamboh

Diaspora

Traditions

During Muslim Rule

Agriculturists

Physical Characteristics

Kamboj in Sports

See also

Notes

Rig Veda

The Text

Internal Evidence

Hindu Tradition

More Recent Indian Views

References

Notes

Bibliography

External links

Indo-European

Language Family

Comparative Linguistics

Proto-Indo-Europeans

Origins

Religion

See also

Kamboh

Punjab region

History

Religion

Geography

Agricultural region

Timeline

Etymology

See also

Further reading

KAM