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Karadjordje

Karadjordje

Karađorđe or Карађорђе (also Black George and George Czerny), (November 3, 1768? – July 13, 1817) was the leader of the First Serbian uprising against the Turks, and the founder of the House of Karađorđević. He was born Ђорђе Петровић (Đorđe Petrović). Because of his dark complexion and short temper he was nicknamed "Black Đorđe", kara meaning black in Turkish — Karadjordje, also spelled Karageorge in some older texts and Karađorđe in modern Serbian. Serbian He was born in Viševci. In his youth he was a cattle-keeper, but he was early showing great battle temper and determination. Even as a young man he defended girls from Turkish violence. In 1787, after he killed a Turk, he fled to Austria, joined Serbian volunteers there and distinguished himself in a failed attempt to capture the Kalemegdan fortress in Belgrade. He took part in the Austro-Turkish War, 1787-1791. After the Peace of Svištovo he returned to Serbia and settled in Topola herding cattle and conducting trade. When dahias seized the rule of Serbia and prepared executions of influential men, knezes and priests, they decided to kill Karadjordje as well. Tipped about Turkish intentions, he saved his life by killing two of the men sent to execute him and then fled to the local mountains taking with him a group of like-minded rebels. Soon after he was chosen the leader of the rebellion in Orašac on February 2, 1804 (Julian calendar) / February 14, (Gregorian calendar). Courageous, determined and possessing great personal authority, he soon accomplished several military successes. Within two months he stirred up the whole of the Belgrade pasaluk into mutiny. At first the mutiny was led under the pretext of liberation from dahias, even for strengthening of central authority, but after the Battle of Ivankovac in 1805 he started open combat with Turkey and the Sultan's rule, all for the liberation of Serbia. As the army leader, in 1806 he excelled in victories at the Battle of Mišar and the Battle of Deligrad; by the end of the year he captured Belgrade and made an alliance with Russia. In the spring of 1809 he started a successful offensive toward Montenegro, but he had to call it off because of the Turkish forces' penetration, moving from Niš towards the Danube. In 1812, threatened by Napoleon, Russia had to quickly sign a peace treaty with Turkey. Serbs were left on their own and wide open to Turkish revenge. In 1813 the Turks attacked Serbia from three sides. Karadjordje fell ill at the most inopportune moment. Weakened by the disease, he left Serbia on September 21, 1813, crossed into Austria and after some time moved on to Bessarabia, where he encountered members of the Filiki Eteria, a Greek secret society which planned the liberation of all Christians from the Turks. Assisted by the Eteria, Karadjordje went into Serbia carrying a forged passport and stepped onto Serbian soil on June 28, 1817. Frightened by Karadjordje's arrival, both for himself and for Serbia, whose freedom could perish again in another struggle, knez Miloš ordered his assassination which was soon executed at Radovanje. Karadjordje was the most notable figure in the history of modern Serbia. He led the Serbs into a fight for freedom in which their state was restored and a hinge is created around which all parts of Serb people could gather.

References


- Translated with small changes from small encyclopedia "Sveznanje" published by "Narodno delo", Belgrade, in 1937 which is today in public domain. This article is written from the point of view of that place and time and may not reflect modern opinions or recent discoveries. Please help Wikipedia by bringing it up to date. # Vecernje Novosti: [http://www.novosti.co.yu/vest.php?vest=472&rubrika=Feljton Karađorđe istina i mit - 1. deo: Pastir u najmu] Category:Serbian history Category:House of Karađorđević

November 3

November 3 is the 307th day of the year (308th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 58 days remaining.

Events


- 1493 - Christopher Columbus first sights the island of Dominica in the Caribbean Sea.
- 1783 - John Austin, a highwayman, is the last to be publicly hanged at London's Tyburn gallows.
- 1783 - The Continental Army is disbanded.
- 1793 - French playwright, journalist and feminist Olympe de Gouges is guillotined.
- 1817 - The Bank of Montreal, Canada's oldest chartered bank, opens in Montreal, Quebec.
- 1838 - The Times of India, the world's largest circulated English language daily broadsheet newspaper is founded as The Bombay Times and Journal of Commerce.
- 1844 - Debut of Giuseppe Verdi's I due Foscari, at Teatro Argentina, Rome.
- 1848 - A greatly revised constitution, drafted by Johan Rudolf Thorbecke, severely limiting the powers of the Dutch monarchy, and strengthening the powers of the parliament and the ministers, is proclaimed. This constitution is still in effect today.
- 1868 - U.S. presidential election: Republican Ulysses S. Grant is elected to the first of his two terms in a victory over Democrat Horatio Seymour.
- 1883 - American Old West: Self-described "Black Bart the Po-8" gets away with his last stagecoach robbery, but leaves an incriminating clue that eventually leads to his capture.
- 1896 - U.S. presidential election: Republican William McKinley is elected over Democrat William Jennings Bryan.
- 1903 - With the encouragement of the United States, Panama proclaims itself independent from Colombia. US President Theodore Roosevelt had wanted the United States to build the Panama Canal, but was not willing to pay what Colombia asked.
- 1908 - U.S. presidential election: Republican William Howard Taft defeats William Jennings Bryan, Democratic candidate in his third and final nomination.
- 1911 - Chevrolet officially enters the automobile market in competition with the Ford Model T.
- 1913 - The USA introduces an income tax.
- 1918 - Austria-Hungary enters an armistice with the World War I Allies, and the Habsburg-ruled empire dissolves.
- 1918 - Poland declares its independence from Russia.
- 1923 - Lady Louise Mountbatten marries Gustav, Crown Prince of Sweden
- 1930 - Getúlio Dornelles Vargas became Head of the Provisional Government in Brazil after a bloodless coup on October 24.
- 1935 - George II of Greece regains his throne.
- 1936 - U.S. presidential election, 1936: Franklin D. Roosevelt is reelected to a second term in a landslide victory over Alf Landon.
- 1942 - World War II: Second Battle of El Alamein ends - German forces under Erwin Rommel are forced to retreat during the night.
- 1954 - The first in the Godzilla series of films is released in Japan.
- 1955 - The musical film Guys and Dolls, starring Marlon Brando and Frank Sinatra, debuts.
- 1956 - The Wizard of Oz is shown on television for the first time, with a viewing audience estimated at 45 million people.
- 1957 - Sputnik program: The Soviet Union launches Sputnik 2. On board is the first animal to enter orbit: a dog named Laika.
- 1964 - U.S. presidential election, 1964: Incumbent US President Lyndon B. Johnson defeats Republican challenger Barry Goldwater, Sr with over 60 percent of the popular vote.
- 1967 - Vietnam War: Battle of Dak To begins - Around Dak To (located about 280 miles (450 km) north of Saigon near the Cambodian border), heavy casualties are suffered on both sides, with the Americans narrowly winning the battle on November 22.
- 1969 - Vietnam War: US President Richard M. Nixon addresses the nation on television and radio, asking the "silent majority" to join him in solidarity on the Vietnam War effort and to support his policies.
- 1970 - Salvador Allende is inaugurated as president of Chile.
- 1971 - The UNIX Programmer's Manual is published.
- 1973 - Mariner program: NASA launches the Mariner 10 toward Mercury, on March 29, 1974 becoming the first space probe to reach that planet.
- 1975 - An independent audit of Mattel, one of the United States's largest toy manufacturers, reveals that company officials fabricated press releases and financial information to "maintain the appearance of continued corporate growth."
- 1975 - The television breakfast show Good Morning America premieres with co-anchors David Hartman and Nancy Dussault.
- 1978 - Dominica gains its independence from the United Kingdom.
- 1978 The sitcom Diff'rent Strokes premieres on NBC.
- 1979 - Greensboro massacre: Five members of the Communist Workers Party are shot dead and seven are wounded by a group of Klansmen and neo-Nazis during a "Death to the Klan" rally.
- 1982 - The Salang tunnel fire in Afghanistan kills up to 2,000+ people.
- 1986 - Iran-Contra Affair: The Lebanese magazine Ash-Shiraa reports that the United States has been selling weapons to Iran in secret in order to secure the release of seven American hostages held by pro-Iranian groups in Lebanon.
- 1988 - Sri Lankan Tamil mercenaries try to overthrow the Maldivian government. At President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom's request, the Indian military suppresses the coup attempt within 24 hours.
- 1991 - Fifteen people are killed in the Barrios Altos massacre in Lima, Peru.
- 1992 - U.S. presidential election: Democratic challenger Bill Clinton defeats incumbent Republican George H.W. Bush and independent candidate Ross Perot.
- 1994 - Red Hat Linux 1.0 is released.
- 1995 - At Arlington National Cemetery, U.S. President Bill Clinton dedicates a memorial to the victims of the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing.
- 1998 - Former professional wrestler Jesse Ventura is elected Governor of the U.S. state of Minnesota.
- 2005 - Copernicus's remains are found.

Births


- 39 - Lucan, Roman poet (d. 65)
- 1487 - Melin de Saint-Gelais, French poet (d. 1558)
- 1500 - Benvenuto Cellini, Italian artist (d. 1571)
- 1560 - Annibale Carracci, Italian painter (d. 1609)
- 1587 - Samuel Scheidt, German composer (d. 1654)
- 1604 - Osman II, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1622)
- 1618 - Aurangzeb, Mughal Emperor of India (d. 1707)
- 1633 - Bernardino Ramazzini, Italian physician (d. 1714)
- 1718 - John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, English statesman (d. 1792)
- 1793 - Stephen F. Austin, American pioneer (d. 1836)
- 1794 - William Cullen Bryant, American poet and journalist (d. 1878)
- 1801 - Karl Baedeker, German author and publisher (d. 1859)
- 1801 - Vincenzo Bellini, Italian composer (d. 1835)
- 1816 - Jubal Early, American Confederate general (d. 1894)
- 1816 - Calvin Fairbank, American abolitionist minister (d. 1898)
- 1852 - Meiji Emperor, Japanese emperor (d. 1912)
- 1874 - Lucy Maud Montgomery, Canadian novelist (d. 1942)
- 1876 - Stephen Peter Alencastre, Roman Catholic prelate (d. 1940)
- 1887 - Samuil Marshak, Russian poet (d. 1964)
- 1893 - Edward Adelbert Doisy, American biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1986)
- 1895 - Grand Duchess Olga Nicolaievna Romanova (d. 1918)
- 1901 - King Léopold III of Belgium (d. 1983)
- 1901 - André Malraux, French writer (d. 1976)
- 1903 - Walker Evans, American photographer (d. 1975)
- 1908 - Bronko Nagurski, American football player (d. 1990)
- 1909 - James Reston, American journalist (d. 1995)
- 1910 - Richard Hurndall, British actor (d. 1984)
- 1918 - Bob Feller, baseball player
- 1918 - Russell B. Long, U.S. Senator from Louisiana (d. 2003)
- 1919 - Jesús Blasco, Spanish comic book author (d. 1995)
- 1920 - Oodgeroo Noonuccal, Australian writer (d. 1993)
- 1921 - Charles Bronson, American actor (d. 2003)
- 1924 - Samuel Ruiz García, Mexican Roman Catholic bishop
- 1930 - Brian Robinson, British cyclist
- 1933 - Ken Berry, American actor
- 1933 - Jeremy Brett, English actor (d. 1995)
- 1933 - Michael Dukakis, American politician
- 1933 - Amartya Sen, Indian economist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1934 - John Barry, English composer
- 1936 - Roy Emerson, Australian tennis champion
- 1938 - Martin Dunwoody, British mathematician
- 1946 - Tom Savini, American actor, filmmaker, and makeup artist
- 1948 - Lulu (singer), British actress and singer
- 1949 - Larry Holmes, American boxer
- 1952 - Roseanne Barr, American actress and comedienne
- 1953 - Dickie Fiske, American Business Owner, Slow Pitch Softball Legend
- 1953 - Kate Capshaw, American actress
- 1953 - Dennis Miller, American comedian
- 1954 - Adam Ant, English singer
- 1954 - Brigitte Lin, Taiwanese actress
- 1955 - Phil Simms, American football player
- 1956 - Kevin Murphy, American actor, author, and puppeteer
- 1957 - Dolph Lundgren, Swedish actor
- 1960 - Karch Kiraly, American volleyball player
- 1962 - Marilyn, British musician
- 1963 - Ian Wright, English footballer
- 1967 - Steven Wilson, English singer Porcupine Tree
- 1970 - Dawn Marie Psaltis, American professional wrestler
- 1973 - Nemone, Athlete and broadcaster
- 1973 - Mick Thomson, American guitarist (Slipknot)
- 1974 - Tariq Abdul-Wahad, French basketball player
- 1976 - Ruben Espinosa, Famous Philosopher, co-author of the spample theory
- 1977 - Aria Giovanni, American model
- 1981 - Jackie Gayda, American professional wrestler
- 1982 - Evgeny Plushenko, Russian figure skater
- 1986 - Jasmine Trias, American singer
- 1987 - Gemma Ward, Australian model

Deaths


- 361 - Constantius II, Roman Emperor (b. 317)
- 1254 - John III Ducas Vatatzes, Byzantine Emperor (b. 1193)
- 1428 - Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury, English military leader (mortally wounded in battle) (b. 1388)
- 1580 - Jeronimo Zurita y Castro, Spanish historian (b. 1512)
- 1600 - Richard Hooker, English theologian (b. 1554)
- 1643 - John Bainbridge, English astronomer (b. 1582)
- 1643 - Paul Guldin, Swiss astronomer and mathematician (b. 1577)
- 1711 - John Ernest Grabe, German-born Anglican theologian (b. 1666)
- 1787 - Robert Lowth, British bishop and grammarian (b. 1710)
- 1793 - Olympe de Gouges, french feminist and revolutionary (b. 1748)
- 1794 - François-Joachim de Pierre de Bernis, French cardinal and statesman (b. 1715)
- 1890 - Ulrich Ochsenbein, Swiss Federal Councilor (b. 1811)
- 1891 - Louis Lucien Bonaparte, French politician and linguist (b. 1813)
- 1918 - Aleksandr Mikhailovich Lyapunov, Russian scientist (b. 1857)
- 1926 - Annie Oakley, American sharp-shooter (b. 1860)
- 1929 - Olav Aukrust, Norwegian poet (b. 1883)
- 1933 - Emile Roux, French scientist (b. 1853)
- 1939 - Charles Tournemire, French composer and organist (b. 1870)
- 1954 - Henri Matisse, French artist (b. 1869)
- 1957 - Wilhelm Reich, Austrian psychotherapist (b. 1897)
- 1964 - John Henry Barbee, American guitarist and singer (b. 1905)
- 1990 - Mary Martin, American actress (b. 1913)
- 1993 - Leon Theremin, Russian inventor (b. 1895)
- 1995 - Gordon S. Fahrni, physician and president of the Canadian Medical Association (b. 1887)
- 1996 - Jean-Bédel Bokassa, President of the Central African Republic (b. 1921)
- 1998 - Bob Kane, comic artist & Batman co creator (b. 1915)
- 1999 - Ian Bannen, Scottish actor (b. 1928)
- 2001 - Ernst Gombrich, Austrian art historian (b. 1909)
- 2002 - Lonnie Donegan, Scottish musician (b. 1931)
- 2002 - Jonathan Harris, American actor (b. 1914)
- 2003 - Rasul Gamzatov, Russian poet (b. 1923)
- 2004 - Sergei Zholtok, Latvian hockey player (b. 1972)

Holidays and observances


- R.C. Saints - November 3rd is the feast day of the following Roman Catholic Saints:
  - St. Acepsimas
  - St. Cristiolus
  - St. Domnus of Vienne
  - St. Elerius
  - St. Englatius
  - St. Florus
  - St. Germanus
  - St. Guenhael
  - St. Hermengaudis
  - St. Hubert
  - St. Malachy O' More
  - St. Peter Francis Neron
  - St. Papulus
  - St. Pirmin
  - St. Martin de Porres
  - St. Quaratus
  - St. Valentinian
  - St. Valentine & Hilary
  - St. Vulganius
  - St. Winifred
- Also see November 3 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
- Independence Day in Panama (1903, from Colombia), Dominica (1978, from Britain) and Federated States of Micronesia (1986, from France)
- Japan - Culture Day (post 1946), Emperors Birthday (pre 1946)
- International Men's Day

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/3 BBC: On This Day] ---- November 2 - November 4 - October 3 - December 3 – more historical anniversaries ko:11월 3일 ms:3 November ja:11月3日 simple:November 3 th:3 พฤศจิกายน

July 13

July 13 is the 194th day (195th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 171 days remaining.

Events


- 1174 - William the Lion of Scotland, a key rebel in the Revolt of 1173-1174, was captured at Alnwick by forces loyal to Henry II of England.
- 1558 - Battle of Gravelines: In France, Spanish forces led by Count Lamoral of Egmont defeat the French forces of Marshal Paul des Thermes at Gravelines.
- 1573 - Eighty Years' War: The Siege of Haarlem ends after seven months.
- 1643 - English Civil War: Battle of Roundway Down - In England, Lord Henry Wilmot, Earl of Rochester, commanding the Royalist forces, wins a crushing victory over the Parliamentarian Sir William Waller.
- 1772 - HMS Resolution, under the command of Captain James Cook, set sail from Plymouth, England.
- 1787 - The Continental Congress enacts the Northwest Ordinance establishing governing rules for the Northwest Territory. It also establishes procedures for the admission of new states and limits the expansion of slavery.
- 1793 - Jean Paul Marat, one of the leaders of the French revolution, is murdered by Charlotte Corday.
- 1794 - Battle of the Vosges between French forces and those of Prussia and Austria
- 1822 - Greek War of Independence: Greeks defeat Ottoman forces at Thermopylae.
- 1837 - Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom moves into the first Buckingham Palace in London and is the first British monarch to live there.
- 1854 - In the battle of Guaymas, Mexico, General Jose Maria Yanez stops the French invasion led by Count Gaston de Raousset Boulbon.
- 1863 - New York Draft Riots: In New York City, opponents of conscription begin three days of rioting which will be later regarded as the worst in United States history.
- 1878 - Treaty of Berlin: The European powers redraw the map of the Balkans. Serbia and Montenegro become completely independent of the Ottoman empire.
- 1900 - Boxer Rebellion: In China, Tientsin is retaken by European Allies from the rebelling Boxers.
- 1908 - Women compete in modern Olympics for the first time.
- 1909 - Gold discovered near Cochrane, Ontario.
- 1919 - The British airship R-34 lands in Norfolk, England, completing the first airship return journey across the Atlantic in 182 hours of flight.
- 1923 - The Hollywood Sign is officially dedicated in the hills above Hollywood, Los Angeles. It originally reads "Hollywoodland " but the four last letters are dropped after renovation in 1949.
- 1930 - The first FIFA World Cup begins in Uruguay.
- 1936 - A heat wave strikes the Midwestern United States. The all-time highest temperatures for the states of Wisconsin, Michigan, and Indiana are all recorded on this date.
- 1941 - World War II: Montenegrins start the first popular uprising in Europe against the Axis Powers (Crnogorski ustanak).
- 1942 - World War II: German U-Boats sink three more merchant ships in Gulf of St. Lawrence.
- 1948 - The Coptic and Ethiopian Churches reach an agreement leading to the promotion of the Ethiopian church to the rank of an autocephalous Patriarchate. Five bishops are immediately consecrated by the Patriarch of Alexandria, who are empowered to elect a new Patriarch for their church, and the successor to Abuna Qerellos IV is granted the power to consecrate new bishops.
- 1972 - The United States Democratic Party nominates George McGovern for president at its convention in Miami Beach, Florida but, because of an impassioned platform dispute, McGovern does not give his acceptance speech until the early morning hours of the 14th.
- 1973 - Alexander Butterfield reveals the existence of the Nixon tapes to the special Senate committee investigating the Watergate break in.
- 1977 - The New York City Blackout of 1977 lasts for 25 hours and results in looting and other disorder.
- 1978 - Ford Motor Company President Lee Iacocca is fired by chairman Henry Ford II, ending a long dispute between the men.
- 1978 - Sheldon Souray, Defenseman for the Montreal Canadiens, was born in Alberta,Canada.
- 1982 - Montreal hosts the first baseball All-Star Game outside the United States.
- 1983 Around 3,000 Tamils were slaughtered by Sinhalese Buddhist majority in Sri Lanka and some 400,000 Tamils fled to neighboring Tamil Nadu, India and this incident led directly to beginig of civil war in Sri Lanka.
- 1985 - The Live Aid benefit concert takes place in London and Philadelphia, as well as other venues such as Sydney and Moscow.
- 1996 - A Garuda Indonesia Airways DC-10 crashes on take-off from Fukuoka Airport, Japan, killing 3 passengers.
- 2002 - A lighting strike sets off the Sour Biscuit Fire in Oregon and northern California, which had burned 499,570 acres (2,020 km2) when finally contained on September 5.
- 2005 - Three trains collide in the Ghotki rail crash in Ghotki, Pakistan, killing over 150 people.

Births


- 100 BC - Gaius Julius Caesar, Roman general and polititian (d. 44 BC)
- 40 - Gnaeus Julius Agricola, Roman Governor of Britain (d. 93)
- 1527 - John Dee, English scientist (d. 1609)
- 1579 - Arthur Dee, English physician and alchemist (d. 1651)
- 1590 - Pope Clement X (d. 1676)
- 1607 - Václav Hollar, Czech-born actor (d. 1677)
- 1608 - Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1657)
- 1808 - Patrice MacMahon, duc de Magenta, President of France (d. 1893)
- 1821 - Nathan Bedford Forrest, American Confederate general and Ku Klux Klan leader (d. 1877)
- 1841 - Otto Wagner, Austrian architect (d. 1918)
- 1858 - Stewart Culin, American ethnographer (d. 1929)
- 1864 - John Jacob Astor IV, American entrepreneur (d. 1912)
- 1894 - Isaac Babel, Ukrainian writer (d. 1940)
- 1900 - George Lewis, American musician (d. 1969)
- 1913 - Dave Garroway, American television host (d. 1982)
- 1918 - Alberto Ascari, Italian race car driver (d. 1955)
- 1921 - Ernest Gold, Austrian composer (d. 1999)
- 1921 - Friedrich Peter, Austrian poltitician (d. 2005)
- 1924 - Carlo Bergonzi, Italian tenor
- 1927 - Simone Veil, French politician
- 1928 - Bob Crane, American actor (d. 1978)
- 1929 - Alan Civil, English French horn player (d. 1989)
- 1931 - Frank Ramsey, American basketball player
- 1934 - Wole Soyinka, Nigerian writer, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1934 - Aleksei Yeliseyev, cosmonaut
- 1935 - Jack Kemp, American football player and Vice Presidential candidate
- 1936 - Albert Ayler, American musician (d. 1970)
- 1940 - Patrick Stewart, English actor
- 1941 - Robert Forster, American actor
- 1942 - Harrison Ford, American actor
- 1942 - Roger McGuinn, American musician
- 1944 - Ernő Rubik, Hungarian inventor, sculptor, and architect
- 1946 - Cheech Marin, American actor and comedian
- 1950 - George "Pinky" Nelson, astronaut
- 1953 - Johnny Clegg, South African composer and musician
- 1954 - Sezen Aksu, Turkish singer and songwriter
- 1957 - Cameron Crowe, American film director and writer
- 1959 - Richard Leman, British field hockey player
- 1961 - Tim Watson, Australian footballer and coach
- 1962 - Rhonda Vincent, American singer and musician
- 1963 - Neal Foulds, English snooker player
- 1966 - Gerald Levert, American singer
- 1968 - Calvin Phelps, American artist
- 1970 - Barry Pinches, English snooker player
- 1974 - Jarno Trulli, Italian race car driver
- 1976 - Bruce Price, American engineer
- 1978 - Sheldon Souray, Canadian NHL player.
- 1979 - Craig Bellamy, Welsh footballer
- 1992 - Dylan Patton, American actor

Deaths


- 939 - Pope Leo VII
- 1189 - Matilda of England, daughter of Henry II of England (b. 1156)
- 1205 - Hubert Walter, Archbishop of Canterbury and Justicier of England
- 1357 - Bartolus de Saxoferrato Italian jurist (b. 1313)
- 1399 - Peter Parler, German architect (b. 1330)
- 1402 - Jianwen Emperor of China (b. 1377)
- 1551 - John Wallop, English soldier and diplomat
- 1621 - Archduke Albert of Austria, Governor of the Low Countries (b. 1559)
- 1626 - Robert Sidney, 1st Earl of Leicester, English statesman (b. 1563)
- 1628 - Robert Shirley, English adventurer
- 1629 - Caspar Bartholin the Elder, Swedish physician and theologian (b. 1585)
- 1645 - Tsar Michael I of Russia (b. 1596)
- 1683 - Arthur Capell, 1st Earl of Essex, English statesman (b. 1631)
- 1705 - Titus Oates, English protestant conspirator (b. 1649)
- 1755 - Edward Braddock, British general
- 1761 - Tokugawa Ieshige, Japanese shogun (b. 1712)
- 1762 - James Bradley, English Astronomer Royal (b. 1693)
- 1789 - Victor de Riqueti, marquis de Mirabeau, French economist (b. 1715)
- 1793 - Jean Paul Marat, French revolutionary (murdered) (b. 1743)
- 1807 - Henry Benedict Stuart, Jacobite claimant to the throne of England (b. 1725)
- 1889 - Robert Hamerling, Austrian poet (b. 1830)
- 1896 - Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz, German chemist (b. 1829)
- 1946 - Alfred Stieglitz, American photographer (b. 1864)
- 1951 - Arnold Schoenberg, Austrian composer (b. 1874)
- 1954 - Frida Kahlo, Mexican painter (b. 1907)
- 1967 - Tom Simpson, British cyclist (exhaustion) (b. 1937)
- 1974 - Patrick Blackett, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1897)
- 1976 - Joachim Peiper, German military leader (b. 1915)
- 1980 - Seretse Khama, first President of Botswana (b. 1921)
- 1983 - Gabrielle Roy, Canadian author (b. 1909)
- 1993 - Davey Allison, American race car driver (b. 1961)
- 2002 - Yousuf Karsh, Turkish-born photographer (b. 1908)
- 2003 - Compay Segundo, Cuban musician (Buena Vista Social Club) (b. 1907)
- 2004 - Goodwin Girdler, Russian composer (b. 1923)
- 2004 - Arthur Kane, American musician (New York Dolls) (leukemia) (b. 1951)
- 2004 - Carlos Kleiber, Austrian conductor (b. 1930)

Holidays and observances


- Kiribati - Independence Day, 2nd day (not a holiday)
- Mongolia - Naadam Holiday, 3rd day
- Bahá'í Faith - Feast of Kálimát (Words) - First day of the seventh month of the Bahá'í Calendar
- Bon Festival - Buddhist festival to honor the dead (East Japan)

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/13 BBC: On This Day] ---- July 12 - July 14 - June 13 - August 13 - more listing of all days ko:7월 13일 ms:13 Julai ja:7月13日 simple:July 13 th:13 กรกฎาคม



Turks

Turkic peoples are Northern and Central Eurasian peoples who speak languages belonging to the Turkic family, and who, in varying degrees, share certain cultural and historical traits. The term "Turkic" is generally considered to represent a broad linguistic characterization, and not necessarily an ethnic one. "Turkish" on the other hand, is considered to represent more specifically the denizens of the nation of Turkey. The Turkic languages are a subdivision of the Altaic language group, and are one of the most geographically widespread in the world, being spoken in a vast region spanning from Europe to Siberia.

Geographical Distribution

The Turkic peoples have many different branches, and their total population is around 150 million. Roughly half of these belong to Turks of Turkey, dwelling predominantly in Turkey proper and formerly Ottoman-dominated areas of Eastern Europe, North Africa and the Middle East; as well as in Western Europe, Australia and the Americas as immigrants. The other half of the Turkic peoples are concentrated in Central Asia, Russia, Southern Caucasus and Northern and Central Iran. Turks of Turkey At present, there are six independent Turkic countries: Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Turkey, and Uzbekistan, as well as the TRNC in Northern Cyprus (recognized only by Turkey). There are also several autonomous Turkic republics and Turkic-governed regions in the Russian federation: Altai, Bashkortostan, Chuvashia, Dagestan, Hakasia, Karachay-Malkar, Tatarstan, Tuva and Yakutia. Each autonomous Turkic republic within the Russian federation has its own flag, parliament, laws and official state language. There are also two other major autonomous Turkic region: The Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (also known as East Turkestan) in western China, and the autonomous state of Gagauzia, located within eastern Moldova, and bordering Ukraine to the north. In addition, there are several stateless Turkic regions in Iran, and parts of Iraq, Georgia, Bulgaria, Greece, Macedonia, Tajikistan, Afghanistan and western Mongolia. The Azerbaijanis of Iran (mostly found in Southern Azerbaijan and major urban centers) are the largest stateless Turkic people in the world. The Turks of Turkey number about seventy-five million, including expatriates and minorities in Europe, while the second largest Turkic people are the Azerbaijanis, who number more than thirty-five million worldwide, with most of these living in northwestern Iran -- a region refered to by some as Southern Azerbaijan.

Turkic Roots

The term "Turk" was first officially used as a political name in the 6th century. Turkic nationalists claim that the expansion of proto-Turkic peoples across Eurasia involved the Scythians (Ishkuz), Xiongnu, Huns, Sarmatians, Khazars, Pechenegs, Alans, Cimmerians, Massagetae and other steppe populations. While some of these peoples may have represented, to some extent, a proto-Turkic or Turkic tribe or confederation, the majority are considered largely non-Turkic. Certainly in later times the Khazars and the Pechenegs were Turkic, but the Cimmerians, Massagetae, Sarmatians and Scythians are thought to have been earlier Indo-European speakers. Although they have been settled and urbanized, the older tradition of nomadism has created a cultural norm which, at its best, is represented by a combative spirit, a sense of leadership, the habit of mobility, craftsmanship, gallantry, elegant equestrian skill and an unusual dexterity as archers on horseback. Turkic peoples used their own alphabets, like runiform Orkhon script and Uyghur alphabet. The traditional, national and cultural symbols of the Turkic peoples include the star and crescent -- used as a symbol of Turks since pre-Islamic times when they aspired to Shamanism -- wolves, a part of Turkic mythology and tradition; as well as the color blue, iron and fire. In the age of nationalism, Turks were among the first Islamic peoples to take up Western ideas of liberalism and secular ideologies. It first sprang up at the end of 19th century in the Russian Empire and was advanced by leading Tatar intellectuals like Ismail Gaspirali and Yusuf Akçura, as a reaction to Panslavist and Russification policies of the Russian Empire. The first fully democratic and secular republics in the Islamic world were Turkic: the ill-fated Idel-Ural State established in 1917, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918 (both annexed and absorbed by Soviet Union) and in 1923, Republic of Turkey.

Nomenclature

In modern Turkey, a distinction is made between "Turks" and the "Turkic peoples": the term Türk corresponds specifically to Turkish people and culture, while the term Türki refers generally to modern Turkic peoples and cultures. Some claim that this distinction is an artificial one, and one not made by speakers of Turkic languages elsewhere. It is sometimes claimed further that much of the separation is the result of Stalinism, and that prior to the founding of the Soviet Union, the term "Turkish" had been used to describe all Turkic peoples as part of a greater family. Others counter that this argument is without basis, and only used to support the racial theories of Pan-Turkism -- pointing out that the differences among the separate governmental administrations, as well as cultural, religious, historical, and even racial differences, are too great to speak of any political unity. The first known mention of the term "Turk" applied to a Turkic group, was in reference to the Gokturks in the 6th century. A letter by the Chinese Emperor written to a Göktürk Khan named Isbara in 585 described him as "the Great Turk Khan". The Orhun inscriptions (735 AD) use the term "Turuk". Previous use of similar terms are of unknown significance, although some strongly feel that they are evidence of the historical continuity of the term and the people as a linguistic unit since early times. These include: a tablet from 2000 BC found in the ancient city of Mari situated at Tell Hariri in Syria, mentioning that a people named "Turukku" are coming to the lands of Tiguranim and Hirbazanim; and a Chinese record of 1328 BC referring to a neighbouring people as "Tu-Kiu". In the ancient Zoroastrian text, the Zend-Avesta, one of the grandsons of Yima (comparable to Noah as the sole survivor of a catastrophe that depopulated the Earth) is named "Tur" or "Tura" -- the supposed ancestor of so-called "Turanian" peoples. Furthermore, this traditional Persian genealogy has been confused by some with the late 16th century Mughal (Indian) work Akbarnama by Abul-Fazel, where he recounts certain Islamic traditions making "Turk" the oldest son of Japheth and grandson of Noah; also, in the 19th century, it was common in Christian circles to equate the ancestor of the Turks with Togarmah, grandson of Japheth in Genesis 10. According to Mahmud of Kashgar, an 11th century Turkic scholar, and various other traditional Islamic scholars and historians, the name "Turk" stems from "Tur", one of the sons of Japheth, and comes from the same lineage as Gomer (Cimmerians) and Ashkenaz (Scythians, Ishkuz) who were some of the earliest Turks. A similar name, "Dur", also appears in Mediaeval Hungarian legend, as a legendary chieftain of the Caucasian Alans (Arran, Iron) whose daughters supposedly bred with the Magyar ancestors, "Magor" and "Hunor". In the earliest Turkic dictionary extant, the eponymous hero of the Turks, Alp Er Tunga, is identified with the character Afrasiyab ("Frangasyan" in the Zend Avesta) in Persian literature. However, this theory is not accepted among Non-Turkic schollars. Alp Er Tunga is a symbolic figure in Turkic tradition; the Gokturks of the sixth century carried on the tradition of Alp Er Tunga and they too believed to be descendants of a wolf. According to the "Book of Kings" written by the Persian author Ferdowsi, Afrasiyab was hunted down and killed in Azerbaijan. The name "Turk" was initially pronounced "Turuk, Tur-uk" as a plural of "Tur." Thus one meaning of the word Turk is "The Turs." The second meaning of Turk is "strong" or "powerful." Some have stated that the name 'Turk' is a name of a helmet-shaped hill in present-day Xinjiang.

History

It is generally believed that the first Turkic people were native to Central Asia. Some historians claim that the Turks originated in Western Asia, and migrated to Central Asia in prehistoric times; while others believe that migration to Western Asia occurred via Central Asia before the advent of the Huns. Some scholars consider the Huns, whose origins may go back to 1200 BC, as one of the earlier Turkic-Mongol tribes. The precise date of the initial expansion from the early homeland remains unknown. The first state known as "Turk", giving its name to the many states and peoples afterwards, was that of the Gokturks (gog = "blue" or "celestial") in the 6th century AD. The head of the Asena clan led his people from Li-jien (modern ZhelaiZhai) to the Juan Juan seeking inclusion in their confederacy and protection from China. His tribe were famed metal smiths and were granted land near a mountain quarry which looked like a helmet from which they got their name 突厥. A century later their power had increased such that they conquered the Juan Juan ad set about establishing their Gok Empire. Later Turkic peoples include the Karluks (mainly 8th century), Uyghurs, Kirghiz, Oghuz (or Ğuz) Turks, and Turkmens. As these peoples were founding states in the area between Mongolia and Transoxiana, they came into contact with Muslims, and most gradually adopted Islam. However, there were also (and still are) Turkic people belonging to other religions, including Christians, Jews (see Khazars), Buddhists, and Zoroastrians. Turkic soldiers in the army of the Abbasid caliphs emerged as the de facto rulers of most of the Muslim Middle East (apart from Syria and Egypt), particularly after the 10th century. The Oghuz and other tribes captured and dominated various countries under the leadership of the Seljuk dynasty, and eventually captured the territories of the Abbasid dynasty and the Byzantine Empire. Meanwhile, the Kirghiz and Uyghurs were struggling with one another and with the Chinese Empire. The Kirghiz people ultimately settled in the region now referred to as Kyrgyzstan. The Tatar peoples conquered the Volga Bulgars in what is today Tatarstan, following the westward sweep of the Mongols under Genghis Khan in the 13th century. The Bulgars were thus mistakenly called Tatars by the Russians. Native Tatars live only in Asia; European "Tatars" are in fact Bulgars. Other Bulgars settled in Europe in the 7-8th centuries, exchanging their original Turkic tongue for what eventually became the Slavic Bulgarian language. Everywhere, Turkic groups mixed with the local populations to varying degrees. As the Seljuk Empire declined following the Mongol invasion, the Ottoman Empire emerged as the new important Turkic state, that came to dominate not only the Middle East, but even southeastern Europe, parts of southwestern Russia, and northern Africa. The Ottoman Empire gradually grew weaker in the face of maladministration, repeated wars with Russia and Austria, and the emergence of nationalist movements in the Balkans, and it finally gave way after World War I to the present-day republic of Turkey.

Language

Main article: Turkic languages The Turkic language branch belong to Altaic language groups. The various Turkic languages are usually considered in geographical groupings, since high mobility and intermixing of Turkic peoples in history makes an exact classification extremely difficult: Oghuz (or Southwestern) languages, Kypchak (or Northwestern) languages, Eastern languages (like Uygur) and Northern languages (like Altay and Yakut) and divergent languages like Chuvash.

Religion

Various pre-Islamic civilizations prior to the 6th century were Shamanist and Tengriist. The Shamanist religion is based on spiritual and natural elements of earth. Tenghriism in turn involved belief in the god Tenghri as the god who ruled over the skies.They were also bearers of the Zoroastrian religion, especially in Azerbaijan, Buddhism, Judaism and above all Islam. Today, most Turks are Sunni Muslims. They include the majority of Balkan Turks, Bashkorts, Crimean Tatars, Karachay, Kazaks, Kumuk, Kyrgyz, Malkar, Nogay, Tatars (Kazan Tatars) Turkmens, Turks of Turkey, Uygurs, Yellow (Sari) Uygurs and Uzbeks. The Azerbaijanis of the Republic of Azerbaijan and South Azerbaijan (northwestern Iran) are the only major Turkic people that adhere to the Shia sect of Islam, while there have been many conversions to Sunni Islam as of late. The Qashqay nomads and Khorasani Turks as well as various Turkic tribes spread across Iran are also Shia Muslims. The Alevis of Turkey are the largest religious minority in the country. Even though it´s claimed that they believe in a doctrine of Islam that is closely related to that of the Shia school of thought, Shia's, however, regard Alevis as heretics. The major Christian-Turkic peoples are the Chuvash of Chuvashia and the Gauguz (Gokoguz) of Moldova. The Karaim Turks of eastern Europe are Jewish, and there are many Turks of Jewish backgrounds who live in major cities such as Istanbul, Ankara and Baku. In the Siberian region, the Altai, Tivan and Hakas are Shamanists, having kept the original relgion of Turkic peoples. The Yakuts of Yakutia in northeastern Siberia are tradtionally Shamanists, yet many have been converted to Christianity. The Sari Uygurs (Yellow Uygurs) of western China are the only remaining Buddhist Turkic group. In addition, there are small scattered populations of Turks belonging to other religions such as the Bahá'í Faith and Zoroastianism. Even though many Turkic peoples became Muslims under the influence of Sufis, often of Shi'a persuasion, most Turkic people today are Sunni Muslims -- although a significant number in Turkey are Alevis. Alevi Turks, who were once primarily dwelling in eastern Anatolia, are today concentrated in major urban centers in western Turkey with the increased urbanism. The Chuvash of Russia, in their traditional religion, manifest a unique amalgam, that derives in part from ancient Turkic concepts, and in part from other aspects that may be compared to Zoroastrianism, Khazar Judaism, and Islam. The Chuvash religious calendar cycle was based on an agrarian cult, closely combining the cults of earth, water and vegetation, with that of ancestor worship. The conversion of the Chuvash to Eastern Orthodox Christianity, mostly effected in later 19th century, had a noticeable effect on their festivals and rites, that were adapted to coincide with Orthodox feasts -- with Christian rites substituted for their traditional counterparts. Though contemporary Chuvash are counted among Orthodox believers, a minority continue to profess their traditional faith [http://russiatoday.strana.ru/en/profile/people/nat/1482.html]. The Gagauz people of Moldova are largely Christians. Some Turkic peoples (particularly in the Russian autonomous regions and republics of Altai, Khakassia, and Tuva) are largely shamanists. Shamanism was the predominant religion of the different Turkic branches prior to the 8th century, when the majority accepted Islam. There are also a few Buddhist (eg. Kalmuks), Jewish, Zoroastrian, and Bahá'í Turkic peoples today. Remark: Tenghri has long changed to "Tanri" in current Turkish (of Republic of Turkey [R.O.T] at least), which literally means "God" in English. However, traditionally, god is referred to as "Allah" in most daily usage, where "Allah" is one of many names of "God" as mentioned in Quoran. Therefore the word thengri=tanrı is still in use by citizens of R.O.T., where Islam is the dominant religion at the moment.

Geographical distribution and ethnic division

The distribution of peoples of Turkic cultural background ranges from Siberia where the Yakut reside, across Central Asia, to Eastern Europe. Presently, the largest groups of Turkic people live throughout Central Asia -- Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Azerbaijan, in addition to Turkey. Additionally, Turkic peoples are found within Crimea, the Xinjiang region of western China, northern Iraq, Iran, Israel, Russia, Afghanistan, Cyprus, the Balkans Moldova, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania and former Yugoslavia. A small number of Turkic people also live in Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania. An exact line between the different Turkic peoples cannot easily be drawn. The following is a non-comprehensive list of the major groups:
- Altays (Oirots)
- Azerbaijanis
- Balkars (along with Karachays, speakers of the Karachay-Balkar language)
- Bashkirs (note that there is only a dialect difference between Bashkirs and Tatars)
- Chulyms
- Chuvashes
- Crimean Tatars
- Gagauzes
- Karachays (along with Balkars, speakers of the Karachay-Balkar language)
- Karaims
- Karakalpaks
- Karapapaks
- Kazakhs
- Khakases
- Kirghizes
- Krymchaks (speak a modified form of Crimean Tatar)
- Kumyks
- Nogais
- Siberian Tatars
- Tatars (Kazan Tatars) (note that there is only a dialect difference between Tatars and Bashkirs)
- Turkmens
- Turks of Turkey (see also Ottoman Turks)
- Turkish Cypriots
- Tuvans
- Urums
- Uyghurs
- Uzbeks
- Yakuts Some divide the above into six branches: the Oghuz, Kipchak, Karluk, Siberian, Chuvash, and Sakha/Yakut branches. The Oghuz have been termed Western Turks, while the remaining five, in such a classificatory scheme, are called Eastern Turks. One of the major difficulties perceived by many who try to classify the various Turkic languages and dialects, is the impact Soviet, and particularly Stalinist nationality policies -- the creation of new national demarcations, suppression of languages and writing scripts, and mass deportations -- had on the ethnic mix in previously multicultural regions like Khiva/Khwarezmia, the Fergana valley and Caucasia. Many of the above-mentioned classifications are therefore by no means universally accepted, either in detail or in general. Another aspect often debated is the influence of Pan-Turkism, and the emerging nationalism in the newly independent Central Asian republics, on the perception of ethnic divisions.

Physical appearance

Some historians consider "Turkic" as a linguistic categorization, rather than a strictly ethnic characterization. This is unsurprising, since Turkic peoples often differ greatly from one another in physical appearance, reflecting the abundant migrations, conquests and settlements across Eurasia. Therefore, the already considerable problems involved in any racial classification are made much more difficult in the case of the Turks. The majority of Turkic peoples, from former Ottoman lands to western China, and from the Siberian plains to central Iran, seem to possess physical features ranging from caucasoid to Eastern Asian/mongoloid, in varying degrees. Some have very light features, including blue eyes and blondish or reddish hair, others are distinctly asiatic. In western Turkic lands, such as Turkey and Azerbaijan, a great many people look "Mediterranean", having caucasoid features, dark hair and eyes, and olive skin. This is mostly attributable to the residual legacy of the Greco-Romans in Asia Minor, and also the Circassians, Jews, Assyrians, Arabs, Kurds etc. whom the Ottomans subjugated and were happy to intermarry. It may seem odd from a western perspective to think of the Turks as a mongoloid or part-mongoloid people, however the artistic record does depict the early Ottomans as being of asiatic countenance, with dark hair and Mongoloid features. The type remains a prominent minority in modern Turkey. Another example of admixture would be in Hungary. Hungarians are very much assimilated into Europe. However, current DNA evidence suggests that modern Hungarians (Magyars) were Uralic in origin (i.e. from the Ural mountains that divide Europe fom Asia). The relationship of the Magyars with Turkic groups is unclear. Even so, modern Hungarians have acquired a large Slavic and German DNA admixture since they arrived (See external links for citations). Parallel but different patterns of diversity occur in central Asia, in the lands once host to the Silk Road; for many centuries, the main route of trade between the West and China. The inhabitants of these regions can exhibit extremes of racial phenotype from caucasoid to mongoloid, with probable admixtures of Persian, Jewish, Arab, Indian and Chinese, yet remaining culturally homogenous within their regions. Light skin, hair and eyes, along with a mongoloid facial structure, is prevalent among some Northern Central Asian Turkic groups, such as Kazakhs and Kyrgyzs, although dark hair and fair to light-brown skin tends to be the norm. An example are the Uigurs of East Turkestan (Xinjiang to the Chinese), who amongst themselves exhibit facial characteristics varying from mongoloid to north european, wholly independent of mixing with Chinese immigrants. In areas of significant Russian influence (from Azerbaijan to Kirgizstan), a Slavic admixture is common. There has been much debate about the racial nature of the original Turkic speaking ancestors, with some presuming a "Ural-Altaic race" that shares predominantly caucasoid features at one end of the spectrum, and predominantly mongoloid features at the other. It is however widely accepted that Turkic linguistic roots are Altaic, i.e. originating in the Altay mountain region spanning present-day Russia, China, Mongolia and Kazakhstan, and it may be that they have less relation to Uralic peoples than previously thought. In recent times, linguists have tended to separate the old Ural-Altaic language group in two. Turkic langages now sit alongside Korean and Mongolian, but distinct from Finnish and Hungarian. The tribes inhabiting the Altay region today, with the least incursion from Russians and Chinese, are of predominantly asiatic/mongoloid appearance, and of light, though not white skin tone; and this is perhaps the best clue available as to the appearance of the original Turkic ancestors. In stature they are stocky, and do not tend to be as tall as Europeans. Currently, large-scale, detailed DNA research to establish genetic genealogies of Turkic peoples is scant. Evidently, today a great number of Turks do not share this genetic phenotype. Genetic studies performed in four towns across modern Turkey have demonstrated the dilution of the Turkic strain. Only around 30% of those studied possessed a gene marker relating them to a central Asian (i.e. Turkic) ancestor, yet all those studied were Turkish citizens. Altogether, the story of Turkic peoples is a story of admixture and two-way cultural assimilation. Turkic identity, therefore, exists on two levels. On one, it is a race of (predominantly mongoloid) people from central Asia. On another, it is like an ocean current, spreading and mingling with far-flung waters, and giving rise to a broad-shared history, language, and cultural values transcending genes and racial categorisation.

Turkish world and Pan-Turkism

Some refer to the Turkic countries, regions and peoples as part of the Turkish World. Others are worried that this is a result and example of Pan-Turkism, claimed to encourage hegemonial or even imperialistic aims of modern day Turkey. However, this may not be the case as many claim that Pan-Turkism is supported widely outside Turkey. Turkey's official stance as a nation state does not support Pan-Turkism - though it does not reject it either. Proponents of the concept point out that in similar fashion, many Arabs also feel to be part of a greater "Arab World". It is also held that encouragement of this cultural and linguistic affinity can be used as a vehicle to increased regional development and security. Opponents point to the negative elements that can become involved in any kind of nationalism (be it Turkic or otherwise), the role of pan-Turkic movements in the revolutionary wars in Russia, and the cultural, religious, and political diversity among the many Turkic peoples and ethnic groups, and feel that a movement to greater pan-Turkic unity might be a negative influence on the region.

Translations for "Turk"

Afrikaans Turk. Albanian turk. Arabic ‏التركي. Assyrian Turk. Bulgarian турчин. Chinese 土耳其人. Czech turek. Danish tyrk. Dutch Turk. Esperanto turko. Farsi, ترک Finnish turkkilainen. French Turc, Turque. German Türke, Türkin. Greek Τούρκος (Turkish), τούρκος. Hungarian török. Icelandic Tyrki. Indonesian Orang Turki. Italian turco, turca. Korean 터키 사람. Kurdish Turk. Manx Turkagh. Papiamen turko. Polish Turek. Portuguese turco, turca. Romanian turc. Russian турок, тюрк. Sanskrit turushka. Serbo-Croatian turčin. Spanish turco, turca. Swedish turk. Turkish, Anatolian türk. Turkish, Azeri türk. Turkish, Tatar törek. Turkish, Turkmen türk. Ukrainian турок. Vietnamese người Thổ nhĩ kỳ gười hung ác. Welsh Twrc.

See also


- Turkic languages
- Turkic states and empires
- Pan-Turkism

External links


- [http://www.turkicworld.org turkicworld]
- [http://www.geocities.com/valentyn_ua/Turkic.html To the Question of the Origins of the Turkic Peoples]
- [http://eng.iku.edu.tr/iku_eng_department.asp?department=turklang Istanbul Kültür University]
- [http://www.adji.ru Murad Adji's site] on Russian
- [http://pc12.soc.metu.edu.tr/epart/epart007.htm A Comparison Between the Turkey and Turkmenistan Turkishes]
- [http://www.turkishitems.com Examples of traditional Turkish and Ottoman Clothing]
- [http://pc12.soc.metu.edu.tr/epart/epart013.htm A General Look at the History of the Uyghur Turkish]
- [http://www.byegm.gov.tr/YAYINLARIMIZ/newspot/2002/mar_apr/n5.htm International Turcology and Turkish History Research Symposium]
- [http://users.pandora.be/orientaal/links.html Türkçekent Orientaal's links for Turkish Language Learning]
- [http://users.pandora.be/orientaal/turkcestan.html Türkçestan Orientaal's links to Turkic languages]
- [http://users.cwnet.com/millenia/UAETY.html Ural-Altaic-Sumerian Etymological Dictionary]
- [http://www.tatar.net Crimean Tatar Internet Resources]
- [http://www.vatankirim.net Crimean Tatar Web Site]
- [http://www.kirimtatar.net Kemal's Crimean Tatar Web Site with Crimean Tatar Language Resources] New DNA Results
- [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0003-4800&date=2000&volume=64&issue=2&spage=145 "Probable ancestors of Hungarian ethnic groups: an admixture analysis"C. R. GUGLIELMINO1, A. DE SILVESTRI2 and J. BERES]
- [http://scholar.google.com/url?sa=U&q=http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf%3Ffile%3D/ejhg/journal/v8/n5/full/5200468a.html%26filetype%3Dpdf MtDNA and Y chromosome polymorphisms in Hungary: inferences from the palaeolithic, neolithic and Uralic influences on the modern Hungarian gene pool]

Further reading


- Charles Warren Hostler, The Turks of Central Asia, (Greenwood Press, November 1993), ISBN: 0275939316
- Carter V. Findley, The Turks in World History, (Oxford University Press, October 2004) ISBN: 0195177266 ----
- ja:テュルク

Turkish language

Turkish (Türkçe) is a Turkic language spoken natively in Turkey, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, Bulgaria, as well as by several million immigrants in the European Union. The number of native speakers is uncertain, primarily due to a lack of minority language data from Turkey. The figure of 60 million used here assumes that Turkish is the mother tongue of 80% of the Turkish population, with making up most of the remainder. (Linguistic minorities in Turkey are, however, bilingual in Turkish.) There is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Turkish and other Oghuz languages such as Azeri, , and . If these are counted together as "Turkish", the number of native speakers is 100 million, and the total number including second-language speakers is around 125 million.

Classification

Turkish is a member of the Turkish family of languages, which includes Balkan Gagauz Turkish, Gagauz, and Khorasani Turkish in addition to Osmanli Turkish. The Turkish family is a subgroup of the Oghuz languages, themselves a subgroup of the Turkic languages, which most linguists believe to be member of an Altaic language family. Like Finnish and Hungarian, Turkish has vowel harmony, is agglutinative and has no grammatical gender. Word order is usually Subject Object Verb. Turkish has a T-V distinction: second-person plural forms can be used for individuals as a sign of respect.

Geographic distribution

Turkish is spoken in Turkey and by minorities in 35 other countries. In particular, Turkish is used in countries that formerly (in whole or part) belonged to the Ottoman Empire, such as Bulgaria, Romania, the former Yugoslavia (specifically in the Serbian province of Kosovo and Metohija on a local level), and the Republic of Macedonia.

Official status

Turkish is the official language of Turkey, and is one-although today it is less spoken- of the official languages of Cyprus. It is also an official or national language in Bulgaria. In Turkey, the Turkish Language Society (Türk Dil Kurumu) was founded by Kemal Atatürk in 1932 as the Türk Dili Tetkik Cemiyeti ("Society for the Investigation of the Turkish Language"), an independent body. In August, 1983, when Turkey was under martial law as a result of the military coup of 1980, the Turkish Language Society was brought under the control of the prime ministry.

Dialects

Dialects of Turkish include Danubian, Eskişehir (spoken in Eskişehir Province), Razgrad, Dinler, Rumelian, Karamanlı (spoken in Karaman Province), Edirne (spoken in Edirne), Gaziantep (spoken in Gaziantep Province), Urfa (spoken in Şanlıurfa Province), and Goynuk (a village in Bolu).

Sounds

One characteristic feature of Turkish is vowel harmony. For example, if the first vowel of a Turkish word is a front vowel, the second and other vowels of the same word are usually the same vowel or another front vowel: vişne "sour cherry": i is close unround front, e is open unround front. Stress is usually on the last syllable, with the exception of some suffix combinations and words like masa ['masa].

Consonants

The phoneme usually refered to as "soft g", "ğ" in Turkish orthography, actually represents a rather weak front-velar or palatal approximant between front vowels. When it is word-final or preceding another consonant it lengthens the preceding vowel. In all other positions, it is not pronounced at all.

Vowels

Grammar

Turkish has an abundance of suffixes, but no prefixes (apart from the reduplicating intensifier prefix as in beyaz="white", bembeyaz="very white", sıcak="hot", sımsıcak="very hot"). (Some Arabic loan words have their own prefixes, but those are the common prefixes of Arabic.) One word can have many suffixes. Suffixes can be used to create new words (see #Vocabulary) or to indicate the grammatical function of a word. Turkish nouns can take endings indicating the person of a possessor. They can take case-endings, as in Latin. (The series of case-endings is the same for every noun, except for spelling changes owing to vowel harmony, and variation between voiced and unvoiced consonants.) Finally, they can take endings that give them a person and make them into sentences: ev "house", eviniz "your house", evinizde "at your house", Evinizdeyiz "We are at your house." Turkish adjectives as such are not declined (though they can generally be used as nouns, in which case they are declined). Used attributively, they precede the nouns they modify. Turkish verbs exhibit person. They can be made negative or impotential; they can also be made potential. Finally, Turkish verbs exhibit various distinctions of tense, mood, and aspect: a verb can be progressive, necessitative, aorist, future, inferential, present, past, conditional, imperative, or optative. gel- "(to) come", gelme- "not (to) come", geleme- "not (to) be able to come", gelebil- "(to) be able to come", Gelememiş "She [or he] was apparently unable to come." Gelememişti "She had not been able to come." Gelememiştiniz "You (pl) had not been able to come." Gelememiş miydiniz? "Was it the case that you (pl) were not able to come?" All Turkish verbs are conjugated the same way, except for the irregular and defective verb i- (see Turkish copula), which can be used in compound forms: Gelememişti = Gelememiş idi = Gelememiş + i- + -di Word order in Turkish is generally Subject Object Verb, as in Japanese and Latin, but not English. This can be seen in the following sentence from a newspaper (Cumhuriyet, 16 August 2005, p. 1). The sentence uses all noun cases except the genitive: Türkiye'de modayı gazete sayfalarına taşıyan, gazetemiz yazarlarından N. S. yaşamını yitirdi: Türkiye'de "in Turkey" (locative) modayı "fashion" (accusative of moda) gazete "newspaper" (nominative) sayfalarına "to its pages" (dative; sayfa "page", sayfalar "pages", sayfaları "its pages") taşıyan, "carrying" (present participle of taşı-) gazetemiz "our newspaper" (nominative) yazarlarından "from its writers" (ablative; yazar "writer") N. S. [person's name] (nominative) yaşamını "her life" (accusative; yaşam "life") yitirdi. "lost" (past tense of yitir- "lose" from yit- "be lost") "One of the writers of our newspaper, N. S., who brought fashion to newspaper pages in Turkey, lost her life."

Vocabulary

Turkish has the resources for building up many new words from old: from nouns: göz "eye", gözlük "eyeglasses" gözlükçü "someone who sells glasses" gözlükçülük "the business of selling glasses" and from verbs: yat- "lie down" yatır- "lay down [that is, cause to lie down]" yatırım "instance of laying down: deposit, investment" yatır