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Karabakh

Karabakh

Karabakh is a mountain-steppe racing and riding horse. It is named after the Karabakh region of Azerbaijan, part of which is under Armenian occupation at the moment. The horse was originally developed in this region. These horses are noted for their good tempers and speed. In 2004 a Karabakh horse named Kishmish from Agdam stud in Azerbaijan made a record in speed by running 1000 meters in 1 minute, 9 seconds and 1600 meters in 1 minute, 52 seconds. The breed is thought to be a cross-breeding of Akhal-Teke, Persian, Kabardin, Turkoman Horse, and Arabian horse. It also influenced the development of the Russian Don horse in the 19th century. At present, the Karabakh is bred mainly in Azerbaijan, but most of the horses are Karabakh-Arabian crosses, not pure Karabakh horses. Currently the breed numbers below 1,000 and is threatened with extinction.

Breed Characteristics

The breed is hardy, strong, tough, and sure-footed. The horse is not large, 14-15 hands high or 145-150 cm. They have small clean-cut heads, straight profile with broad foreheads and nostrils very capable of dilation. Their neck is set high, average in length, muscular and elegant. They have compact bodies with well defined and developed muscles. The shoulders are often quite upright. The horses have a deep chest, a sloping croup, and long, fine, but very strong legs. They have thin skin and soft and gleaming hair. The colors of the breed are chestnut and bay, with characteristic golden tint. They can also be gray. White markings are allowed. The horses have a deep chest, a sloping croup, and long, fine, but very strong legs, although the joints are small. The horses are narrow, not very deep through the girth, due to the Akhal-Teke influence. As well as being fast and agile, Karabakh horse is reputed to have good temperaments: calm, willing, and brave.

Breed history

Karabakh has close links to Akhal-Teke, bred in Turkmenistan, Central Asia and the Turkoman Horse bred in Iran. Some historians believe that in ancient times these horses were of the same strain and had significant influence in developing of the Arabian breed. Some historical sources mention that during Arab invasion of Azerbaijan in VIII-IX cc. tens of thousands of horses with golden-chestnut coloring, which is characteristic colors for Karabakhs, were taken by the conquerors. The breed got its ultimate shapes and characteristics in 18th-19th centuries during Karabakh khanate. There is some evidence that Karabakh ruler Ibrahim-Khalil khan (1763-1806) possessed a horse herd numbering 3,000-4,000, mostly of Karabakh breed. From 19th century this horse breed became increasingly popular in Europe. Thus, in one of the first massive sales in 1823, an English company purchased 60 pure Karabakh mares from Mehdi-Kulu khan, the last ruler of the Karabakh khanate. Karabakh numbers were initially hurt in 1826 during Russo-Iranian war, but the breed remained intact. Russo-Iranian war After Mehdi-Kulu khan, his daughter Khurshud Banu Natavan took care of the breed. In a series of successes her Karabakh stallions received highest awards in various exhibitions in XIX c. Thus, in an international show in Paris in 1867 the Karabakh horse named Khan received silver medal. In second All-Russian exhibition in 1869 the Karabakh horse named Meymun won a silver medal, another stallion Tokmak won bronze medal and while the third Alyetmez (pictured) received a certificate and was made a producer stallion in Russian Imperial stud. Karabakh has played an important role in formation of the Russian Don horses. In 1836 Russian general Madatov’s heir sold all his horses, including 200 Karabakh mares, to a horse-breeder in Don. Karabakhs were used for improving Russian Don’s characteristics up to XX c. In early XX c. the Karabakhs sharply decreased in numbers once again, mostly because of civil and ethnic wars in the Caucasus in general and in Karabakh in particular. The horse breeding enterprise established by Karabakh khans and developed by their heirs was destroyed in 1905. Many pureblood Karabakhs mixed with other non-pure horses, and this resulted in loss of some characteristics, namely the Karabakhs reduced in size. In 1949 the breed was revived in Agdam stud in Azerbaijan, which assembled most characteristic Karabakhs. In 1956 Karabakh stallion named Zaman, along with an Akhal-Teke Mele-Kush was presented by the Soviet government to the British Queen Elizabeth II. Karabakh horse breed suffered another setback during Armenian-Azeri conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh. In days before the occupation of Agdam by the Armenian forces in 1993 most of the Karabakh horses were salvaged from the Agdam stud. These horses are currently bred in winter pastures in lowland Karabakh plains between Barda and Agjabadi provinces. Category:Horse breeds

Nagorno-Karabakh

Nagorno-Karabakh is a region of Azerbaijan, in southern Caucasia, located about 270 km (about 170 mi.) west of the Azerbaijani capital of Baku. The region is predominantly ethnic Armenian, and is under Armenian military control. The local Armenian population declared independence from Azerbaijan on December 10th, 1991 and declared the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic (NKR). The NKR's sovereign status is not recognized by any country in the world.

Name

In Armenian it is called , translit. Lernayin Gharabagh. In Azerbaijani, Dağlıq Qarabağ or Yuxarı Qarabağ, literally "mountainous black garden" or "upper black garden". In Russian: Нагорный Карабах, translit. Nagornyy Karabakh). It is often referred to by Armenians as Artsakh (Armenian: . In Persian: قره باغ )

Geography

The region has a total area of 4,400 km², and in 1989, it had a population of 192,000. The population at that time was mainly Armenian (76%) and Azeri (23%), with Russian and Kurdish minorities. The capital is Stepanakert (Xankəndi in Azeri). Its other major city, today lying partially in ruins, is Shusha (Shushi in Armenian).

From Origins to 1917

The region of Nagorno-Karabakh falls within the lands occupied by peoples known to modern archaeologists as the Kura-Araxes culture, who lived between the two rivers bearing those names. Little is known of the ancient history of the region, primarily because of the scarcity of historical sources. Local traditions are held by many peoples in the area that those two river valleys were among the first ever to be settled by Noah's descendants. A son of Japheth named Aran is credited with being the first to establish a nation here. Zoroastrian traditions also point to this region as being the earliest sacred homeland of the Medes, their ancestors. Jewelry has been found within the present confines of Nagorno-Karabakh inscribed with the cuneiform name of Adad-Nirari, King of Assyria (c. 800 BC). This is an indicator that these mountains may have been within the Assyrian sphere of influence at this time, or at least on a trade route. Assyria Also, near the village of Tsovk, an inscription of Sardur II, King of Urartu (763-734 BC), was found, proving that his troops penetrated as far as that land, that the inscription referred to as "Urtekhini". It seems that the state of Mannae, based in the Urmia region, expanded as far as the Kura, and contested the region with Urartu beginning around 800 BC, until they were destroyed by the Medes in 616 BC. It is uncertain whether the Mannaeans ever penetrated as far as present-day Nagorno-Karabakh. At various times in antiquity that are difficult to establish with precision at this time, this area was part of Aghbania, or Caucasian Albania, and at others, of Greater Armenia. It was also part of a province of Parthia (ca. 250 BC), called Ardan, and another ancient name is Artsakh. In 95 BC, it was conquered by Tigranes II, ruler of the Kingdom of Armenia. Kingdom of Armenia Following the defeat of Tigranes II at the hands of the Romans in 66 BC, Albanians regained Artsakh. Ancient Albanians and Armenians alternated control over the territory until the early 4th century, when the Albanians managed to reclaim Artsakh; eventually, in 387, it became a part of Aghbania again. Christianity first came to Aghbania with the mission of St Eliseus in the 1st century. Christianity was widely accepted in the 5th century, after Saint Gregory the Illuminator converted and baptized Albanian king Urnayr. In 488, following a church assembly near Aluan (situated in present-day Karabakh), Christianity become the official religion in Aghbania. In the 7th and 8th centuries, the region was invaded by Arabs, who pillaged it and converted a portion of the population to Islam. Under the Arabs, the Albanian church was subordinated to the Armenian Church, resulting in the local Albanian population gradually becoming more like Armenians in terms of religion, culture, and language. After the 8th century, Albania diminished in size, and came to exist only as the Khachin principality in Artsakh. In the 15th century, the territory of Karabakh was part of the states of Kara Koyunlu and then Ak Koyunlu. In the early 16th century, after the fall of the Ak-Koyunlu state, control of the region passed to the Safavid dynasty of Iran, that created a Ganje-Karabakh province (beglarbekdom, bəylərbəyliyi); and in the mid-18th century, the Karabakh khanate was formed. Karabakh passed to Imperial Russia by the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813, before the rest of Transcaucasia was incorporated into the Empire in 1828 by the Treaty of Turkmenchay. In 1822, the Karabakh khanate was dissolved, and the area became part of the Russian province that later formed Azerbaijan.
Soviet era
After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Karabakh became part of the Transcaucasian Federation, but this soon dissolved into separate Armenian, Azeri, and Georgian states. Azerbaijan claimed sovereignty over the province, and sought to secure its claims with help from the Ottoman Empire. Despite the fact that the Ottomans were defeated in the course of World War I, Karabakh's de facto ownership by Azerbaijan was provisionally recognized in 1919 by the Allies, who recognized Khosrov-bey Sultanov (appointed by the Azerbaijan government) as general-governor of Karabakh. The Allies decided that the ultimate status of Karabakh was not determined, and it was pending final decision in Paris Peace Conference. Whereas Azerbaijan commended this decision as a recognition of its rights to the territory, the Armenian side criticized it, arguing that this decision was made because of the Allies' economic interests in the oil fields near Azerbaijan's capital, Baku. In 1920, Transcaucasia was taken over by the Bolsheviks who, in order to attract public support, promised they would allot Karabakh to Armenia, along with Nakhchivan and Zangezur (a strip separating Nakhichevan from Azerbaijan proper). However, Moscow also had far-reaching plans concerning Turkey -- hoping that it would, with a little help from Russia, develop along Communist lines. Needing to appease Turkey, Moscow agreed to a division that left Zangezur to Armenia, while leaving Karabakh and Nakhchivan in Azerbaijan. As a result, the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region was established within the Azerbaijan SSR in 1923. Most of the decisions on the transfer of the territories, and the establishment of new autonomous entities, were made under pressure from Stalin, who is still blamed by both Azeris and Armenians for arbitrary decisions made against their national interests. With the beginning of the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the late 1980's and early 1990's, the question of Nagorno-Karabakh reemerged. Complaining about "forced Azerification" of the region, the majority Armenian population, with ideological and material support from Armenia, started a movement to transfer it to Armenia. In November 1991, following the Karabakh Armenians' declaration of secession from Azerbaijan, the Azerbaijan Parliament retaliated by removing the autonomous status of the region. In response, the Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians held a referendum on December 10 1991, with the overwhelming majority of the population voting for outright independence. The minority Azeri community of Nagorno-Karabakh boycotted the referendum, however. The spiralling conflict led to pogroms against Armenians living in Sumgait, Baku, and elsewhere in Azerbaijan, and violence was also directed against Azerbaijanis living in Vardenis, Masis, Ghukark, and other regions of Armenia. As a result, a vast number of Azerbaijanis in Armenia, and Armenians in Azerbaijan (except for Nagorno-Karabakh) were displaced. A Soviet proposal for enhanced autonomy for Nagorno-Karabakh within Azerbaijan satisfied neither side, and a land war subsequently erupted between Armenia and Azerbaijan.
Post-Soviet era
Ghukark The struggle over Nagorno-Karabakh escalated after both Armenia and Azerbaijan attained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. In the post-Soviet power vacuum, military action between Azerbaijan and Armenia was heavily influenced by the Russian military. It is alleged that Russian military forces inspired and manipulated the rivalry between the two neighbouring nations, providing weapons to both sides in order to keep both under control. Extensive Russian military support was exposed by the Head of the Standing Commission of the Russian Duma, General Lev Rokhlin, who was subsequently killed by his wife in unknown circumstances. He had claimed that munitions (worth 1 bil. US dollars) had been illegally transferred to Armenia during 1992-1994. However, these claims had never been proved. Armenians claim that Azerbaijan was receiving extensive support from Turkey during the Karabakh war. As a result of the war against Nagorno-Karabakh independence, Azerbaijanis were driven out of Nagorno-Karabakh, as well as territories adjacent to Nagorno-Karabakh; and these are still under control of the Nagorno-Karabakh Armenian military. With the alleged support of Soviet/Russian military forces, Azeris forced out tens of thousand Armenians from Shahumyan region (a region adjacent to Soviet-era Nagorno-Karabakh, that joined the self-proclaimed Nagorno Karabakh Republic in 1991). An unofficial cease-fire was reached on May 12 1994 through Russian negotiation, and continues today. Armenians remain in control of the Soviet-era autonomous region, and a strip of land called the Lachin corridor linking it with the Republic of Armenia; as well as the so-called 'security zone' — strips of territory along the region's borders that had been used by Azerbaijani artillery during the war. The Shahumyan region remains under the control of Azerbaijan. Lachin corridor Today, Nagorno-Karabakh is a de facto independent state, calling itself the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. It is closely tied to the Republic of Armenia and uses its currency, the dram. Successive Armenian governments have resisted internal pressure to unite the two, fearing reprisals from Azerbaijan and from the international community, that still considers Nagorno-Karabakh part of Azerbaijan. The politics of Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh are so intermingled that a former president of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, Robert Kocharian, became first the prime minister (1997) and then the president of Armenia (1998 to the present). 1998 At present, the mediation process is stalled, as both sides are equally intransigent. Azerbaijan insists that Armenian troops withdraw from all areas of Azerbaijan outside Nagorno-Karabakh, and that all displaced persons be allowed to return to their homes before the status of Karabakh can be discussed. Armenia does not recognize Nagorno-Karabakh as being legally part of Azerbaijan, arguing that because the region declared independence at the same time that Azerbaijan became an independent state, both of them are equally successor states of the Soviet Union. The Armenian government insists that the government of Nagorno-Karabakh be part of any discussions on the region's future, and rejects ceding occupied territory or allowing refugees to return prior to talks on the region's status. Representatives of Armenia, Azerbaijan, France, Russia and the United States met in Paris and Key West, Florida in the Spring of 2001. The details of the talks have remained largely secret, but the parties are reported to have discussed non-hierarchical relationships between the central Azerbaijani government and the Karabakh Armenian authorities. Despite rumours that the parties were again close to a solution, the Azerbaijani authorities -- both during Heydar Aliyev's period of office, and after the accession of his son Ilham Aliyev in the October 2003 elections -- have firmly denied that any agreement was reached in Paris or Key West. Further talks between the Azerbaijani and Armenian presidents, Ilham Aliyev and Robert Kocharyan, were held in September 2004 in Astana, Kazakhstan, on the sidelines of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) summit. Reportedly, one of the suggestions put forward was the withdrawal of the occupying forces from the Azeri territories adjacent to Nagorno-Karabakh, and holding referenda (plebiscites) in Nagorno-Karabakh and Azerbaijan proper regarding the future status of the region.
See also

- Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline
- Geostrategy in Central Asia
- Treaty of Kars
External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/3658938.stm Regions and territories: Nagorno-Karabakh] from the BBC
- [http://www.artsakh.com/ Artsakh.com] – an Armenian site about Nagorno-Karabakh
- [http://www.karabakh.org/ Karabakh.org]– an Azeri site about Nagorno-Karabakh
- [http://www.nkr.am/eng/ Official site of the 'NKR Ministry of Foreign Affairs']
- [http://www.nkrusa.org/ Office of the Nagorno Karabakh Republic in the United States]
- [http://www.armeniapedia.org/index.php?title=Rediscovering_Armenia_Guidebook-_Karabakh Karabakh Travel Guide]
- [http://www.armeniapedia.org/index.php?title=Karabakh Karabakh Entry of Armeniapedia.org]
- [http://www.caucaz.com/home_uk/pays.php?pays=7 Special Karabakh on Caucaz.com, Weekly Online about South Caucasus]
- [http://www.flashpoints.info/countries-conflicts/Nagorno-Karabakh-web/Nagorno-Karabakh_briefing.html Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict Briefing]
- [http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks25/keypts25.html Nagorno-Karabakh Searching for a Solution: Key points], by Patricia Carley, Publication of the United States Intitute of Peace (USIP)
- [http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks19/chap3_19.html Sovereignty after Empire Self-Determination Movements in the Former Soviet Union. Case Studies: Nagorno-Karabakh.] By Galina Starovoytova, Publication of the USIP
- [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/nagorno-karabakh.htm Nagorno-Karabakh - GlobalSecurity.org] Category:Caucasus Category:Disputed territories Category:Foreign relations of Armenia Category:Subdivisions of Azerbaijan ko:나고르노카라바흐 ja:ナゴルノ・カラバフ

Azerbaijan

Azerbaijan (Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan) is a country in the Caucasus, at the crossroads of Europe and Southwest Asia, with a coast on the Caspian Sea. It has frontiers with Russia in the north, Georgia in the northwest, Armenia in the west and southeast and southwest, and Iran in the south. The Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic (an exclave of Azerbaijan) borders Armenia to the north and east, Iran to the south and west, and Turkey to the northwest. The country’s formal name is the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan Respublikası). Azerbaijan is a secular state, and has been a member of the Council of Europe since 2001. A majority of the population are Shi'a Muslim and of Western Turkic descent, known as Azerbaijanis, or simply Azeris. The country is formally an emerging democracy, however with strong authoritarian rule.

Etymology

There are several hypotheses regarding the origins of the name "Azerbaijan." The most common theory is that it is derived from "Atropatan." Atropat was the satrap at the time of the Persian Achaemenid dynasty, and gained independence after Alexander the Great destroyed the Achaemenids. The region was known as Media Atropatia or Atropatene at the time. There are also alternative opinions that the term is a slight Turkification of Azarbaijan, in turn an Arabicized version of the original Persian name Azarpayagan, made up of azar+payag+an (azar=fire; payag=base; an=suffix of location); that it traditionally means "the land of eternal flames" or "the land of fire." Some Azeri historians also contend that the name is made up of four Azerbaijani components: az+er+bay+can, which means "the land of the brave Az people" or "an elevated place for the wealthy and exalted." Historically, a large part of the territory of the present-day Azerbaijan Republic has been called Arran, named after Arran, a legendary founder of Caucasian Albania. However, the precise location identified by this name has shifted somewhat over time, currently referring to the lowland Karabakh plains situated between the Kura and Araks rivers. Some opponents of the name Azerbaijan assert that it is anachronistic to use it in a historical context before 1918, because, they say, the term was first introduced by the national intelligentsia in early 20th century and later was endorsed by the Bolsheviks, with intention of claiming the northern province of Persia. To substantiate this claim they state that till early 20th century the population of present-day Azerbaijan had no clear ethnic identification and referred to themselves primarily as "Muslims."

History

Main article: History of Azerbaijan Historically Azerbaijan has been occupied by a variety of peoples, including Armenians, Persians, Romans, Arabs, Turks, Mongols, Greek Empire, and Russians. The first state to emerge in the territory of present-day Republic of Azerbaijan was Mannae in the 9th century BC, lasting until 616 BC when it was overthrown by the Medes. The satrapies of Atropatene and Caucasian Albania were established in the 4th century BC and included the approximate territories of present-day Azerbaijan and southern parts of Dagestan. Islam spread in Azerbaijan following the Arab conquests in the 7th–8th centuries. In the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks became the dominant force in Azerbaijan and laid the ethnic foundation of contemporary Azerbaijanis. In the 13–14th centuries, the country experienced Mongol-Tatar invasions. Azerbaijan was part of the Safavid state in 15th–18th centuries. It also underwent a brief period of feudal fragmentation in the mid-18th to early 19th centuries, and consisted of independent khanates. Following the two wars between the Qajar dynasty of Persia and the Russian Empire, Azerbaijan was acquired by Russia through the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813, and the Treaty of Turkmenchay in 1828. After the collapse of the Russian Empire during World War I, Azerbaijan declared independence and established the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic. This first Muslim republic in the world lasted only two years, from 1918 to 1920, before the Soviet Red Army invaded Azerbaijan. Subsequently, Azerbaijan became part of the Soviet Union. Azerbaijan re-established its independence upon the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Despite a cease-fire in place since 1994, Azerbaijan has yet to resolve its conflict with Armenia over the predominantly ethnic Armenian Nagorno-Karabakh region. Azerbaijan has lost control of 16% of its territory including Karabakh, and must support some 800,000 refugees and internally displaced persons as a result of the conflict.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Azerbaijan Politics of Azerbaijan Politics of Azerbaijan Politics of Azerbaijan Azerbaijan is a presidential republic. The head of state and head of government are separate from the country’s law-making body. The people elect the president for a five-year term of office. The president appoints all cabinet-level government administrators. A fifty-member national assembly makes the country’s laws. The people of Azerbaijan elect the National Assembly. Azerbaijan has universal suffrage above the age of eighteen. After the presidential elections of October 15, 2003, an official release of the Central Election Committee (CEC) gave Isa Gambar – leader of the largest opposition bloc, Bizim Azerbaycan ("Our Azerbaijan") – 14% percent of the electorate and the second place in election. Third came, with 3.6%, Lala Shevket Hajiyeva – leader of the National Unity Movement, the first woman to run in presidential election in Azerbaijan and the whole of the Turkic speaking world. Nevertheless, the OSCE, the Council of Europe, Human Rights Watch and other international organizations, as well as local independent political and NGOs voiced concern about observed vote rigging and a badly flawed counting process. Several independent local and international organizations that had been observing and monitoring the election directly or indirectly declared Isa Gambar winner in the 15 October election. Another view shared by many international organisations is that in reality a second tour of voting should have taken place between the two opposition candidates Isa Gambar and Lala Shevket.
- Human Rights Watch commented on these elections: "Human Rights Watch research found that the government has heavily intervened in the campaigning process in favor of Prime Minister Ilham Aliev, son of current President Heidar Aliev. The government has stacked the Central Election Commission and local election commission with its supporters, and banned local non-governmental organizations from monitoring the vote. As the elections draw nearer, government officials have openly sided with the campaign of Ilham Aliev, constantly obstructing opposition rallies and attempting to limit public participation in opposition events. In some cases, local officials have closed all the roads into town during opposition rallies, or have extended working and school hours—on one occasion, even declaring a Sunday work day—to prevent participation in opposition rallies." (source: [http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/eca/azerbaijan/index.htm HTML format])
- OSCE’s final report (source: [http://www.osce.org/documents/html/pdftohtml/1151_en.pdf.html HTML format] or [http://www.osce.org/documents/odihr/2003/11/1151_en.pdf PDF format]) Azerbaijan held parliamentary elections on Sunday, 6 November 2005.

Subdivisions

Main article: Subdivisions of Azerbaijan Azerbaijan is divided into:
- 59 raions (rayonlar; rayon – singular),
- 11 cities (şəhərlər; şəhər – singular),
- 1 autonomous republic (muxtar respublika);

Geography

autonomous republic Main article: Geography of Azerbaijan Azerbaijan has an arid climate, except in the southeast near Gilan. Temperatures vary by season. In the southeast lowland, temperatures average 6°C (43°F) in the winter and 26°C (80°F) in the summer — though daily maxima typically reach 32°C (89°F). In the northern and western mountain ranges, temperatures average 12°C (55°F) in the summer and –9°C (20°F) in the winter. Annual rainfall over most of the country varies from 200 to 400 mm (8 to 16 inches) and is generally lowest in the northeast. In the far southeast, however, the climate is much moister and annual rainfall can be as high as 1300 mm (51 inches). For most of the country, the wettest periods are in spring and autumn, with summers being the driest.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Azerbaijan The economy is largely based on industry. Industries include machine manufacture, petroleum and other mining, petroleum refining, textile production, and chemical processing. Agriculture accounts for one-third of Azerbaijan’s economy. Most of the nation’s farms are irrigated. In the lowlands, farmers grow such crops as cotton, fruit, grain, tea, tobacco, and many types of vegetables. Silkworms are raised for the production of natural silk for the clothing industry. Azerbaijan’s herders raise cattle, domestic sheep and goats near the mountain ranges. Seafood and fish are caught in the nearby Caspian Sea. Azerbaijan has a highly dynamic economy, mainly because of oil, and has a GDP growth rate of up to 11% a year.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Azerbaijan Azerbaijan has population of roughly 7,911,974 (July 2005 est), 90.6% of whom are ethnic Azerbaijani, (also called Azeris; 1999 census figures). Azeris also form about 24% of the population of Iran, predominating in the northern regions of the country. Most of Armenia’s Azeri minority have left since independence and the Nagorno-Karabakh war. The second largest ethnic group are Russians, who now form roughly 1.8% of the population, most having emigrated since independence. The Talysh, an Iranian people, predominate in the southernmost regions of the country around the Talysh mountains and across the border into Iran. Some people argue that the number of Talysh is greater than officially recorded, as many of them are counted as Azerbaijanis. Numerous 'Dagestani' peoples live around the border with Dagestan. The main peoples are the Lezgis, Avar and the Tsakhur. Smaller groups include the Budukh, Udi, Kryts and Khinalug/Ketsh around the village of Xinaliq. Around the town of Quba in the north live the Tats, also known as the Mountain Jews, who are also to be found in Dagestan. Many Tats have emigrated to Israel in recent years, though this trend has slowed and even reversed more recently. The country’s large Armenian population mostly fled to Armenia and to other countries with the beginning of the Armenian-Azeri conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh. During the same period, Azerbaijan also received a large influx of Azerbaijanis fleeing Armenia and later Nagorno-Karabakh and adjacent provinces occupied by the Armenians. Almost all of Azerbaijan’s Armenians now live in Nagorno-Karabakh. Azerbaijan also contains numerous smaller groups, such as Kurds, Georgians, Tatars and Ukrainians. Most Azerbaijanis, or Azeris, are Shia Muslim. Other religions or philosophical beliefs that are followed by many in the country are the Sunni and Sufi sects of Islam, the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Russian Orthodox Church, and various secular beliefs (many of which are left over from the Soviet era of less tolerance for spirituality). The Tat people around Quba follow Judaism.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Azerbaijan The official language of Azerbaijan is Azerbaijani, a member of the Oguz subdivision of the Turkic language family, and is spoken by around 95% of the republic’s population, as well as about a third of the population of Iran. Its closest relatives are Turkish and Turkmen. As a result of the language policy of the Soviet Union, Russian is also commonly spoken as a second language among the urbane.
- Music of Azerbaijan
- Islam in Azerbaijan
- Azerbaijani literature

Miscellaneous topics

- Communications in Azerbaijan
- Transportation in Azerbaijan
- Military of Azerbaijan
- Foreign relations of Azerbaijan
- Public holidays in Azerbaijan
- List of Azerbaijanis
- Scout Association of Azerbaijan
- Nagorno-Karabakh

References

- Forrest, Brett (Nov. 28, 2005). "Over A Barrel in Baku". Fortune, pp. 54–60.

External links

- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/aj.html CIA World Factbook — Azerbaijan]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/1235976.stm BBC Country Profile: Azerbaijan]
- [http://www.azerb.com/ Azerbaijan from A to Z]
- [http://www.azer.com Azerbaijan International] – world's largest website about Azerbaijan
- [http://www.azadlig.org/ Democratic Youth Movement New Idea]
- [http://www.zerbaijan.com/ Virtual Azerbaijan Republic]
- [http://www.caucaz.com/home_uk Caucaz.com]: Weekly online publishing articles and reports about Azerbaijan and South Caucasus. Available in English and French
- [http://www.bakutoday.net Baku Today]
- [http://www.azadliq.az/ independant newspaper Azadliq]
- [http://www.azstat.org/indexen.php State Statistical Committee of the Azerbaijan Republic]
- [http://www.un-az.org United Nations Office in Azerbaijan] with a [http://www.un-az.org/couinf.htm country report]
- [http://ifex.org/en/content/view/full/179/ IFEX: Press Freedom in Azerbaijan]
- [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/amed/azerbaijan/azerbaijan.html Library of Congress Portals on the World — Azerbaijan] Category:Caucasus Category:Southwest Asian countries Category:Landlocked countries Category:Bicontinental countries zh-min-nan:Azerbaijan ko:아제르바이잔 ms:Azerbaijan ja:アゼルバイジャン simple:Azerbaijan th:ประเทศอาเซอร์ไบจาน

Akhal-Teke

The Akhal-Teke horse breed (pronounced Ah-cull Tek-y) is a breed from Turkmenistan, where they are the national emblem. It is named after the nomadic tribe that bred them. They are racehorses, noted for their endurance on long marches and are thought to be the predecessors of the Arabian and English thoroughbred breeds. These beautiful "golden-horses' are adapted to severe climate conditions and are thought to be one of the oldest surviving horse breeds. There are currently about 3,500 Akhal-Tekes in the world, mostly in Turkmenistan and Russia, although they are also seen in Germany and the United States. Alexander the Great's horse, Bucephalus, is said to have been an Akhal-Teke.

Breed characteristics

The Akhal-Teke's most notable and defining characteristic is the natural metallic bloom of its coat. This is especially seen in the palominos and buckskins, as well as the lighter bays, although some horses "shimmer" more than others, and is thought to have been used as camouflage in the desert, where the heat causes the desert to shimmer. Also noteworthy are the breed's almond-shaped eyes. The breed is very tough and resilient, due to the harshness of the Turkmenistan lands, living without much food or water. This has also made the horses good for sport. The breed has great endurance, shown in 1935 when a group of Turkmenian horsemen rode the 2500 mile journey from Ashgabat to Moscow, which lasted 84 days, and included a 3 day desert crossing of 235 miles without water. The horses have a fine head with a straight or slightly convex profile, and long ears. The mane and tail is usually sparse. Their long back has little muscle, and is coupled to a flat croup and long, upright neck. The Akhal-Teke possesses a sloping shoulder and thin skin. These horses have strong, tough, but fine limbs, although the hind legs are sometimes sickle-hocked. They have a rather shallow body with a shallow ribcage (like an equine greyhound), although a deep chest, and this shallowness continues to the back of the frame. The conformation is not considered "good" by Western terms, but that is made up by the breed's great beauty, and tremendous athletic ability. The Akhal-Tekes are brave riding horses, lively, and alert, but are known to be obstinate and rebellious at times. They are generally a one-rider horse. The horses are usually a pale golden color (like honey) with black points. They can also be bay, black, chestnut, or gray. The Akhal-Teke usually stands between 14.3 and 15.2 hh. Male horses are not gelded in Central Asia.

Breed history

According to some, the Akhal-Teke has been kept hidden by their tribesmen for years. The area where the breed first appeared, the Turkmenistan desert Kara Kum, is a rocky, flat desert surrounded by mountains. However, others claim that the horses were descendants of the mounts of Mongol raiders in the 13th and 14th century. The breed is very similar to the Turkoman Horse, bred in neighboring Iran. Some historians believe the two are different strains of the same breed, and that the incredibly influential Arabian was developed out of this breed. Tribesmen of Turkmenistan first used the horses for raids, feeding the animals grains and mutton. They selectively bred the horses, keeping records of the perdigrees orally. The horses were called "Argamaks" by the Russians, and were cherished by the nomads. In 1881, Turkomenistan became part of the Russian Empire. The tribes fought with the tzar, eventually losing. A Russian general, Kuropatkin, who grew to love the horses he had seen while fighting the tribesmen, founded a breeding farm after the war and renamed the horses "Akhal-Tekes," after the Teke Turkmen tribe that lived near the Akhal oasis. The Russians printed the first studbook in 1941, which included 287 stallions and 468 mares. The Akhal-Teke has had influence on many breeds, including the Thoroughbred through the Byerley Turk (which is thought to be Akhal-Teke), one of the foundation stallions of the breed. The Trakehner has also been influenced by the Akhal-Teke, most notably by the stallion Turkmen-Atti, as has the Russian breeds Don, Budyonny, Karabair, and Karabakh. The Arabian is also thought to have had an influence by the Akhal-Teke, most noteworthy being the Syrian Arabian. The breed suffered greatly when the Soviet Union required horses to be slaughtered for meat, which however the local Turkmen refused to eat. At one point only 2,000 horses remained and export from the Soviet Union was banned. The government of Turkmenistan now uses the horses as diplomatic presents as well as auctioning a few to raise money for improved horse breeding programs. In the early 20th century, crossing between the Thoroughbred and the Akhal-Teke took place, aiming to create a faster long-distance racehorse. However, the Anglo Akhal-Tekes were not as resilient as their Akhal-Teke ancestors, and many died due to the harsh conditions of Central Asia. The crossbreeding was ended in 1935, after the 2,600 mile endurance race from Ashkabad to Moscow, when the pure-breds finished in much better condition than the part-breds. The Thoroughbred cross is believed to have been so destructive to the breed that a horse with Thoroughbred ancestors must have 15 generations pass before it can be registered in the studbook. Since 1973, all foals must be blood-typed to be accepted in the stud book in order to protect the purity. A stallion not producing the right type of horse can be removed. The stud book was closed in 1975.

Uses of the Akhal-Teke

Because of the purity of the ancient breed, the Akhal-Teke is often used for developing new breeds. The Akhal-Teke, due to its natural athleticism, makes it a great sport horse, good at dressage, show jumping, eventing, racing, and endurance riding. One such great sport horse was the Akhal-Teke stallion Absent, who won the individual gold medal at the 1960 Rome Olympics, at the young age of 8, under Sergei Filatov. He went again with Filatov to win the bronze individual medal in Tokyo in 1964, and won the Soviet team gold medal under Ivan Kalita at the 1968 Mexico Games. Many Akhal-Tekes look like they move "above-the-bit," with the mouth about level with the rider's hands. This is mainly due to their upright necks. Most Akhal-Tekes are found at the Tersk stud in the northern Caucasus Mountains.

External links

- [http://www.akhalteke.net The Akhal-Teke network (.net)]
- [http://www.akhalteke.org The Akhal-Teke network (.org)]
- [http://www2.3dresearch.com/~golden-horses/ Akhal-Tekes in Kaliningrad province, Russia] Category:Horse breeds Category:Turkmenistan

Turkoman Horse

The Turkoman horse, or Turkmene, was an ancient breed from Turkmenistan, now extinct. Modern representatives include the Akhal-Teke and the Yamud. Horses bred in the area are still referred to as Turkoman, and have similar characteristics. They have been influential in many breeds, including the Thoroughbred. The Turkoman horse has an extremely slender body, similar to a greyhound. Although they may look weak, the breed is actually one of the toughest in the world. They have a straight profile, long neck, and sloping shoulders. Their back is long, with sloping quarters and a tucked up abdomen. They have long and muscular legs. The coat of a Turkomen horse can be of any color, and usually possesses a metallic glow to it. The horses range from 15-16 hh. The horses are raised in an unusual manner, with the mares kept in semi-wild herds that have to fend for themselves against the weather and predators, finding their own food. Colts are caught at six months, when their training begins. The colts are kept on long tethers, usually for life. At only eight months of age, they are saddled and ridden by young and lightweight riders, racing on the track by the time they are one. The horses are bred for racing, and are quite talented. The Turkomen horses are fed a special high-protein diet of broiled chicken, barley, dates, raisins, alfalfa, and mutton fat. They wear thick felt blankets to cause sweating on hot days, keeping them lean and free from body fat. The horses have incredible stamina. They have free-flowing movement and a good temperament. Category:Horse breeds

Arabian horse

The Arabian horse first appeared in the Arabian Peninsula at least 2,500 years B.C.E. They were carefully bred to maintain desirable features (e.g. stamina, soundness, strength, and beauty), and are therefore one of the oldest, if not the oldest breeds in the world (this has been contested with the Barb and the Akhal Teke.)

Early history

According to the Bedouins, God created the Arabian horse from the South Wind, saying "I call you Horse; I make you Arabian and I give you the chestnut color of the ant; I have hung happiness from the forelock which hangs between your eyes; you shall be the Lord of the other animals. Men shall follow you wherever you go; you shall be as good for flight as for pursuit; riches shall be on your back and fortune shall come through your meditation". The nomadic Bedouins are the first known to have tamed these fiery horses. The tribes were extremely protective of the purity of their stock, and many sheiks could recite the ancestry of their animals from memory. These forerunners of today's Arabian were bred for stamina and survival in the desert conditions, as well as the speed, courage, and loyalty needed for the constant battles between tribes. The Bedouins gained the reputation for breeding the finest horses, and many horses were traded. The Arabian horse was so prized that in battle, when horses were captured, the parties would come together and share the bloodlines of the horses taken. There are five strains or families in the Arabian breed. These include: Saqlawi, Dahman, Kuhaylan, hadban, and Mu'niqi. While it is not commonly used in breeding today, it does hold significant historical value. A strain refers to a group of horses with common ancestors as well as physical characteristics. Since the background of every horse was passed down orally, it helped the bedouins to make breeding decisions. One version of the story involves the prophet Mohammed (AD 570-632) that after a long trek through the desert a tribe of bedouin released their mares to run to a nearby watering hole to quench their thirst. But as a test of their loyalty, the bedouin called them back to their masters, and of all the many mares only five returned. These five became the five foundation mares of the Arabian breed.

The Continuing Influence

Around 630 AD, Islamic warriors began to fight their north and west. By 711, they had taken Spain. Most of their mounts were Turkish or Barb, but a few were Arabian. From the invader's horses developed the Andalusian (which were taken to the new world and helped develop many of the breeds in the Americas today). Meanwhile, European horses were infused with Arabian blood when the knights came down to Palestine for the Crusades and later returned home with the horses. In the 15th century, firearms were developed. The slow-moving war horses of Europe were obsolete, and the faster Arabian horses were used to develop the quick, agile cavalry horses which would be on the European battlefields into the 20th century. Arabians had also been brought to the Ottoman empire, where the studs used the horses for racing. They were then introduced into European racing. The Darley Arabian, one of three foundation stallions of the modern Thoroughbred breed was brought to England in 1703 (the other two being the Byerley Turk and the Godolphin). The royalty of Europe took an interest in the Arabian, and established royal studs. One such stud, probably the most famous, was the Crabbet Stud in Crabbet Park, England. Wilfrid Scawen Blunt and his wife, Lady Anne Blunt, began importing the breed in 1878. For nearly a century, the family bred the Arabian and conserved the breed's purity, later exporting the horses for use as foundation stock in Poland, Russia, Australia, and North and South America. The stud was closed in 1971. In 1893, the World Fair in Chicago exhibited 45 Arabians. The breed's interest in the United States grew, and the United States stud book was established in 1908, with a total of 71 animals. By 1994, the number had reached half a million. There are now more Arabians registered in North America than in the rest of the world put together. In the 1980s, the Arabian's popularity soared. Many people inexperienced with horses were captivated by the beautiful breed. Celebrities bought the horses. Prices soared, especially in the United States, with some horses going for $150,000 to $1 million each. This created new breeders, and many importations of Arabians, helping create what the breed is today. When tax laws for horses were changed, the market collapsed, and the amount of horses were worth much less. Today, there are many different types of Arabian, ranging from Polish, Spanish, Crabbet, Russian to Egyptain and Domestic (Usually a mix of bloodlines). Polish and Crabbet are known for the substance and athleticism, Spanish for their beauty and athleticism, Russian for their height and substance, Egyptain for their ultimate Arabian type, and Domestic for their combination of all the wonderful traits of each bloodline. Crabbet Arabians can even be narrowed down farther into Davenport and Kellogg. For each Arabian their individual backgrounds and pedigree will help you understand the horse you see today. Whatever the type, the breed is currently being bred both for the Arabian type and athleticism. At breed shows, the Arabian constantly displays its versatility. They are also growing in demand for dressage, where their natural self-carriage and movement is attractive. However, they truly excell in endurance and long-distance riding, where the horse would complete up to 100 miles in a day. They hold the world records for the sport, and are not only usually the first to finish, but also win the "best conditioned" award as well. Arabians often compete in Open Shows, competing against other breeds in different disciplines.

Breed characteristics

The Arabian is one of the most easily recognizable breeds in the world. They have fine wedge-shaped heads, with large eyes, small muzzles and their famous "dished" profile (the nose is concave). Arabians also tend to have very high tail carriage. They have large nostrils and strong lungs, which contributes to their powers of endurance. They have an arched neck with a fine, clean throat, delicate and clean legs, and a fine, silky coat. Most Arabians have the free flowing, well coordinated, reaching, fluid gaits. They can glide across the ground with no effort. They had natural self-carriage. With correct training, they can have collection and extension at every gait. They typically have natural impulsion and bend. Their gaits are regular and balanced. Their naturally arched necks allow for more head movement in all directions. They can obtain different types of frames depending on the desired discipline. Their shorter backs able them to push their hind end up and under them for better movement and suppleness. Sensitivity and sociability allows them to be trained more easily. Natural beauty gives them presence in the show ring. Arabians are very sound, they have strong bones, wide, strong feet, and good hoof walls. Their bone size is compatible to their body size, making them very sturdy horses. The coat color of Arabians is diverse, with chestnut and grey as the dominant color, followed by bay and black. Black Arabians are rare, mainly because they were bred in the desert, where a black or dark coat would absorb heat and therefore be detrimental to the horse. However, many breeders are breeding specifically for black Arabians, so the color is not as uncommon as it used to be. Purebred Arabians can display the pattern sabino. Sabino can be minimally expressed as a small white spot on the body, or as high jagged edged socks, and at its maximum the horse can be entirely white with small flecks that appear to be, but are not, roan. This color allows a purebred Arabian to be double-registered with Pinto Breed organizations. Arabians do not express the dilute gene which produces palomino, cremello, and other dilute colors. Many half-Arabians are bred to produce pinto and dilute colors. The Arabian has a compact body with a short back, partly due to the 5 lumbar vertebrae instead of the normal horses' 6, and usually stands between 14.0 and 15.1 hands. Arabians are always referred to as horses, not ponies, whatever their height. The breed is also known for its intelligence, versatility, and very affectionate nature. Due to the Arabian's notable traits, there have been many Arabians and Half Arabian approved by Warmblood registries, such as the American Warmblood Society, Oldenburg, and Trakehner Associations.

The Arabian Today

hand Because of the genetic purity of the Arabian horse, it is often used as a refining influence on other breeds, and has played a significant part in the evolution of almost every recognized breed, including Thoroughbreds, Percherons, Welsh Ponies, American Quarter Horses, Morgans, Saddlebreds, and all of the warmblood breeds. The Arabian has influenced more breeds than any other horse. The UC Davis Book of Horses, p. 20, compares Arabians with various other breeds and lists this breed's temperament as "highly strung", though their individual temperament will depend on how the horse is raised and trained. It lists the breed's categories as "speed, endurance, intelligence, courage, and gentleness." Over the course of the breed's history they have for centuries lived in close association with human families. They are emotionally very much attuned to both their herd members and their human families. For that reason they tend to be protective of humans and suitable as companions for children. At the same time, they were in the beginning joined symbiotically with humans in a hostile environment that occasionally included armed combat and other sudden dangers. They are therefore adept at making sudden course corrections at high speed, which can pose a challenge even to fairly accomplished riders. Their athleticism also makes them a very versatile breed, and they are capable of competing in many fields, including Dressage, Saddleseat, Western Pleasure, Cutting, Reining, Endurance riding, Hunter/Jumper, Eventing, Combined Training, Barrel Racing, and many others. They also make very reliable trail riding buddies, for those who are not interested in showing. They dominate the endurance world because of their incredible stamina, which far exceeds that of many other breeds. There is also Arabian racing, which is separate from the more popular Thoroughbred racing.

Arabian as a Sport Horse

Thoroughbred Their use in the "sport horse" disciplines, such as dressage, hunter/jumper, eventing, and combined training, has finally become more widely recognized, though they have been successfully competing in these events for a very long time. The American Arabian Horse Association has now been hosting an Arabian and Half Arabian Sport Horse Nationals since 2003. In the 2005 Arabian and Half Arabian Sport Horse National there were 1906 entries, competing in Working Hunter, Jumper, Sport Horse Under Saddle, Sport Horse In Hand, Dressage, and Carriage Driving.

External links

- [http://www.vgl.ucdavis.edu/~lvmillon/coatcolor/coatstxt.html Coat Color Genetics: Positive Horse Identification - Anne Bowling] Category:Horse breeds ja:アラブ種

19th century

:Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) The 19th century lasted from 1801 to 1900 in the Gregorian calendar (using the Common Era system of year numbering). Historians sometimes define a "Nineteenth Century" historical era stretching from 1815 (The Congress of Vienna) to 1914 (The outbreak of the First World War).

Europe

For Europe, the period is marked with revolution, social upheaval, and the emergence of a united conservatism from the monarchs of Europe in response to the emerging republican firestorm spreading from revolutionary France. There were many revolutions in Europe in 1848. Furthermore, the later end of the century was dominated by what many call the New Imperialism, which was the rapid aquisition of colonies worldwide by European powers, most noteworthy is the Scramble for Africa. Many countries in Europe underwent an Industrial Revolution, especially Britain and Germany, that spread elsewhere by the end of the century, with factories and railway lines built all over the continent. The start of the 19th century there was a struggle between France and Britain and their allies for control of Europe and the world during the Napoleonic Wars, with Napoleon being finally defeated at Waterloo in 1815. During the rest of the century, the British empire became the largest and most powerful empire in history, during the period known as the Pax Britannica.

Americas

In the Americas, the United States slowly grew economically, militarily, and politically, but nevertheless faced dramatic changes domestically, best seen in the Civil War, the end of slavery, and the expansion across the American continent known as Manifest Destiny. Industrially, America will explode following the Civil War, and would eventually begin expansion outward across the Pacific Ocean and in Latin America.

Other countries

For the rest of the world, there were few places not influenced by the West in some fashion, whether through colonialism, imperialism, or war. European powers gained increasing influence in China, where Qing control had weakened, and wars were fought by the western powers against China, such as the first and the second Opium wars and Sino-French War. Japan, which was forcibly opened to Western trade, began a rapid industrialisation. Africa which was largely free from European control at the start of the century, was almost completely dominated by Europe at the end of it, with the Scramble for Africa in the 1880s and 1890s. Large European settlement, especially British, of colonies such as Australia, New Zealand and the Cape Colony continued during the nineteenth century.

Events

- 1801: The Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland merge to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
- 1803: The United States buys out France's territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase.
- 1804-06: Americans Meriwether Lewis and William Clark lead an expedition to the Pacific Coast and back.
- 1805-48: Muhammad Ali modernizes Egypt.
- 1806: Holy Roman Empire dissolved as a consequence of the Treaty of Lunéville.
- 1809: Napoleon strips the Teutonic Knights of their last holdings in Bad Mergentheim.
- 1813-1917: The contest between the British Empire and Imperial Russia for control of Central Asia is referred to as the Great Game.
- 1815: Congress of Vienna redraws the European map.
- 1815: Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo brings a conclusion to the Napoleonic Wars and marks the beginning of a Pax Britannica which lasts until 1870.
- 1816: Year Without a Summer
- 1816-28: Shaka's Zulu kingdom becomes the largest in Southern Africa.
- 1819: The modern city of Singapore is established by the British East India Company.
- 1820: Liberia founded by the American Colonization Society for freed American slaves.
- 1830: France invades and occupies Algeria.
- 1830: The Belgian Revolution in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands led to the creation of Belgium.
- 1833: Slavery Abolition Act bans slavery throughout the British Empire.
- 1834: Spanish Inquisition officially ends.
- 1835-36: The Texas Revolution in Mexico resulted in the short-lived Republic of Texas.
- 1837-1901: Queen Victoria's reign is considered the apex of the British Empire and is referred to as the Victorian era.
- 1845-49: Irish Potato Famine
- 1848: The Communist Manifesto published.
- 1848: Revolutions of 1848 in Europe
- 1848-58: California Gold Rush
- 1850: The Little Ice Age ends around this time.
- 1851-60s: Victorian gold rush in Australia
- 1851-64: The Taiping Rebellion in China
- 1854: The Convention of Kanagawa formally ends Japan's policy of Sakoku.
- 1855: Bessemer process enables steel to be mass produced.
- 1856: World's first oil refinery in Romania
- 1857-58: Indian rebellion of 1857
- 1859: The Origin of Species published.
- 1864-67: French intervention in Mexico
- 1865-77: Reconstruction in the United States
- 1866: Successful transatlantic telegraph cable follows an earlier attempt in 1858.
- 1866: Creation of the North German Confederation and the Austrian-Hungarian Dual Monarchy.
- 1866-69: Meiji Restoration in Japan
- 1867: The United States purchased Alaska from Russia.
- 1867: Canadian Confederation formed.
- 1869: First Transcontinental Railroad completed in United States.
- 1869: The Suez Canal opens linking the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea.
- 1870-71: Unifications of Germany and Italy.
- 1871-1914: Second Industrial Revolution
- 1870s-90s: Long Depression in Western Europe and North America
- 1872: Yellowstone National Park created.
- 1874: The British East India Company is dissolved.
- 1877: Great Railroad Strike in the United States may have been the world's first nationwide labor strike.
- 1877-78: The Balkans are freed from the Ottoman Empire after another Russo-Turkish War.
- 1878: First commercial telephone exchange in New Haven, Connecticut.
- 1880-1902: Great Britain conquers Dutch settlers in South Africa in two Boer Wars.
- 1882: First electrical power plant and grid in Manhattan.
- 1884-85: The Berlin Conference signals the start of the European Scramble for Africa. Attending nations also agree to ban trade in slaves.
- 1885: Unification of Bulgaria
- 1890: The Wounded Knee Massacre is the last battle in the American Indian Wars.
- 1894-95: After the First Sino-Japanese War, China cedes Taiwan to Japan and grants Japan a free hand in Korea.
- 1895-1896: Ethiopia defeated Italy in the First Italo-Abyssinian War.
- 1896: Olympic games revived in Athens.
- 1896: Klondike Gold Rush in Canada
- 1898: The United States gains control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines after the Spanish-American War.
- 1898-1900: The Boxer Rebellion in China is suppressed by an Eight-Nation Alliance.

Wars

List of wars 1800–1899
- 1799-1815: Napoleonic Wars.
- 1801-15: Barbary Wars between the United States and the Barbary States of North Africa.
- 1806-12: Russo-Turkish War
- 1810-21: Mexican War of Independence.
- 1810s-20s: South American Wars of Independence.
- 1812-15: War of 1812 between the United States and Great Britain.
- 1821-32: Greek War of Independence.
- 1828-29: Russo-Turkish War, 1828-1829
- 1833-76: Carlist Wars in Spain.
- 1839-60: After two Opium Wars, Great Britain, France, the United States and Russia gain many concessions from China.
- 1854-56: Crimean War between Great Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire and Russia.
- 1861-65: American Civil War between the Union and seceding Confederacy.
- 1866: Austro-Prussian War.
- 1877-78: Russo-Turkish War.
- 1879: Anglo-Zulu War in South Africa.
- 1879-84: War of the Pacific between Peru, Bolivia and Chile.
- 1880-81: First Boer War.
- 1894-95: First Sino-Japanese War.
- 1895-96: First Italo-Abyssinian War.
- 1899-13: The Philippine-American War.

Significant people

- Gilbert and Sullivan, playwright, composer
- William Gilbert Grace, English cricketer
- Baron Haussmann, civic planner
- Sándor Körösi Csoma, explorer of the Tibetan culture
- Fitz Hugh Ludlow, writer and explorer
- Florence Nightingale, nursing pioneer
- Ignaz Semmelweis, founder of hygiene
- Dr. John Snow, the founder of epidemiology
- F R Spofforth, Australian cricketer

- Charles Baudelaire
- Charlotte Brontë
- Emily Brontë
- François-René de Chateaubriand
- Anton Chekhov
- Kate Chopin
- Samuel Taylor Coleridge
- Charles Dickens
- Emily Dickinson
- Fyodor Dostoevsky
- Ralph Waldo Emerson
- Gustave Flaubert
- Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
- Nikolai Gogol
- Nathaniel Hawthorne
- Friedrich Hölderlin
- Heinrich Heine
- Victor Hugo
- Henry James
- Stéphane Mallarmé
- Aleksandr Pushkin
- Arthur Rimbaud
- Stendhal
- Leo Tolstoy
- Mark Twain (Samuel Clemens)
- Jules Verne
- Walt Whitman
- Oscar Wilde
- Edgar Allan Poe
- Herman Melville

Science

- Henri Becquerel, physicist
- Charles Darwin, biologist
- Thomas Alva Edison, inventor
- Michael Faraday, scientist
- Gottlob Frege, mathematician, logician and philosopher
- Carl Friedrich Gauss, mathematician, physicist, astronomer
- James Clerk Maxwell, Scottish physicist
- Gregor Mendel, biologist
- Louis Pasteur, biologist
- Nikola Tesla, inventor
- Amedeo Avogadro, physicist
- Johann Jakob Balmer, mathematician, physicist
- Pierre Curie, physicist
- Christian Doppler, physicist, mathematician

Philosophy and Religion

- Bahá'u'lláh, Persian religious leader and founder of Bahá'í Faith
- Báb, Persian prophet and founder of Bábísm
- Nikolai of Japan, religious leader who introduced Eastern Orthodoxy into Japan.
- Mikhail Bakunin, anarchist
- Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, philosopher
- Søren Kierkegaard, philosopher
- Karl Marx, political philosopher and economist
- John Stuart Mill, philosopher
- Friedrich Nietzsche, philosopher
- Joseph Smith, Jr., religious leader, founder of Mormonism
- Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, Hindu mystic
- Arthur Schopenhauer, philosopher
- Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon, founder of French socialism
- Brigham Young, Mormon religious leader
- William Morris, social reformer

Politics

- Otto von Bismarck, German chancellor
- Napoleon Bonaparte, French general, first consul and emperor
- Guiseppe Garibaldi, unifier of Italy and Piedmontese soldier
- Ulysses S. Grant, U.S. general and president
- Theodor Herzl, founder of modern political Zionism
- Andrew Jackson, U.S. general and president
- Thomas Jefferson, American statesman, philosopher, and president
- Lajos Kossuth, Hungarian governor; leader of the war of independence
- Hong Xiuquan, revolutionary, self-proclaimed Son of God
- Benjamin Disraeli, novelist and politician
- Libertadores, Latin American liberators
- Robert E. Lee, Confederate general
- Abraham Lincoln, U.S. president; led the nation during the Civil War
- Mutsuhito, Japanese emperor
- István Széchenyi, aristocrat, leader of the Hungarian reform movement
- Queen Victoria, British monarch
- Klemens von Metternich, Austrian Chancellor

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

List of 19th century inventions
- Department stores
- Electromagnetism
- Epidemiology
- Mail order businesses
- Philology
- Postage stamps
- Public busses
- Subway
- The invention of the telegraph connected the world like never before, leading to quicker communication and interaction.
- One of the more devestating technologies emerging from this period is the machine gun, first used during the Civil War (considered the first modern war)

Decades and years

Category:19th century Category:Centuries Category:Romanticism als:19. Jahrhundert zh-min-nan:19 sè-kí ko:19세기 ja:19世紀 simple:19th century th:คริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 19

Karabakh

Breed Characteristics

Breed history

Nagorno-Karabakh

Name

Geography

From Origins to 1917

Soviet era

Post-Soviet era

See also

External links

Azerbaijan

Etymology

History

Politics

Subdivisions

Geography

Economy

Demographics

Culture

Miscellaneous topics

References

External links

Akhal-Teke

Breed characteristics

Breed history

Uses of the Akhal-Teke

External links

Turkoman Horse

Arabian horse

Early history

The Continuing Influence

Breed characteristics

The Arabian Today

Arabian as a Sport Horse

External links

19th century

Europe

Americas

Other countries

Events

Wars

Significant people

Anthropology

Painters

Music

Literature

Science

Philosophy and Religion

Politics

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

Decades and years

Turkoman Horse

Arabian horse

Early history

The Continuing Influence

Breed characteristics