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Kamień

Kamień

Kamień is the Polish word for stone. It appears in several Polish toponyms. There are two cities in Poland known as Kamień:
- Kamień Krajeński, in the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodship
- Kamień Pomorski, in the West Pomeranian Voivodship

Polish language

Polish (język polski, polszczyzna) is the official language of Poland. Polish is the main representative of the Lechitic branch of the Western Slavic languages. It originated in the areas of present-day Poland from several local Western Slavic dialects, most notably those spoken in Greater Poland and Lesser Poland. Polish was once a lingua franca in various regions of Central and Eastern Europe, mostly due to the political, cultural, scientific and military influence of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Although no longer having as great an influence outside of Poland, due in part to the dominance of the Russian language, it is still sometimes spoken or at least understood in western border areas of Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania as a second language.

Outside Influence

Polish has been influenced by contact with foreign languages (foremost Latin, Czech, French, German, Italian, Old Belarusian, Russian and recently it has been virtually bombarded by English, especially American English language elements). Many words have been borrowed from German as a result of heavy contact with Germans and the German language. This process has been going on since medieval times. Examples include szlachta (from German Adelsgeschlecht=nobility), rachunek (Rechnung=account), ratusz (Rathaus=town hall), burmistrz (Bürgermeister=mayor; word used only for mayors of smaller cities), handel (Handel=commerce), kac (Kater=hangover), kartofel (Kartoffel=potato; this word is dialectal: most Poles use the word 'ziemniak' for potato, but both words are understood anywhere), cukier (Zucker=sugar), kelner (Kellner=waiter) and malarz (Maler=painter; also the word 'malować' has entered Polish as the verb "to paint"). This is especially true of the regional dialects of Upper Silesia. There are also several words of French origin in the language, most likely dating from the Napoleon era, such as ekran (écran=screen), rekin (requin=shark), meble (meuble=furniture), fotel (fauteuil=armchair), plaża (plage=beach) and koszmar (cauchemar=nightmare). Some place names have also been adapted from French, such as the two Warsaw boroughs of Żoliborz (joli bord=beautiful riverside) and Mokotów (mon coteau=my cottage), as well as the suburb of Żyrardów (from the name Girard, with the Polish suffix -ów attached to form the town's name). Other words are borrowed from other Slavic languages, for example "hańba" and "brama" from Czech. When borrowing international words, Polish often changes their spelling. For example, the Latin suffix spelled '-tion' in English corresponds to '-cja'. To make the word plural, -cja becomes -cje. Examples of this include "inauguracja" (inauguration), dewastacja (devastation), konurbacja (conurbation) and konotacje (connotations). Also, the digraph 'qu' becomes 'kw' (kwadrat=quadrant; frekwencja=frequency). Since 1945, as the result of mass education and mass migrations (which affected several countries after the Second World War, with Poland being an extreme case) standard Polish has become far more homogeneous, although regional dialects persist, particularly in the south and south-west in the hilly areas bordering the Czech and Slovak Republics. In the western and northern territories, resettled in large measure by Poles from the territories annexed by the Soviet Union, the older generation speaks a dialect of Polish characteristic of the former eastern provinces.

Classification

The Polish language is the most widely-spoken of the Slavic language subgroup of Lechitic languages which include Kashubian (the only surviving dialect of Pomeranian language) and the extinct Polabian language. The three languages, along with Upper and Lower Sorbian, Czech and Slovak, belong to the West branch of Slavic languages. To English ears, it sounds virtually indistinguishable from Russian, and indeed the two languages have a very similar grammar; however, Polish and Russian speakers cannot understand each other without training due to a very different vocabulary. In other words, to a speaker of one, the other sounds to them about how the first stanza of the poem Jabberwocky would sound to an English-speaker.

Geographic distribution

Polish is mainly spoken in Poland. In fact, Poland is one of the most homogenous European countries in terms of its mother tongue, as close to 97% of Polish citizens declare Polish as their mother tongue. After the Second World War the previously Polish territories annexed by the USSR retained a large amount of the Polish population that was unwilling or unable to migrate toward the post-1945 Poland and even today ethnic Poles in Lithuania, Belarus, and Ukraine constitute large minorities. In Lithuania 9 percent of the population declared Polish to be their mother tongue. It is by far the most widely used minority language in the Vilniaus Apskritis (Vilnius region) (26% of the population, according to the 2001 census results), but it is also present in other apskritis. In Ukraine, Polish is most often used in the Lwów and Łuck regions. Western Belarus has an important Polish minority, especially in the Brześć and Grodno regions. There are also significant numbers of Polish speakers in Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Brazil, Canada, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Israel, Kazakhstan, Latvia, New Zealand, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, UAE, the UK and the United States. In the U.S. the number of people of Polish descent is over 9 million, see: Polish language in the United States, but most of them do not use Polish in their everyday communications. According to the United States 2000 Census, 667,414 Americans of age 5 years and over reported Polish as language spoken at home, which is about 1.4% of people who speak languages other than English or 0.25% of the U.S. population.

Dialects

It has several dialects that correspond in the main to the old tribal divisions; the most significant of these (in terms of numbers of speakers) are Great Polish (spoken in the west), Little Polish (spoken in the south and southeast), Mazovian (Mazur) spoken throughout the centre and east of the country, and Silesian spoken in the southwest. Mazovian shares some features with the Kashubian language, whose remaining speakers (53.000, according to 2002 Census) live around the city of Gdańsk near the Baltic Sea, predominantly to the west of the city. There are also several, now mostly extinct, regional dialects of Polish, including the Warsaw dialect. Small numbers of people in Poland also speak Belarusian, Ukrainian, and German as well as several varieties of Romany.

Phonology

Orthography

The Polish alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet but uses diacritics such as kreska (graphically similar to acute accent), superior dot and ogonek. Polish orthography also includes seven digraphs: Note that although the Polish orthography is mostly phonetic, some sounds may be written in more than one way:
- as either h or ch
- as either ż or rz (though rż denotes a cluster)
- as either u or ó
- some soft consonants as either ć, dź, ń, ś, ź, or ci, dzi, ni, si, zi Unlike in English, if consonants are doubled in script, it means that they are also doubled in pronunciation, for example: wanna , not ('bathtub'); motto , not .

Grammar

Polish is often said to be one of the most difficult languages for non-native speakers to learn; of course, this depends on one's native language. While difficult for English speakers, it is relatively easy for speakers of Russian and other Slavic languages. It has a complex gender system with five genders: neuter, feminine and three masculine genders (personal, animate and inanimate). There are 7 cases and 2 numbers. Nouns, adjectives and verbs are inflected, and both noun declension and verb conjugation are highly irregular. Every verb is either perfective or imperfective. Verbs often come in pairs, one of them imperfective and the other perfective (usually imperfective verb plus a prefix), but often there are many perfective verbs with different prefixes for single imperfective words. Tenses are: Movable suffix is usually attached to verb or to the most accented word of sentence, like question preposition. Sometimes the sentence may be emphasised with a particle -że- (-ż). So what have you done ? can be:
- Co zrobiliście?
- Coście zrobili?
- Cóżeście zrobili? (It could be derived from Cóż zrobiliście? which actually sounds odd and is not used) All the above examples show inflected forms of the verb "zrobić" for the subject "you" informal plural ("wy"). However, it is of note that none of the above examples include the subject itself. The inclusion of the subject is not necessary here because Polish is a pro-drop language. This means that a subject does not need to be used with an inflected verb. Instead, the reader or listener can tell which subject is implied through the type ending on the verb. This is different for each pronoun in Polish with the exceptions of on/ona/ono (he/she/it) which all have the same verb ending as each other and oni/one (they - of a group including male humans/they - of a group of people or things not including male humans) which also have the same verb ending as each other. Because the subject can be dropped, if the subject is used with an inflected verb it places the emphasis of the sentence on the subject. Of the above three examples, a native speaker would not include the subject in the middle sentence and would be unlikely to include a subject in the last one. The below examples show how the subject could be included in such sentences, where possible:
- Co wy zrobiliście?
- Coście zrobili? (a native speaker would not use a subject here)
- Co wyście zrobili? (this example places the stress strongly on "you" -- "wy"+ście)
- Co żeście zrobili? (this example includes the use of the że- particle - considered very colloquial) Past participle depends on number and gender, so 3rd person, singular past perfect tense can be:
- zrobił (he made/did)
- zrobiła (she made/did)
- zrobiło (it made/did)

Word order

From Wikibooks' Polish Language Course. Basic word order in Polish is SVO, however it is possible to move words around in the sentence, and to drop subject, object or even sometimes verb, if they are obvious from context. These sentences mean the same ("Ala (Alice) has a cat"):
- Ala ma kota
- Ala kota ma
- Kota ma Ala
- Ma Ala kota
- Kota Ala ma
- Ma kota Ala Yet only the first of these sounds natural in Polish, and others should be used for emphasis only, if at all. If a question mark is added to the end of those sentences they will all mean "does Ala have a cat?"; an optional 'czy' could be added to the begining but native speakers don't use it. The first is usually used as a reassuring question (really, Ala has a cat?). The fourth would be used as a standard question (does Ala have a cat?) If apparent from context, you can drop the subject, object or even the verb:
- Ma kota - can be used if it's obvious who is being talked about
- Ma - answer for "Czy Ala ma kota?" ("Does Ala have a cat?")
- Ala - answer for "Kto ma kota?" ("Who has a cat?")
- Kota - answer for "Co ma Ala?" ("What does Ala have?")
- Ala ma - answer for "Kto z naszych znajomych ma kota?" ("Which of our friends has a cat?") Note the marker "czy" which is used to start a yes/no question, much as the French use "est-ce que". There is a tendency in Polish to drop the subject rather than the object and you rarely know the object but not the subject. If the question was "Kto ma kota ?" (who has a cat ?), the answer should be "Ala" alone, without a verb. In particular, "ja" (I) and "ty" (you, singular), and also their plural equivalents "my" (we) and "wy" (you, plural), are almost always dropped.

Conjugation

Conjugation of "iść" ("walking" in Present Continuous):
- Ja idę – I am walking
- Ty idziesz – You are walking
- On/ona/ono idzie – He/she/it is walking
- My idziemy – We are walking
- Wy idziecie – You are walking (Plural)
- Oni/one idą – They are walking ("Oni" masculine, "one" feminine or neuter)

Vocabulary

Singular:
ja - I
ty - you
on - he
ona - she
ono - it
Plural:
my - we
wy - you (Plural)
oni - they (mixed group, both men and women)
one - they (group of only women and children or things) pies - dog
krowa - cow
świnia - pig
mucha - fly
osa - wasp
pszczoła - bee
drzewo - tree
kwiat - flower
Anglia - England
Szkocja - Scotland
Walia - Wales
Irlandia - Ireland
Wielka Brytania - Great Britain
Zjednoczone Królestwo - United Kingdom
Niemcy - Germany
Japonia - Japan
Stany Zjednoczone Ameryki - The United States of America
Francja - France
Hiszpania - Spain
Wenezuela - Venezuela
Polska - Poland
Polak - Pole
polski - Polish
Konstantynopolitańczykowianeczka - a little girl from Constantinople (the longest word in Polish)

Notes

¹ You can hear the voice samples by clicking on the Polish example (ogg format).

External links

- [http://slownik.web-monkeys.com/ słownik polski - polish dictionary]
- [http://www.polishgrammar.com/ 1,000 free multi-choice Polish grammar drills online]
- [http://www.polish-dictionary.com/ Basic English-Polish Dictionary]
- [http://www.polish-translations.com/PolishTranslation/ Articles about Polish Language]
- [http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=pol Polish language on Ethnologue]
- [http://www.fdicts.com/dictlist1.php?k1=75 All free Polish dictionaries]
- [http://sjp.pwn.pl/ PWN Polish-Polish Dictionary]
- [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Polish-english/ Webster's Online Polish-English Dictionary]
- [http://www.dict.pl Polish-English dictionary]
- [http://www.anglik.net/polish.htm Free Polish Translation]
- [http://www.poltran.com/ Online translation Polish<->English]
- [http://golem.umcs.lublin.pl/users/ppikuta/lessons/less0.htm Polish language course]
- [http://www.langsites.com/Polish.htm Polish On-line]
- [http://seelrc.org:8080/grammar/pdf/compgrammar_polish.pdf A Concise Polish Grammar, by Ronald F. Feldstein (110-page 600-KB pdf)]
- [http://polish.slavic.pitt.edu Univ. of Pittsburgh: Polish Language Website] Category:Languages of Poland Category:West Slavic languages ko:폴란드어 ja:ポーランド語 th:ภาษาโปแลนด์

Stone

__NOTOC__

Stone can refer to any of the following:

]
- A rock. See also stone skipping, curling.
- As a verb, to stone, a method of execution using rocks, stoning.
- A gemstone, as used in jewelry.
- A stone is a unit of weight equal to fourteen pounds.
- The hard covering enclosing the seed of a drupe such as a peach.
- As a verb, the intoxicating effects of cannabis, as in to be stoned.
- Stone, a Finnish heavy metal band.
- A calculus.
- In the plural, the testicles.
- One of the playing pieces used in go.
- "The Stones" is an informal term for the British rock band The Rolling Stones.
- "Stones" was the name of an early album by Psychadelic Percussion featuring the Moog synthesizer. The word was taboo in American English for many years leading to its replacement by pit, 14 lbs, boulder, and rock.

Stone is also the name of several places in England:

- Stone, Buckinghamshire
- Stone, Gloucestershire
- Stone, Kent
- Stone, Staffordshire
- Stone, Worcestershire

Stone is the family name of:

- Arthur J. Stone (1847-1938), an American silversmith
- Christopher Stone, the first disc jockey in the UK (1927)
- David Stone (1770-1818), governor of North Carolina (1808-1810)
- Edward Durrell Stone (1902-1978), architect
- Edward James Stone (1831-1897), astronomer
- Elmer F. Stone (1887-1936), US aviator and Commander in the US Coast Guard
- Harlan Fiske Stone (1872-1946), Chief Justice of the United States
- I. F. Stone (1907–1989), American journalist
- Irving Stone (1903-1989), American author
- John M. Stone (1830–1900), Governor of Mississippi (1876-1882 and 1890-1896)
- John Stone Stone (1869-1943), physicist and inventor
- Jordan Stone (born 1984), an American soccer player
- Joss Stone (born 1987), British soul singer
- Lewis Stone, (1879-1953), actor
- Lucy Stone (1818-1893), women's rights activist
- Marshall Harvey Stone (1903-1989), an American mathematician
- Matt Stone (born 1971), comedian, a co-creator of the TV series South Park
- Merlin Stone, sculptor, author, academic
- Michael Stone:
- Michael Stone (loyalist paramilitary) (born 1955), Northern Ireland, loyalist paramilitary
- Michael Stone (Russell murder case), English convicted murderer
- Michael Stone (politician) (born 1925), English-born U.S. Secretary of the Army
- Mike Stone, American recording engineer and record producer
- Milburn Stone (died 1980), actor
- Oliver Stone (born 1946), U.S. film director
- Peter Stone (1930-2003), writer for theater, film, and television
- Richard Stone (1913-1991), British economist
- Robert Stone (born 1937), American novelist
- Robert Stone (composer) (1516-1613), English composer
- Sharman Stone (born 1951), member of the Australian House of Representatives since 1996
- Sharon Stone (born 1958), U.S. actress
- The members of the Stewart family who performed as part of Sly & the Family Stone:
- Sly Stone (born 1944), singer-songwriter, frontman
- Rose Stone (born 1945) singer/keyboardist
- Freddie Stone (born 1946) singer/guitarist
- Vet Stone (born 1949) singer
- Steve Stone (footballer) (born 1971), an English football (soccer) player
- Steve Stone (baseball player), (born 1947), former Major League Baseball player and current sportscaster.
- Sumner Stone, typographer
- Tawnee Stone
- Tori Stone
- Thomas Stone (1743–1787), a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence as a delegate from Maryland
- W. Clement Stone (1902-2002), businessman, philanthropist and self-help book author
- Walter Napleton Stone (1891-1917), an English recipient of the Victoria Cross
- William A. Stone (1846-1820), governor of Pennsylvania (1899-1903)

Fictional characters

- Karl Malden played Lt. Mike Stone in The Streets of San Francisco.
- Harry Anderson played Judge Harold T. Stone in Night Court
- Michael Moriarty played Benjamin Stone on Law & Order Category:Surnames ja:石

Toponym

In geography and cartography, a toponym (Gk. topos, "place", + onuma, "name") is a name of a locality, region, or some other part of Earth's surface or an artificial feature. Toponymy is the taxonomic study of place names. In some cultures, most or all such place names have a definite meaning in the language; this is not the case, generally, for place names in the English language. In linguistics and ethnology, a toponym is a name derived from a place or a region.
- See List of toponyms for a complete listing of names.
- See List of popular local toponyms for a list of toponyms that are used as names for business, schools, etc. only in a particular locality. In anatomy, a toponym is a name of a region of the body, as distinguished from the name of an organ. In biology, a toponym is a binomial name of a plant.

External links

- [http://www.asu.edu/lib/hayden/govdocs/maps/geogname.htm Placename indexes]
-
- ja:地名

Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodship

The Kuiavia-Pomerania Voivodship (in Polish województwo kujawsko-pomorskie) is an administrative region or voivodship in central-northern Poland. Capital cities: Toruń and Bydgoszcz. Bydgoszcz Created on 1 January 1999 out of the former Bydgoszcz, Torun and Wloclawek voivodships as a result of Local Government Reogranization Act of 1998. The voivodship's name recalls the 2 historical regions of Pomerania and Kuiavia (or Cuiavia).

Major cities and towns

(population in 2003):
- Bydgoszcz (367.700);
- Toruń (208.100);
- Włocławek (123.600)
- Grudziądz (102.700);
- Inowrocław (79.500);
- Brodnica (28.200);
- Świecie (27.400);
- Chełmno (21.800);
- Nakło nad Notecią (20.100).

Administrative division

- Aleksandrów Kujawski County, Aleksandrów Kujawski
- Brodnica County, Brodnica
- Bydgoszcz City County
- Bydgoszcz County, Bydgoszcz
- Chełmno County, Chełmno
- Golub-Dobrzyń County, Golub-Dobrzyń
- Grudziądz City County
- Grudziądz County, Grudziądz
- Inowrocław County, Inowrocław
- Lipno County, Lipno
- Mogilno County, Mogilno
- Nakło County, Nakło nad Notecią
- Radziejów County, Radziejów
- Rypin County, Rypin
- Sępólno County, Sępólno
- Świecie County, Świecie
- Toruń City County
- Toruń County, Toruń
- Tuchola County, Tuchola
- Wąbrzeźno County, Wąbrzeźno
- Włocławek City County
- Włocławek County, Włocławek
- Żnin County, Żnin

Major corporations

- Krajowa Spółka Cukrowa SA, Toruń
- Frantschach Świecie SA, Świecie
- Anwil SA, Włocławek
- Torfarm SA, Toruń
- Zachem SA, Bydgoszcz
- Zakład Energetyczny Toruń SA, Toruń
- Elana SA, Toruń
- Zakłady Tłuszczowe Kruszwica SA, Kruszwica
- ThyssenKrupp Energostal SA, Toruń
- Agrolok sp. z o.o., Golub-Dobrzyń
- CPP-Toruń-Pacific sp. z o.o., Toruń
- Adriana SA, Kijewo Królewskie
- PUH Chemirol sp. z o.o., Mogilno
- Soda Matwy IZCh SA, Inowrocław
- Fabryka Lin i Drutu Drumet SA, Włocławek
- Zespół Elektrociepłowni Bydgoszcz SA, Bydgoszcz

Most popular surnames in the region

- 1. Lewandowski : 23,133
- 2. Wiśniewski : 18,410
- 3. Kowalski : 12,076

West Pomeranian Voivodship

West Pomerania (Polish: Pomorze Zachodnie; German: Westpommern; Latin: Pomerania Occidentalis) or West Pomeranian Voivodship (Polish: województwo zachodniopomorskie) is an administrative region or voivodship in the northwestern part of Poland. It borders the Lubusz (Lubuskie), Greater Poland (Wielkopolskie) and Pomeranian (Pomorskie) voivodships. It was established on 1 January 1999 out of the former Szczecin, Koszalin, and parts of neighbouring voivodships as a result of Local Government Reorganization Act of 1998. The voivodship's name recalls the region's traditional name of Western Pomerania (Pomorze Zachodnie). This is a picturesque region of Baltic Sea coast, unspoilt nature, lakes and woodlands. Major coastal towns: Koszalin, Swinoujscie, Miedzyzdroje, Dziwnow, Kolobrzeg, and Mielno. The capital of this administrative region is: Szczecin.
Area: 22,902 km²
Population: 1,735,900 (2003).
Population density: 76/km²
Administrative division: 21 counties, 61 cities, 114 communities

Administrative division

Szczecin
- Białogard County, Białogard
- Choszczno County, Choszczno
- Drawsko Pomorskie County, Drawsko Pomorskie
- Goleniów County, Goleniów
- Gryfice County, Gryfice
- Gryfino County, Gryfino
- Kamień Pomorski County, Kamień Pomorski
- Kołobrzeg County, Kołobrzeg
- Koszalin City County
- Koszalin County, Koszalin
- Łobez County, Łobez
- Myślibórz County, Myślibórz
- Police County, Police
- Pyrzyce County, Pyrzyce
- Sławno County, Sławno
- Stargard Szczeciński County, Stargard Szczeciński
- Szczecin City County
- Szczecinek County, Szczecinek
- Świdwin County, Świdwin
- Świnoujście City County
- Wałcz County, Wałcz

Major cities and towns

- Szczecin (415.700)
- Koszalin (113.400)
- Stargard Szczecinski (75.300)
- Kolobrzeg (47.200)
- Swinoujscie (43.700)
- Szczecinek (41.700)
- Police (35.800)
- Walcz (27.000)
- Bialogard (26.000)
- Goleniow (23.100)
- Gryfino (22.600)

Major corporations

- Grupa Kronospan SA, Szczecinek
- Zakłady Chemiczne Police SA, Police
- Swedwood Poland SA, Szczecin
- Zespół Elektrowni Dolna Odra SA, Nowe Czarnowo
- Stocznia Szczecińska Nowa sp. z o.o., Szczecin
- Polska Żegluga Morska SA, Szczecin
- Netto Artykuły Żywnościowe sp. z o.o., Kobylanka
- Komfort sp. z o.o., Szczecin
- Agencja Reklamowa Anny Turkiewicz, Szczecin
- Zakład Energetyczny Koszalin SA, Koszalin
- Petrocargo/OW Bunker sp. z o.o., Szczecin
- Vobis Microcomputer sp. z o.o., Szczecin
- Yiotarini Holdings Co Ltd., Szczecinek
- PZE Cefarm-Szczecin SA, Szczecin
- POOL-SPA Sp. z o.o., Gryfice

Most popular surnames in the region

- 1. Nowak : 7,444
- 2. Kowalski : 6,345
- 3. Wiśniewski : 6,284

Western Pomerania historical region

Western Pomerania (also West Pomerania, Szczecin Pomerania, Odra Pomerania) is a geographical and historical region in the west of Pomerania in northern Poland. In the wider sense it also covers Vorpommern in Germany and Middle Pomerania.

Tourism links

- [http://www.zrot.pl Zrot : Official Tourism Site ] (Polish, English, German)
- [http://www.zart.com.pl Zart : Good Tourism Site ] (Polish, English, German)
- [http://www.vorpommern.de Regional Tourist Board Vorpommern (German Neighbour)] (English, German, Swedish, Polish)
- [http://www.ostseeland.de Ost|See|Land - German Polish- Tourism Overview site] (English, German, Swedish, Polish) Category:Voivodships of Poland Major cities: Szczecin, Stargard Szczecinski, Swinoujscie. See also: Dukes of Pomerania, West Pomeranian Voivodship. Category:Regions of Poland Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe ja:西ポモージェ県

Vilna Troupe

The Vilna Troupe (a.k.a. Vilner Troupe) were one of the most famous theatrical companies in the history of Yiddish theater. Distinctly modernist, and strongly influenced by Russian literature and by the ideas of Konstantin Stanislavski, their travels in Western Europe and later to Romania played a significant role in the dissemination of a disciplined approach to acting that continues to be influential down to the present day. Founded in Vilnius (Vilna) in 1915¹ in the midst of World War I, the troupe soon moved to Warsaw. Their repertoire epitomized the second golden age of Yiddish theater, with works by S.Ansky, Sholom Aleichem, and Sholem Asch, but also by Molière, Maxim Gorky, Henrik Ibsen, plus some Jewish-themed plays by non-Jews, notably Karl Gutzkow's Uriel Acosta. [Bercovici, 1998, 125-126] They were the first to stage Ansky's The Dybbuk. The Dybbuk was originally written in Russian, but Stanislavski suggested to Ansky that for the sake of authenticity he should translate it into Yiddish. At the time of Ansky's death, November 8, 1920, the play was complete but had never been professionally produced. As a tribute to Ansky, the Vilna troupe utilised the 30-day period of mourning after his death to prepare the play, which opened December 9, 1920, at the Elyseum Theatre in Warsaw. It's unanticipated success established the play as a classic of modern Yiddish theater. They toured extensively. In late summer 1926 they were at New York City's Liptzin Theater performing Rasputin and the Czarina. [http://www.forward.com/issues/2001/01.08.31/lookingback.html] Prior to that time, they had already played in London and Paris. [Bercovici, 1998, 126] Among the members of the troupe were Joseph Green, later one of the few Yiddish-language filmmakers. [http://www.forward.com/issues/2003/03.01.10/arts4.html] Director Jakob Rotbaum began his professional career staging Eugene O'Neill with the troupe in 1930. [http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/academic/languages/yiddish/mendele/vol3.142]

Bucharest

In 1923, the Vilna troupe came to Bucharest at the invitation of Isidor Goldenberg of the Jigniţa Theater. At the time, the troupe included actresses Hanna Braz, Luba Kadison, Helene Gottlieb, Judith Lares, Hanna Mogel, and Miriam Orleska and actors Alexander Stein, Joseph Buloff, Aizic Samberg, Joseph Kamen, Jacob Weislitz, Leib Kadison, Samuel Schäftel, Benjamin Ehrenkrantz, and Haim Brakasch. The director of the company was Mordechai Mazo. According to Israil Bercovici, their disciplined approach to theater impacted not only Romanian Yiddish theater but Romanian theater generally. Their audience went beyond the usual attendees of Yiddish theater: they drew the attention of the Romanian-language press, the Romanian theater world, and of "men of culture" generally. For example, an article August 23, 1924 in the daily newspaper Adevărul wrote that "Such a demonstration of artistry, even on a small stage such as Jigniţa and even in a language like Yiddish ought to be seen by all who are interested in superior realization of drama." This artistic praise did not pay the bills, and touring elsewhere in Romania only made the financial picture worse. Their fortunes were salvaged by a 1925 production of Osip Dymov's Der Zingher fun Zain Troirer (The Singer of His Own Tears), created in collaboration with Jacob Sternberg's troupe. Another critical success — Victor Eftimiu called it "a model of stylized realist theater" — it was also an unprecedented hit, and ran at length at Bucharest's Central Theater. Writing in the Warsaw Yiddish language Literarishe Bleter during the run of Der Zingher..., Joseph Buloff was amazed at the positive reception that Yiddish theater received among the Gentiles of Bucharest. He remarked that the Romanian actor Tanţi Cutava was equally comfortable acting in French and Yiddish as in his native Romanian, that he often hear ethnic Romanians sing a song from Yiddish theater over a glass of wine, that Romanian writers and artists invited Yiddish actors to their get-togethers. Apparently, this formed a stark contrast to Warsaw at the same time. Der Zingher... was followed by successful Bucharest productions of David Pinsky's Melech David un Zaine Froien (King David and His Women) and Leo Tolstoy's The Living Corpse. Pressured, in part, by a 32% tax on performances by foreign troupes, by the end of 1925, the troupe had decided to reconstitute themselves as a Bucharest-based troupe, taking the Romanian-language name Drama şi Comedie.

Drama şi Comedie

"The wandering troupe from Vilna will stay put... after an era of prolonged touring," reported Integral. " They will fix on a program, which will no longer oscillate between melodrama and an expressionist mural. Apparently, the prospect launched today is precise: a new group tending to go along the route of modern innovation. 'No compromise with lack of taste — no compromise with bad taste': a shout that justfifies an existence and would be worthy of realization." [Bercovici, 1998, 132-133] The "no compromise" slogan came from the statement of program, really more of an artistic manifesto, with which the reconstituted group launched itself. The same document also declared the troupe's intent "to offer the masses and intellectuals simultaneously an institution of culture". The new troupe included actresses Braz, Luba Kadison, Lares, Orleska and actors Stein, Buloff, Kamen, Weislitz, Leib Kadison, Schäftel from the 1923 roster, plus additional actresses including Noemi Nathan and Joheved Weislitz, and actors including Jehuda Ehrenkranz, Samuel Irish, Simha Nathan, Sholom Schönbaum, Henry Tarlo, and Simi Weinstock. However, Drama şi Comedie would play only one full season of theater (1925–1926), with some remnants struggling on another year. Their productions, beginning with Alter Kacyzne's Ger tzedek (The Neophyte) and including Nikolai Gogol's The Wedding, were critically acclaimed, but they never matched the commercial success of Der Zingher.... After the sudden and unexpected death of actress Judith Lares, director Mazo left for Warsaw and then Vilna. The troupe continued briefly with Luigi Pirandello's Man, Beast, and Virtue in the 1926–1927 season. After the breakup of Drama şi Comedie, a play The Flood was put on at the Baraşeum theater, which was loosely the story of the Vilna troupe.

Notes

¹Liptzin says 1916. [Liptzin, 1972, 411]

References

- —, [http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/academic/languages/yiddish/mendele/vol3.142 Mendele: Yiddish literature and language Vol. 3.142], November 23, 1993
- —, "[http://www.forward.com/issues/2001/01.08.31/lookingback.html 75 Years Ago]", The Forward, August 31, 2001.
- Bercovici, Israil, O sută de ani de teatru evriesc în România ("One hundred years of Yiddish/Jewish theater in Romania"), 2nd Romanian-language edition, revised and augmented by Constantin Măciucă. Editura Integral (an imprint of Editurile Universala), Bucharest (1998). ISBN 973982722 125-143. This is the primary source for the Bucharest material, and the source of the quotation from Integral nr. 6-7/1925 that begins "The wandering troupe...".
- Edelman, Rob, "[http://www.forward.com/issues/2003/03.01.10/arts4.html Joseph Green: 'I Knew Exactly What I Wanted']", The Forward, January 10, 2003
- Liptzin, Sol, A History of Yiddish Literature, Jonathan David Publishers, Middle Village, NY, 1972, ISBN 0-8246-0124-6. Category:Jewish film and theatre

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