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Karen (people)

Karen (people)

The Karen, also known in Thailand as the Yang or Kariang, are an ethnic group in Myanmar (Burma) and Thailand. The Karen live mostly in the hilly eastern border region of Myanmar, primarily in Karen State, with some Karen in Kayah State also known as Karenni State, southern Shan State, Irrawaddy Division and in western Thailand. The total number of Karen is difficult to estimate; most estimates are of approximately 3 million Karen in Myanmar, with approximately 400,000 more in Thailand, where they are by far the largest of the hill tribes. A low-level conflict between the Karen National Union and the military dictatorship in Yangon has existed since the late 1940s and has driven more than 100,000 Karen from Myanmar into refugee camps on the Thai side of the border. Many of the Karen accuse the government of Myanmar of ethnic cleansing. The Karen aided the British during World War II, when the Japanese occupied the region. One of the Karen sub-groups is the Padaung tribe.

External link


- [http://www.karenpeople.org Karenpeople.org], a not-for-profit gateway to information and resources on the Karen peoples of Burma, Thailand, and elsewhere
- [http://www.karenemergency.org/index.html Karen Emergency Relief Fund], Helping the Karen People of Burma
- [http://karen.org/ Karen.org], The Official Karen website Category:Ethnic groups of Myanmar Category:Ethnic groups of Thailand Category:Indigenous peoples of Southeast Asia th:ชาวกะเหรี่ยง

Myanmar

The Union of Myanmar, (also known as the Union of Burma), is the largest country (in geographical area) in mainland Southeast Asia. It is bordered by the People's Republic of China on the north, Laos on the east, Thailand on the south east, Bangladesh on the west, and India on the north west, with the Andaman Sea to the south, and the Bay of Bengal to the south west (for a total of over 2,000 kilometers of coast line). The country was ruled by a military junta led by General Ne Win from 1962 to 1988, and its political system today remains under the tight control of its military government, since 1992, led by Senior General Than Shwe.

Origin and history of the name

In 1989, the military junta officially changed the English version of its name from Burma to Myanmar (along with changes in the English versions of many place names in the country, such as its former capital city, from Rangoon to Yangon). The official name of the country in the Burmese language, Myanma (40px), did not change, however. The renaming proved to be politically controversial, seen by some as being less inclusive of minorities, and linguistically unscholarly.

History

Previously an independent kingdom, in 1824–1826, 1851–1852 and 1885–1886 Burma was invaded by the British Empire and became a part of India. During the 1930s Burma became self administered colony independent of the Indian administration. During World War II Burma became a major front in the South-East Asian Theatre. After initial successes by the Japanese in the Burma Campaign which saw them expel the British from most of Burma, the British fought back and by July 1945 had retaken the country. Burmese fought for both sides in the war. The Burma 1st Division, the Kachin Levies, the Karen Rifles and in other formations such as the American-Kachin Rangers fought for the Allies, and the Burmese National Army under the command of Aung San fought for the Japanese. In 1948 the nation became sovereign, as the Union of Burma, with U Nu as the first Prime Minister. Democratic rule ended in 1962 with a military coup d'etat led by General Ne Win. Ne Win ruled for nearly 26 years, bringing in harsh reforms. In 1990 free elections were held for the first time in almost 30 years, but the landslide victory of the NLD, the party of Aung San Suu Kyi was voided by the military, which refused to step down. One of the top figures in Burmese history in the 20th century is Army founder and freedom figure General Aung San, a student-turned activist whose daughter is 1991 Nobel Peace Laureate and worldwide peace, freedom and democracy icon Aung San Suu Kyi of the NLD, now under house arrest. The third most recognised Burmese figure in the world is U Thant, who was UN Secretary General for two terms and highly respected throughout United Nations' history. In November 2005, the military junta announced that the national capital would be moved from Yangon to Pyinmana. The map on the history page shows Burma as it was at its height before 1886. Burmese kings occasionally occupied some parts of China, India, small parts of Bangladesh, Laos and most of hearts of Thailand's ancient kingdoms at various times in history.

Politics

Thailand Myanmar has been under military rule since 1962. The current head of state is General Than Shwe( Saut Paw) who holds the title of "Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council." His appointed prime minister was Khin Nyunt until 19 October 2004, when he was replaced by Lt.-Gen. Soe Win. Almost all cabinet offices are held by military officers. US sanctions against the military government have been largely ineffective, due to loopholes in the sanctions and the willingness of mainly Asian business to continue investing in Myanmar and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction. For example, the French petroleum company Total is able to buy Myanmar's oil despite the country being under sanctions, although Total (formerly TotalFinaElf) is the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for alleged connections to human rights abuses along the gas pipeline jointly owned by Total, the American company Unocal, and the Myanma military.1 The United States clothing and shoe industry could also be affected if all the sanctions loopholes were to be closed, although they were already subject to boycotts prior to US sanctions imposed in June of 2002.2 The regime is accused of having a poor human rights record, and the human rights situation in the country is a subject of concern for a wide number of international organizations. There is no independent judiciary in Myanmar and political opposition to the military government is not tolerated. Also, Internet access is limited to non-political Burmese websites. Citizens are prohibited from creating sites that promote the reform of their government. In 1988, protests against economic mismanagement and political oppression were violently repressed; on August 8 of that year, the military opened fire on demonstrators in what has come to be known as the 8888 uprising (a partial list of victims is [http://www.irrawaddy.org/res/88final1.html here]). Nonetheless, the 1988 protests paved way for the 1990 elections; these were however invalidated by the military. Aung San Suu Kyi, whose opposition party won 83% of parliamentary seats in a 1990 national election, but who was prevented from becoming prime minister by the military, has earned international praise as an activist for the return of democratic rule to Myanmar. She won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. She has been repeatedly placed under house arrest, although in recent years the regime has been willing to enter into negotiations with her and her party, the National League for Democracy. She was placed under house arrest on May 31, 2003, following an attack on her convoy in northern Myanmar. Her house arrest was extended for yet another year in late November of 2005. [http://www.dassk.org/index.php]

Administrative divisions

Myanmar is divided into seven divisions and seven states, based on the dominant ethnic groups. Divisions are primarily Burman, while states predominantly consist of other ethnic groups. #Divisions (taing): #
- Ayeyarwady Division (formerly Irrawady Division) #
- Bago Division (formerly Pegu Division) #
- Magway Division #
- Mandalay Division #
- Sagaing Division #
- Tanintharyi Division (formerly Tenasserim Division) #
- Yangon Division (formerly Rangoon Division) #States (pyi): #
- Chin State #
- Kachin State #
- Kayin State (formerly Karen State) #
- Kayah State (formerly Karenni State) #
- Mon State #
- Rakhine State (formerly Arakan State) #
- Shan State

Geography

Myanmar is located between Bangladesh and Thailand, with China to the north and India to the north-west, with coastline on the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea. The country has a total area of 678,500 km², of which almost half is forest or woodland. Topographically, along its borders with India and China and in the west, the country has mountains which surround a central lowland around the river Ayeyarwady, and which form a fertile delta where it flows into the sea. Most of the country's population lives in this central lowland.

Economy

Formerly the richest country in Southeast Asia and once believed to be fast on track to development, Myanmar is now one of the poorest countries in the world, suffering since the 1962 military takeover, which resulted in economic mismanagement and stagnation. In 1989, the government of Myanmar began decentralising economic control and has since liberalised some portions of the economy. However, the lucrative industries of gems, oil and forestry remain under the control of the military. The United Nations lists Myanmar as a LLDC (least developed country). Tourism is being encouraged by the government; however, fewer than 750,000 tourists enter the country yearly. Private enterprises are often co-owned or indirectly by the Tatmadaw. The gap between the wealthy and the poor continues to grow larger. Some nations, such as the Canada and United Kingdom have placed trade sanctions on Myanmar. Foreign investment comes primarily from China, Singapore and Thailand. Myanmar lacks adequate infrastructure, and has suffered as a result. Goods travel primarily through the Burmese-Thai borders, from which most illegal drugs are exported, and through the Ayeyarwady River. Railroads are rudimentary, with few repairs since their construction in the 19th century. Highways are normally unpaved, except in the major cities. Energy shortages are common throughout the country. Myanmar is the second-largest producer of heroin in the world. Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, and metals. The lack of an educated workforce also contributes to the growing problems of the Burmese economy.

Demographics

Myanmar is ethnically diverse. The dominant ethnic group are the Bamar who speak Burmese. 10% of the population are Shan, who speak Shan dialects, related to Lao and Thai. The Karen (Kayin) make up 7% of the population, and speak languages distantly related to Burmese. The remainder are Rakhine (Arakanese), Kachin, Chin, Chinese, Mon, and Indian. Once a large and influential community, there is a small and ever dwindling Eurasian community consisting of Anglo-Burmese and Anglo-Indians (collectively known as ka-bya). Largely Christian and Westernised, the Eurasians of Burma suffered horrendously after the 1962 coup - most fled the country or Burmanised and adopted Burmese names, religion, dress and customs. Today, those remaining in the country have all but assimilated to the Bamar and Indian communities. This is a result of the xenophobic regime instituted in 1962. Burmese is the official language of Myanmar. Minorities often speak Burmese as a second language, while the Bamar commonly speak English as a second language. Buddhism, particularly Theravada Buddhism is practised by 89% of the population, mostly among the Bamar (and Rakhine), Shan, Mon, and Chinese. Christianity practiced by 4% of the population, and is dominant among the Chin and Karen. At present, the government is attempting to wipe out all traces of Christianity by committing genocide. The tribal Christians are being slaughtered by the hundreds each day. 4% of the population practise Islam; these Muslims are divided amongst long-established persons of Indian descent, persons of mixed Indo-Burmese descent, persons of Persian, Arab and Chinese descent, as well as the native Rohingya Muslims of Arakan. The Muslim population is often persecuted, and is socially quite marginalized. Small segments of the population practise Hinduism or animism. The biggest expatriate community of Burmese is to be found in neighbouring Thailand where many Burmese refugees have fled from the military regime in Burma. There is also a large community in India, Malaysia and Singapore. Significant numbers of Burmese are also to be found in the UK, Australia, New Zealand and in Southern California, USA and in Toronto, Canada. These communities represent all ethnic groups of the country. However, in London, UK, Perth, Australia and in the Los Angeles area, USA - there are to be found large communities of people of Anglo-Burmese origins.

Culture

The culture of Myanmar is a mixture of centuries of Chinese, Indian, and Thai influences. This is reflected in its language, cuisine, and music. The arts have historically been influenced by Theravada Buddhism, as well as literature. However, in modern times, the culture of Myanmar has increasingly become westernized; this is most apparent in urban areas. Many, both women and men, wear a sarong called longyi. See also:
- Literature of Myanmar
- Music of Myanmar
- Cuisine of Myanmar

Miscellaneous topics


- Communications in Myanmar
  - Myanmar Wide Web
- Foreign relations of Myanmar
- Golden Triangle
- Military of Myanmar
- Myanmar Baptist Convention
- Transportation in Myanmar
- Wa State

International rankings


- [http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html GDP per capita] — 185th of 232 countries
- Index of Economic Freedom — 154th of 155 countries
- Reporters Without Borders Worldwide Press Freedom Index — 165th of 167 countries
- [http://www.transparency.org/pressreleases_archive/2004/2004.10.20.cpi.en.html Corruption Perceptions Index 2004, Transparency International] — 142th of 145 countries
- [http://www.savethechildren.org/mothers/report_2004/images/pdf/SOWM_2004_final.pdf Save the Children: State of the World's Mothers 2004] Children's index: 114th of 157 countries
- [http://www.yale.edu/esi/ESI2005_Main_Report.pdf Environmental Sustainability Index] — 46th of 146 countries
- [http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idbrank.html Population, Population (US Census Bureau)], 26th most-populated country in the world.
- [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_area Area/Size of Country], 39th largest out of 194.
- [http://www.photius.com/rankings/healthranks.html WHO ranking of the health systems], 190 out of 190 countries.
- [http://www.aneki.com/earthquake_prone_countries.html Earthquake Prone Countries], Listed in 57 most-earthquake prone countries.
- [http://earthtrends.wri.org/searchable_db/index.cfm?theme=4&variable_ID=396&action=select_countries HIV Infected Population], 24th largest among 148 countries.
- [http://www.geographyiq.com/ranking/ranking_Labor_Force_top25.htm Labor Force], 22nd largest in the world.
- [http://www.geographyiq.com/ranking/ranking_Inflation_Rate_consumer_prices_top25.htm Inflation Rate - Consumer Prices], 3rd highest in the world.
- [http://www.unodc.org/pdf/document_2000-12-21_1_page003.pdf Opium Production (UNODC)], 2nd largest in the world.
- [http://www.undp.org/hdr2003/indicator/indic_2_1_1.html Human Development Index (UNDP)], 131 out of 175.
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2153rank.html Internet User Density (CIA)], 0.0596%, 214th out of 217.
- [http://www.nationmaster.com/graph-T/agr_are_ric Rice grower (by area of land)], 7th largest in the world.

Burma and the Internet

Burma is among the very worst enemies of Internet freedom and in many ways its policies are worse than China’s. The price of computers and a home Internet connection is prohibitive so Internet cafés are the target of the military regime’s scrutiny. As in neighbouring Vietnam and China, access to opposition sites is systematically blocked, in this case with technology supplied by the US firm Fortinet.Web-based e-mail, such as Yahoo ! or Hotmail, cannot be used and all Internet café computers record every five minutes the screen being consulted, to spy on what customers are doing.

Footnotes

1. See:
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/3761022.stm "Dilemma of dealing with Burma"]. Article retrieved from [http://www.bbc.co.uk BBC.co.uk] on 2nd November, 2004.
- [http://www.total.com/csr2003/en/p6/p6_5.htm "Myanmar: Promoting Human Development in a Heavily-Criticized Country"] from [http://www.total.com Total.com]
- [http://www.earthrights.org/news/TotalMay10.shtml "TotalFinaElf in the line of fire"] from [http://www.earthrights.org Earthrights International] 2. See:
- [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A21505-2003Jun22 "How Best to Rid the World of Monsters"] from [http://www.washingtonpost.com Washingtonpost.com]
- [http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/reg.burma/archives/199905/msg00184.html "Belgian group seeks Total boycott over Myanmar"], Reuters report reproduced on [http://www.ibiblio.org Ibilio].

Special characters

External links

Government


- [http://www.myanmar.gov.mm/ Official Myanmar Website]
- [http://www.mofa.gov.mm/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
- [http://www.moha.gov.mm/ Ministry of Home Affairs]
- [http://www.mcpt.gov.mm/ Ministry of Communications, Posts, and Telegraphs]
- [http://www.mora.gov.mm/ Ministry of Religious Affairs]
- [http://www.myanmar-education.edu.mm/ Ministry of Education]
- [http://www.myanmar.com/Ministry/finance/ Ministry of Finance]
- [http://www.myanmar.com/Ministry/Transport/ Ministry of Transport]
- [http://www.myanmar.com/Ministry/health/ Ministry of Health]
- [http://www.myanmar.com/Ministry/Hotel_Tour/ Ministry Of Hotels & Tourism]
- [http://ncgub.net/ National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma]

Other


- [http://www.shanland.org/ - S.H.A.N. is an independent Shan media group. It is not affiliated to any political or armed organization.All articles on shanland.org come from our own reporters and direct sources. S.H.A.N. is an original source for news that often gets referenced further by other news organizations.]
- [http://www.karen.org]
- [http://www.mywebdigest.net MyWebDigest - Myanmar Burmese Web Directory & Search]
- [http://www.myanmarexpedition.com Myanmar Travel information & Tourism Services Group]
- [http://www.myanmars.net Myanmar's NET] Myanmar-based web guide
- [http://myanmartravelinformation.com Myanmar Travel Information]
- [http://www.nicemyanmar.com/ Myanmar]. Myanmar Chat, Travel, Forum.
- [http://www.mrtv3.net.mm/ MRTV-3 Web Site]
- [http://www.insightnewstv.com/c59 Burma: Army of the Child God]
- [http://www.HavenWorks.com/world/burma Burma News, Myanmar News]. News website opposed to the military government.
- [http://www.cookbookwiki.com/Category:Burmese Burmese Recipes on CookBookWiki.com]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3945249.stm "Burma scraps intelligence agency"]. Article from [http://www.bbc.co.uk BBC.co.uk]
- [http://www.infoexport.gc.ca/ie-en/DisplayDocument.jsp?did=1272 Canadian position on relations with Burma]
- [http://www.eumon.org Euro-Mon Community]
- [http://www.freeburma.org FreeBurma.org]
- [http://www.geopium.org Geopium: Geopolitics of Illicit Drugs in Asia]
- [http://www.irrawaddy.org/default.asp The Irrawaddy Magazine]
- [http://www.rfa.org/english/news/business/2004/12/18/burma_unocal/ Unocal Settles Burma Lawsuit]
- [http://www.qbba.org.au Queensland Burmese Buddhist Association]
- [http://www.keoshi.co.uk/Gallery/ Myanmar pictures] Category:ASEAN member states A Category:Southeast Asian countries als:Myanmar zh-min-nan:Myanmar ko:미얀마 ms:Myanmar ja:ミャンマー th:ประเทศพม่า

Thailand

The Kingdom of Thailand is a country in Southeast Asia, bordering Laos and Cambodia to the east, the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia to the south, and the Andaman Sea and Myanmar to the west. Thailand is also known as Siam, which was the country's official name until May 11, 1949. The word Thai (ไทย) means "freedom" in the Thai language. It is also the name of the Thai people - leading some inhabitants, particularly the sizeable Chinese minority, to continue to use the name Siam.

History

Thailand's origin is traditionally tied to the short-lived kingdom of Sukhothai founded in 1238, after which the larger kingdom of Ayutthaya was established in the mid-14th century. Thai culture was greatly influenced by both China and India. Contact with various European powers began in the 16th century but, despite continued pressure, Thailand is the only Southeast Asian country never to have been taken over by a European power, though Western influence, including the threat of force, led to many reforms in the 19th century and major concessions to British mercantile interests (as such many historians include Thailand in the "informal British Empire"). The Thais are very proud that they were never colonized by a European power. There are two main reasons for this: it was left as a buffer state between parts of Asia that were colonised by the French and the British and Thailand had a series of very able rulers in the 1800s. A mostly bloodless revolution in 1932 led to a constitutional monarchy. Known previously as Siam, the country first changed its name to Thailand in 1939, and definitively in 1949 after reverting to the old name post-World War II. During that conflict Thailand was in a loose alliance with Japan; following its conclusion Thailand became an ally of the United States. Thailand then saw a series of military coups d'état, but progressed towards democracy from the 1980s onward. The official calendar in Thailand is based on the Buddhist Era, which is 543 years ahead of the western calendar. For example, the year AD 1982 is equal to the year 2525 BE. On 26 December 2004 the southwest coast of Thailand was devastated by a tsunami following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake; in places it was as high as 10 meters. It killed more than 5,000 people in Thailand, half of them tourists.

Politics

The king has little direct power under the constitution but is the anointed protector of Thai Buddhism and a symbol of national identity and unity. The present monarch enjoys a great deal of popular respect and moral authority, which has on occasion been used to resolve political crises. The head of government is the Prime Minister, who is appointed by the king from among the members of the lower house of parliament, usually the leader of the party that can organise a majority coalition government. The bicameral Thai parliament is the National Assembly (รัฐสภา, rathasapha) which consists of a House of Representatives (สภาผู้แทนราษฎร, sapha phuthaen ratsadon) of 500 seats and a Senate (วุฒิสภา, wuthisapha) of 200 seats. Members of both houses are elected by popular vote. The House of Representatives is elected by electoral district (one each), the Senate is elected by province. Members of House of Representatives serve four-year terms, while Senators serve six-year terms. The law court system (ศาล, san) has three layers, the highest judicial body being the Supreme Court (ศาลฎีกา, sandika) whose judges are directly appointed by the monarch. Thailand is an active member of the regional Association of Southeast Asian Nations.

Provinces

Association of Southeast Asian Nations Thailand is divided into 75 provinces (จังหวัด, changwat), which are grouped into 5 groups of provinces by location. There are also 2 special governed districts: the capital Bangkok (Krung Thep Maha Nakhon in Thai) and Pattaya. However Pattaya is still part of Chonburi Province, while Bangkok is at provincial level itself. Each province is divided into smaller districts - as of 2000 there are 795 districts (อำเภอ, amphoe), 81 sub-districts (กิ่งอำเภอ, king amphoe) and 50 districts of Bangkok (เขต, khet). However, some parts of the provinces bordering Bangkok are referred to as Greater Bangkok (ปริมณฑล, pari monthon). These Provinces include Nonthaburi, Pathum Thani, Samut Prakan, Nakhon Pathom, Samut Sakhon. The name of each capital city (เมือง, mueang) is the same as that of the province: for example, the capital of Chiang Mai province (changwat Chiang Mai) is amphoe Mueang Chiang Mai. The 75 provinces are as follows:

North

:Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Kamphaeng Phet, Lampang, Lamphun, Mae Hong Son, Nakhon Sawan, Nan, Phayao, Phetchabun, Phichit, Phitsanulok, Phrae, Sukhothai, Tak, Uthai Thani, Uttaradit

Northeast

:Amnat Charoen, Buri Ram, Chaiyaphum, Kalasin, Khon Kaen, Loei, Maha Sarakham, Mukdahan, Nakhon Phanom, Nakhon Ratchasima, Nong Bua Lamphu, Nong Khai, Roi Et, Sakon Nakhon, Si Sa Ket, Surin, Ubon Ratchathani, Udon Thani, Yasothon

East

:Chachoengsao, Chanthaburi, Chon Buri, Prachin Buri, Rayong, Sa Kaeo, Trat

Central

:Ang Thong, Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya, Chai Nat, Kanchanaburi, Lop Buri, Nakhon Nayok, Nakhon Pathom, Nonthaburi, Pathum Thani, Phetchaburi, Prachuap Khiri Khan, Ratchaburi, Samut Prakan, Samut Sakhon, Samut Songkhram, Saraburi, Sing Buri, Suphan Buri

South

:Chumphon, Krabi, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Narathiwat, Pattani, Phang Nga, Phatthalung, Phuket, Ranong, Satun, Songkhla, Surat Thani, Trang, Yala

Special Governed Districts

:Krung Thep Maha Nakhon (Bangkok), Mueang Pattaya (Pattaya) See also: List of cities in Thailand

Geography

Thailand is home to several distinct geographic regions, partly corresponding to the provincial groups. The north of the country is mountainous, with the highest point being Doi Inthanon at 2,576 m. The northeast consists of the Khorat Plateau, bordered to the east by the Mekong river. The centre of the country is dominated by the predominantly flat Chao Phraya river valley, which runs into the Gulf of Thailand. The south consists of the narrow Kra Isthmus that widens into the Malay Peninsula. The local climate is tropical and characterised by monsoons. There is a rainy, warm, and cloudy southwest monsoon from mid-May to September, as well as a dry, cool northeast monsoon from November to mid-March. The southern isthmus is always hot and humid. Major cities beside the capital Bangkok include Nakhon Ratchasima, Udon Thani, Nakhon Sawan, Chiang Mai, Surat Thani, Phuket and Hat Yai(Songkhla). See also: List of islands of Thailand

Economy

After enjoying the world's highest growth rate from 1985 to 1995 - averaging almost 9% annually - increased speculative pressure on Thailand's currency, the baht, in 1997 led to a crisis that uncovered financial sector weaknesses and forced the government to float the currency. Long pegged at 25 to the US dollar, the baht reached its lowest point of 56 to the US dollar in January 1998 and the economy contracted by 10.2% that same year. The collapse prompted a wider Asian financial crisis. Thailand entered a recovery stage in 1999, expanding 4.2% and grew 4.4% in 2000, largely due to strong exports - which increased about 20% in 2000. Growth was dampened by softening of global economy in 2001, but picked up in the subsequent years due to strong growth in China and the various domestic stimulation programs of Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra, popularly known as Thaksinomics. Growth in 2003 and 2004 was over 6% annually.[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/th.html] Substantial industries include electric appliances, components, computer parts and automobiles, while tourism contributes about 5 % of the Thai economy's GDP.

Demographics

Thailand's population is dominated by ethnic Thai and Lao, the latter concentrated in the northeastern Isan region and making up around one third of the population. There is also a large community of Thai Chinese, who have historically played a disproportionately significant role in the economy. Bangkok's Chinatown is located on Yaowarat Road. Other ethnic groups include Malays in the south, Mon, Khmer and various indigenous hill tribes. According to the last census (2000) 94.6% of Thais are Buddhists of the Theravada tradition. Muslims are the second religious group in Thailand at 4.6%. Most of them are ethnic Malays and they are mostly concentrated in the south, where they form a strong majority in four provinces. Christians, mainly Catholics, represent 0.75% of the population. A tiny but influential community of Sikhs and some Hindus also live in the country's cities. The Thai language is Thailand's national language, written in its own alphabet, but many ethnic and regional dialects exist as well as areas where people speak predominantly Isan or Khmer. Although English is widely taught in schools, proficiency is low.

Culture

Muay Thai, or Thai boxing, is the national sport in Thailand and its native martial art. It reached popularity all over the world in the 1990s. Similar martial art styles exist in other southeast Asian countries. The standard greeting in Thailand is a prayer-like gesture called the wai. Taboos include touching someone's head or pointing with the feet, as the head is considered the highest and the foot the lowest part of the body. Stepping over someone, or over food, is considered insulting. Books and other documents are considered the most revered of secular objects - therefore one should not slide a book across a table or place it on the floor. Thailand is a constitutional monarchy and the King is extremely respected and revered. It is illegal to insult the Royal Family. Thai cuisine blends five fundamental tastes: sweet, spicy, sour, bitter and salty.

Miscellaneous topics


- Famous Places in Thailand: Patong, and Karon beach in Phuket, Pattaya, Khao Lak, Chiang Mai, Sukhothai Historical Park
- Communications in Thailand
- Education in Thailand
- Historical parks of Thailand
- Foreign relations of Thailand
- List of Thailand-related topics
- Military of Thailand
- Music of Thailand
- National parks (Thailand)
- Prostitution in Thailand
- Public holidays in Thailand
- Transportation in Thailand
- Buddhist temples in Thailand
- South Thailand insurgency

External links

Official


- [http://www.thaigov.go.th Thaigov.go.th] Royal Government of Thailand
- [http://www.tourismthailand.org Tourism Authority of Thailand] Official tourism website

Other


- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/th.html CIA - The World Factbook - Thailand]
- [http://thailand.united.co.uk/ List of organizations providing assistance and help to the victims of Thailand Tsunamis]
-
- [http://www.thailand.alloexpat.com/information_center_thailand.php AlloExpat - Thailand Information Center]
- [http://www.flickr.com/photos/tags/thailand Flickr: Photos tagged with Thailand]
- [http://libcom.org/history/articles/thailand Thailand: a working class history] from 1850-2000 Category:ASEAN member states Category:Monarchies Category:Southeast Asian countries zh-min-nan:Thài-kok ko:타이 ms:Thailand ja:タイ王国 th:ประเทศไทย

Karen state

The Kayin State is a administrative division of Myanmar and also known as Karen state. The capital city is Pa-an. The ethnic Karen group is organised in a political wing, the Karen National Union (KNU), and the army wing, Karen National Liberation Army (KNLA). The ethnic group of the Karen people in Myanmar were once predominantly Christian, due to a historical relationship between the Karen people and the British at a time when Burma was a colony of Britain. At that time, most Karen converted to Christianity; today, however, less than 30% of Karens are Christians, the majority of Karen adhering to Buddhism and spirit worship. Most Christian Karens are Baptists. Baptists] Because of religious differences and the local independence movement, the ruling junta of Myanmar still suppresses the people of the Karen very much today. It is reported that the junta refuses to build schools, hospitals, or other kind of public infrastructure in the region. It is also reported that the military used to enter Karen villages, raping women, killing children, and using the men as slaves to build streets. They are also reported to steal food from the local villagers, as the junta cannot even support their own soldiers with simple supplies like guns, ammunition or meals. Many Karen have joined the local guerrilla army to fight the Burmese junta. However, the Karen are not the only ethnic minority fighting the junta; there are many different rebel armies that have been struggling for freedom. These guerrilla armies are not, however, politically or strategically unified, because of different religious beliefs, political stands, social customs, and organisational structures.

See also


- [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGASA160121999?open&of=ENG-2S3|The Kayin (Karen) state: Militarization and human rights - Amnesty International] Category:States of Myanmar

Shan State

Shan State is a state located in Myanmar (Burma), which takes its name from the Shan people, the majority ethnic group in the Shan State. Shan State has 52 districts. Its capital is Taunggyi. Pretender of Shan State is HRH Sao Hpone Htoo Sao Hpone Htoo

External links

[http://www.unpo.org/member.php?arg=47 Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organisation article on Shan] Category:States of Myanmar

Hill tribe

A hill tribe is any one of around twenty ethnic groups living in Northern Thailand, Laos, and Myanmar. Most of these groups also exist outside Thailand, but the term is most often used to refer to the Thai groups. The word "tribe" itself is somewhat inaccurate, as the groups have no leaders; the term “mountain people” is sometimes preferred although they do not all live in mountains. The hill tribes together number approximately 550,000. Most of them migrated to Thailand from Tibet, China, Burma or Laos in the 19th and 20th centuries. The main groups are the Mien (also known as Yao), Karen (Thai Gariang), Akha (Thai Egaw), Lahu (Thai Musay) Hmong (Thai Meo) and Lisu (Thai Lisaw). Lisu.]] The Thai government has opposed some of the hill tribes’ agricultural practices, specifically the growing of opium and the use of slash and burn agriculture. Its campaigns against both of these have met with some success. Similar programs in Laos have been moderately successful, and these programs are almost non-existent in Myanmar. Many hill tribe people now make all or part of their living from the tourist industry, either by hosting trekkers or by selling handicrafts. The children in many of the tribes are often dressed in very colourful clothing, and wear valuable bangles and necklaces. Their headress is often bedecked with silver coins and other silver ornaments. Many of the children, even toddlers, smoke cheap cigarettes. handicraft

External links


- [http://www.hilltribe.org/ The Virtual Hilltribe Museum]
- [http://www.geopium.org/Photos/ASE2005/Photos-Burma-Myanmar-Laos-Thailand-Cambodia-Akha-Schwedagon-Poppies-2005.htm Photos of hill tribe people from Southeast Asia(Burma, Laos) on www.geopium.org] Category:Ethnic groups of Asia Category:Ethnic groups of Thailand

Yangon

:Note: You may need a [http://fixedsys.org/~node_ue/fonts/ Burmese Unicode Font] to see the characters on this page. Yangon (Burmese: , population 1,034,768, formerly Rangoon), is the largest city of Myanmar (formerly Burma) and the former capital. The city is located on the delta of the Yangon River, about 30 km (19 mi) away from the Gulf of Martaban. Yangon has a population of 4,504,000 (2001), and is located at 16°48' North, 96°9' East (16.8, 96.15). In November 2005 the military junta started moving the government away from Yangon to Pyinmana. As compared to other major cities in Southeast Asia, Yangon is relatively undeveloped; as a result, greener. Construction is booming, mostly through the influx of foreign investment (from Singapore and China). Many multi-story residential buildings (tai) have been reconstructed or remodelled, although the extent of modernisation is only present in Downtown and Shwedagon areas. Suburban areas to the south, such as Thaketa Township, continue to be impoverished. The city has strived to maintain the remaining colonial architecture. Yangon was redesigned, in a chessboard fashion when the British incorporated Burma into its empire in the 1800's.

History

The village of Dagon

Yangon was founded as Dagon in the 500's by the Mon, who had dominated the lower portions of present-day Myanmar at the time. Dagon was a small fishing village centered around the Shwedagon Pagoda. In 1753, King Alaungpaya conquered Lower Burma, and renamed Dagon, "Yangon", which derives from the words yan, which means enemies, and koun, which means end. The city was destroyed by a fire in 1841, and suffered extensive damage in the Second Anglo-Burmese War of 1852.

British Rangoon

The British Empire seized Dagon in 1852, and transformed it into the commercial and political hub of Burma. As lower Burma became integrated into British India, the city's present boundaries were established, with the Cantonment's streets (downtown area) paved in a chessboard fashion along the eastern banks of the Hlaing River. In addition, the British introduced a Westernised educational system in Burma, establishing major colleges, such as Rangoon College (now Yangon University) and the Theological College for Karens (now Myanmar Institute of Theology). In addition, many religiously-affiliated boarding schools were built in order to teach the privileged English. During the colonial period, Rangoon's main industries were rice and timber, although other exports, such as raw cotton, precious stones, cheroots, and ivory were also exported.

Contemporary Yangon

ivory Rangoon was heavily damaged by an earthquake and tsunami in 1930, and again during World War II. After the war, it retained its position as capital of Myanmar. Before WW2, Indians were the majority in Rangoon; However, at Independence, the population was more Burman, and also estimated to include 25% Anglo-Burmese, in recent years, this has diminished and the Anglo-Burmese now comprise barely 1% of the population. The English name of Rangoon was officially changed in 1989 to Yangon. (They represent the same Burmese name.) This is controversial, however, because the military junta that changed the name is not officially recognized as legitimate by some governments. For example, the United States government still maintains the usage of Rangoon, as well as Burma.

Administration

Yangon is administered by the Yangon City Development Committee (YCDC). The city is divided into four districts. The districts combined have a total of 33 townships. The mayor of Yangon currently is Brigadier General Aung Thein Lynn. Each township is administered by a committee of township leaders, who make decisions regarding city beautification and infrastructure.

Culture


- Shwedagon Pagoda
- Sule Pagoda
- Saint Mary's Cathedral
- University of Yangon
- Allied War Memorial
- Chauh Hta Kyi Paya (Six-storied Buddha)
- Kandawgyi Lake (formerly Great Lakes)
- Inya Lake (formerly Victoria Lakes)
- Yangon Zoological Gardens

Economy

Yangon is the economic centre of Myanmar. The majority of imports and exports come through Yangon, mostly through the Yangon River (Hlaing River), which merges with the Ayeyarwady River, the main river of Myanmar. Yangon is home to the oldest university in Myanmar. A former affiliated college of the University of Calcutta, Yangon University was officially founded as a separate institute of higher learning in 1920. Two of the three Institutes of Medicine in Myanmar are located in Yangon.

Transportation

All international air travel arrives at the Mingaladon International Airport, which is located about 20 minutes from downtown Yangon. Yangon's buses are often cramped with daily commuters. An archaic railroad extends to upper Myanmar. Cars are increasingly more common, and traffic congestion occurs regularly. As a result, the government regularly places car import restrictions.

External links


- [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=16.813545,96.170197&spn=0.166014,0.234180&t=k&hl=en Satellite picture by Google Maps]
- [http://www.yangoncity.com.mm/ Yangon City Hall website]
- [http://www.yangoncity.com.mm/ycdc/index.asp YCDC website]

References


- The Popular Encyclopedia or Conversation Lexicon. Blackie & Son, 1890. Category:Cities in Myanmar Category:Capitals in Asia ja:ヤンゴン th:ย่างกุ้ง

Ethnic cleansing

The term ethnic cleansing refers to various policies of forcibly removing people of one ethnic group. At one end of the spectrum, it is virtually indistinguishable from forced emigration and population transfer, while at the other it merges with deportation and genocide. At the most general level, however, ethnic cleansing can be understood as the forced expulsion of an "undesirable" population from a given territory as a result of religious or ethnic discrimination, political, strategic or ideological considerations, or a combination of these. This is a relatively new word, and its scope still varies. In its initial meaning it referred to policies applied by authorities to an undesirable ethnicity. However the term seem to fit well into a linguistic niche, and it is increasingly applied to other types of ethnic forced migration and genocide.

Origins of the term

The term "ethnic cleansing" entered the English lexicon as a loan translation of the Serbian/Croatian phrase etničko čišćenje (IPA ) (notice that literal translation of the phrase is "ethnic cleaning"). During the 1990s it was used extensively by the media in the former Yugoslavia in relation to the Yugoslav wars, and appears to have been popularised by the international media some time around 1992. The term may have originated some time before the 1990s in the military doctrine of the former Yugoslav People's Army, which spoke of "cleansing the territory" (čišćenje terena, IPA ) of enemies to take total control of a conquered area. The origins of this doctrine are unclear, but may have been a legacy of the Partizan era. This originally applied purely to military enemies, but came to be applied to ethnic groups as well. It was used in this context in Yugoslavia by the Serbian media as early as 1981, in relation to the policies of the Kosovo Albanian administration allegedly creating an "ethnically clean territory" (i.e. "cleanly" Albanian) in the province[http://www.siri-us.com/backgrounders/Archives_Kosovo/KLA-Terror-Cleansing.html]. However, this usage had antecedents. The earliest known usage of it may been in May 16, 1941, during the Second World War, by one Viktor Gutić, a commander in the Croatian fascist faction the Ustaše. An article in the Hrvatska Krajina newspaper[http://www.pavelicpapers.com/documents/ndhnews/ndhn0004.html] describing the visit to the Franciscan monastery in Petrićevac quotes Gutić's speech: : Every Croat who today solicits for our enemies not only is not a good Croat, but also an opponent and disrupter of the prearranged, well-calculated plan for cleansing [čišćenje] our Croatia of unwanted elements [...] The Ustaše did carry out large-scale ethnic cleansing in their time in the Second World War. It is possible that the revival of nationalism in the 1980s reintroduced ethnic cleansing into Yugoslavia's political debate and language. The term "cleansing" ("cleansing of borders", очистка границ) was used in Soviet documents of early 1930s in reference to the resettlement of Poles from the 22-km border zone in Byelorussian SSR and Ukrainian SSR. The process was repeated on a larger and wider scale in 1939-1941, see Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union and Population transfer in the Soviet Union. A similar term with the same intent was used by the Nazi administration in Germany under Adolf Hitler. When an area under Nazi control had its entire Jewish population removed, whether by driving the population out, by deportation to Concentration Camps, and/or murder, the area was declared judenrein (lit. Jew Clean): cleansed of Jews. (cf. racial hygiene.)

Early examples of ethnic cleansing

The Assyrian Empire regularly deported entire ethnic groups, as did the Babylonians; victims of this policy most famously include the Israelites of Israel in 722 BC and the Israelites of Judah in 586 BC (see Babylonian captivity of Judah). In some instances, the expulsion of Jews had some features of ethnic cleansing, especially if accompanied by violence and enacted on the whole territory of the state. Jews were expelled from England (1290), France (1306), Hungary (1349–1360), Provence (1394 and 1490), Austria (1421), Spain after the Reconquista, Portugal (1497), Russia in 1724, and from various parts of Germany at various times. Not all deportations of Jews affected an entire country or lasted for extended periods of time: Jews from Krakow (1494) were expelled to suburbs of the city, and Jews expelled from Lithuania (1491) were allowed to return 10 years later. Spain's large Muslim minority, inherited from that country's former Islamic kingdoms, was expelled in 1502 and 1609–1614. Roma people were expelled from France, England and other European countries in during the 16th century.

Colonization-related ethnic cleansing

During more recent times, ethnic cleansing has often been used during colonisation projects. In North America, British and American settlers ethnically cleansed millions of Native Americans, forcibly relocating them to remote and often inhospitable reservation land. In southern Africa and Australia, native tribes were removed from their lands so that they could be replaced by white farmers and settlers.
- The colonization of the Americas by European powers, particularly Spain and Britain. This led to population removals and massacres of the indigenous population, starting in the 15th century and continuing into the 20th.
- The colonization of Australia by Britain. This led to population removals and massacres of the indigenous population, starting in 1788. It is important to note that the Maori were not ethnically cleansed in New Zealand. Many Maori were dispossessed of ownership of their land, but few were ever forcibly removed, and when this did happen it was mostly as a result of punishment for fighting and losing against colonial troops during the New Zealand Wars.
- The invasion of Gibraltar by Britain in 1704 led to an ethnic cleansing of the local Andalusian population, who were expelled from the territory in 1704
- The removals and massacres of native populations in the African colonies of various European powers.
- The concentration of Boers by Britain during the Second Boer War The American and South Pacific instances were disastrous. The native populations fell from millions to thousands in only a few centuries, a combined result of colonization policies and epidemics of foreign disease.

Modern-age ethnic cleansing

The term "ethnic cleansing" has come to mean the displacement or expulsion from a territory of one ethnic group by another. The displacement is usually forcible, though there are examples of voluntary or compensated ethnic cleansing. The 20th century has seen numerous cases, particularly in Europe and the Middle East.

Older examples


- In Canada the expulsion of the Acadians in 1755 from their ancestral lands in Nova Scotia or Acadia by the British military because of the French and Indian War.
- In the United States in the 19th century there were numerous instances of relocation of Native American peoples from their traditional areas to often remote reservations elsewhere in the country, such as the Long Walk of the Navajo and the Trail of Tears, the forced removal of the Cherokee tribe that led to the deaths of about 2,000 to 8,000 people.
- Expulsion and cleansing of Turkish, Muslim, and Jewish populations from Balkans following the independence of Balkan countries (e.g., Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria) from Ottoman Empire from early 1800s to early 1900.
- Cleansing of Muslim populations in Northern Caucasus by imperial Russia throughout 19th century. Particularly, expulsion of Circassians to Anatolia in 1864.

20th-century instances


- The 1913 Convention of Adrianople, annexed to the Peace Treaty between Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire, provided for an exchange of ethnic Turks and Bulgarians in a 15 kilometer strip.
- The Armenian Genocide and the expulsion of Pontian Greeks perpetrated by the Young Turks during 1914–1922.
- The 1919 Treaty of Neuilly provided for the reciprocal emigration of ethnic minorities between Greece and Bulgaria.
- In 1923 the Treaty of Lausanne which ended the First World War in the East, as well as post-war hostilities between Greece and the newly-formed Republic of Turkey, provided for a compulsory exchange of populations between Greece and Turkey.
- The expulsions of Jews from Austria after the Anschluss, and deportations of Poles and Jews from Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany.
- Nazi Germany wiped out entire populations of Jews and Gypsies during World War II (see also the Holocaust).
- Generalplan Ost, in which the Nazis planned to kill or expel most or all ethnic Slavs from large regions of Eastern Europe and replace them with German settlers.
- The German exodus from Eastern Europe. Although the exact numbers may never be known, some estimates claim that more than 16 million people had to leave their homes, and that approximately 2 million of those lost their lives during the process.
- The exodus of Italian people from Istria and Dalmatia after World War II
- Systematic deportations of numerous nationalities in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin.
- The ethnic cleansing of Volhynia by Ukrainian guerrilla groups.
- The expulsion of Poles from Zamosc Voivodship by Germans in 1944.
- The expulsion of 800,000 Poles from Warsaw to concentration camps after defeat of Warsaw Uprising 1944, caused 200,000 deaths. The city of Warsaw, population of one million, was ordered to be completely demolished on the personal order of Hitler. Approximately 80% of the city was demolished.
- Finns evacuated from Finnish Karelia and other parts occupied by Soviet Union during World War II, leaving behind ethnically clean area. This was voluntary, but they evacuated fearing the Soviet rule and deportations to Siberia that happened in Soviet Union before to many nationalities, including Finns, see Population transfer in the Soviet Union.
- Mass expulsions of Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan to India, resulting in the complete ethnic cleansing of former West-Pakistan (current Republic of Pakistan), and the mass expulsions of Muslims from India to Pakistan, both following the partition of British India in 1947.
- Since 1947 expulsions of Hindus from both the Pakistani and Indian ruled regions of the disputed territory of Kashmir by Islamist militant groups.
- The Nakba, or Palestinian exodus, in which the substantial majority of Palestinians (600,000-900,000) in the areas of Palestine that became part of Israel fled or were forcibly deported by Jewish forces during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.
- The flight of Jews from the areas of Palestine occupied by Jordan and Egypt during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.
- The Jewish exodus from Arab lands - Yemen, Morocco and Iraq during 1948-1950, as well as flights which took place over the following 20 years from Egypt, Tunisia, Libya and other Arab countries.
- The forced resettlement of some 9,000 Jewish settlers from the Gaza Strip and the northern West Bank by the Israeli government as part of the unilateral disengagement plan is compared to ethnic cleansing both by the extreme opposition to the act and by more neutral observers.
- The mass deportation of ethnic minorities from their homelands, including East Timor and Papua, by the Indonesian government, beginning with Indonesian independence in 1949 (and subsequent occupation and annexation of Papua until the present day and of East Timor until 1999).
- The mass expulsions of Greek Cypriots from northern Cyprus and of Turkish Cypriots from southern Cyprus in 1974-1975.
- The widespread ethnic cleansing accompanying the Yugoslav wars from 1991 to 1999, of which the most significant examples occurred in eastern Croatia and Krajina (1991-1995), in most of Bosnia (1992-1995), and in the Albanian-dominated breakaway Kosovo province (of Serbia) (1999). Large numbers of Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks and Albanians were forced to flee their homes and expelled.
- The forced displacement of some 800,000 Azeris and 300,000 Armenians during the conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan and the Armenian invasion of Nagorno-Karabakh and surrounding areas from 1988 to 1994.
- The forced displacement of some 300,000 Georgians and other non-Abkhazians from Abkhazia in 1993.
- The 1994 massacres of Tutsis by Hutus, known as the Rwandan Genocide
- Attacks by the Janjaweed Arabic-speaking African Muslim militias of Sudan on the non-Arab African Muslim population of Darfur, a region of western Sudan.

Ethnic cleansing as a military and political tactic

The purpose of ethnic cleansing is to remove the conditions for potential and actual opposition, whether political, terrorist, guerrilla or military, by physically removing any potentially or actually hostile ethnic communities. Although it has sometimes been motivated by a doctrine that claim an ethnic group is literally "unclean" (as in the case of the Jews of medieval Europe), more usually it has been a rational (if brutal) way of ensuring that total control can be asserted over an area. The campaign in Bosnia in early 1992 was a case in point. The tactic was used by Croatian, Muslim Bosnian and Serbian forces. Ethnic cleansing is often also accompanied by efforts to eradicate all physical traces of the expelled ethnic group, such as by the destruction of cultural artifacts, religious sites and physical records [http://www.rastko.org.yu/kosovo/crucified/default.htm#_catalog]. As a tactic, ethnic cleansing has a number of significant advantages and disadvantages. It enables a force to eliminate civilian support for resistance by eliminating the civilians — in a reversal of Mao Zedong's dictum that guerrillas among a civilian population are fish in water, it drains the water. When enforced as part of a political settlement, as happened with the forced resettlement of ethnic Germans to Germany after 1945, it can contribute to long-term stability. The large German populations in Czechoslovakia and Poland had been sources of friction before the Second World War, but this was forcibly resolved. It thus establishes "facts on the ground" - radical demographic changes which can be very hard to reverse. On the other hand, ethnic cleansing is such a brutal tactic and so often accompanied by large-scale bloodshed that it is widely reviled. It is generally regarded as lying somewhere between population transfers and genocide on a scale of odiousness, and is treated by international law as a war crime.

Ethnic cleansing as international law crime

Ethnic cleansing is designated a crime against humanity in international treaties, such as that which created the International Criminal Court (ICC). The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was set up in a similar spirit, and prosecutes these crimes under more generic names. The United Nations' General Assembly condemns "ethnic cleansing" and racial hatred in a 1992 resolution [http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/47/a47r080.htm]. The emergence of ethnic cleansing as a distinct category of war crime has been a somewhat complex process. Each individual element of a programme of ethnic cleansing could be considered as an individual violation of humanitarian law - a killing here, a house-burning there - thus missing the systematic way in which such violations were perpetrated with a single aim in mind. International courts therefore consider individual incidents in the light of a possible pattern of ethnic cleansing. In the Yugoslav case, for instance, the ICTY considers the widespread massacres and abuses of human rights in Bosnia and Kosovo as part of an overall "joint criminal enterprise" to carve out ethnically pure states in the region. However, many alleged "ethnic cleansings" in the past do not fit the modern definition of "crimes against humanity." For example, the post-WW2 German expulsions were sanctioned by the international agreement at Potsdam conference, requiring that the actions proceed humanely.

Comparison of events in the Bible with ethnic cleansing

Some narratives in the in the Bible which describe the Hebrew conquest of Canaan in c. 13th century BC or before, would now be considered descriptions of ethnic cleansing or even genocide. In several places God commands the Hebrews to kill every man, woman and child after capturing a city, and sometimes cities also had to be burnt to the ground. In Exodus, the story of the Pharaoh's attempt to destroy the Israelites living in Egypt can also be seen as ethnic cleansing. Similarly Haman's attempt to wipe out the Jews within the Persian empire described in Esther can be considered ethnic cleansing.

See also


- Civilian casualties, civilian, non-combatant persons killed or injured by direct military action
- Crime against humanity

References


- [http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19930601faessay5199/andrew-bell-fialkoff/a-brief-history-of-ethnic-cleansing.html]
- [http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol5/No3/art3.pdf]

External links


- [http://www.ryanspencerreed.com/ Photojournalist's Account] - Images of ethnic cleansing in Sudan
- [http://www.genocide.org.uk/ Genocide of Tamils in Sri Lanka] Category:Human rights abuses Category:Violence Category:Persecution Category:Forced migration ko:민족청소 ja:民族浄化

World War II

, and the use of new, extremely devastating weapons such as the atom bomb. From top going counterclockwise: Allied landing on D-Day 1944, the Nuremberg Rally 1936, the Nagasaki atom bomb 1945, the Soviet flag over the Reichstag in Berlin 1945 and the Gate of Auschwitz.]] World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a mid-20th Century conflict that engulfed much of the globe and is accepted as the largest and deadliest continuous war in human history. It was the first time that a number of newly developed technologies, including nuclear weapons, were used against either military or civilian targets. World War II resulted in the direct or indirect death of anywhere from 50 to 60 million or more people, over 3% of the world population at that time. It is estimated to have cost more money and resources than all other wars combined: about 1 trillion US dollars in 1945 (adjusted for inflation; roughly 10.5 trillion in 2005), not including subsequent reconstruction [http://www.historychannel.com/worldwartwo/?page=triumph5]. The outcomes of the war, including new technology and changes to the world's geopolitical, cultural and economic arrangement, were unprecedented. The conflict began by most Western accounts on September 1 1939 with the German invasion of Poland (the Pacific war is taken to have started on July 7 1937 with the Japanese attack on China) and lasted until mid-1945, involving many of the world's countries. Virtually all countries that participated in World War I were involved in World War II. Britain, France, Australia and New Zealand declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939 and Canada followed on September 10, 1939. The United States entered the conflict in December of 1941 after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.

Summary

Attributed in varying degrees to the Treaty of Versailles, the Great Depression, and the rise in nationalism, racism, fascism, National socialism, Japanese imperialism, and militarism, the causes of the war are a matter of debate. The war was fought between the Axis Powers and the Allies. The Axis initially consisted of an alliance between Germany and Italy, which later expanded to include Japan and Eastern European countries such as Romania and Bulgaria. Some of the nations that Germany conquered sent military forces, particularly to the Eastern front. Among the expeditionary forces that joined Germany were forces from Vichy France, The Netherlands, Belgium, Spain (though Spain was itself a neutral country) and armies of Russians and Ukrainians under the command of the general Andrey Vlasov. The Allies were initially the United Kingdom, including the Commonwealth, France and Poland, later joined by the USSR, the United States of America and China. Fighting occurred across the Atlantic Ocean, in Western and Eastern Europe, in the Mediterranean Sea, Africa, the Middle East, in the Pacific and South East Asia, and it continued in China. In Europe, the war ended with the surrender of Germany on 8 May 1945 (V-E and Victory Days), but continued in Asia until Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945 (V-J Day). At least 50 million people died as a result of the war. This figure includes acts of genocide such as the Holocaust and General Ishii Shiro's Unit 731 experiments in Pingfan, incredibly bloody battles in Europe and the Pacific Ocean, and massive bombings of cities, including the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan and the firebombing of Dresden (and even worse but less known) of Pforzheim in Germany. Few areas of the world were unaffected; the war involved the "home front" and bombing of civilians to a new degree. Atomic weapons, jet aircraft, rockets and radar, the blitzkrieg, or "lightning war", the massive use of tanks, submarines, torpedo bombers and destroyer/tanker formations, are only a few of many wartime inventions and new tactics that changed the face of the conflict. Post–World War II Europe was partitioned into Western and Soviet spheres of influence, the former undergoing economic reconstruction under the Marshall Plan and the latter becoming satellite states of the Soviet Union. This partition was, however, informal; rather than coming to terms about the spheres of influence, the relationship between the victors steadily deteriorated, and the military lines of demarcation finally became the de facto country boundaries. Western Europe largely aligned as NATO, and Eastern Europe largely as the Warsaw pact countries, alliances which were fundamental to the ensuing Cold War. In Asia, the United States' military occupation of Japan led to Japan's democratisation. China's civil war continued through and after the war, resulting eventually in the establishment of the People's Republic of China. The war sparked a wave of independence for colonies of European powers, who were exhausted from fighting the war. There was a fundamental shift in power from Western Europe to the new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, though there were few actual boundary changes. __TOC__

Causes

People's Republic of China]] Main articles: Causes of World War II, Events preceding World War II in Europe, Events preceding World War II in Asia The causes of World War II are naturally a debated subject, but a common view, particularly among the allies in the early post-war years, ties them to the expansionism of Germany and Japan: Germany had lost wealth, power and status following the First World War and the expansion was to make Germany great again.
- In Germany there was a strong desire to escape the bonds of the World War I Treaty of Versailles, and eventually, Hitler and the Nazis assumed control of the country. They led Germany through a chain of events: rearmament, reoccupation of the Rhineland, a merger with Austria (Anschluss), incorporation of Czechoslovakia and finally the invasion of Poland.
- In Asia, Japan's efforts to become a world power and the rise of militarist leadership (in the 1930s the government in Japan was undermined as militarists rose to power and de facto gained totalitarian control) led to conflicts with first China and later the United States. Japan also sought to secure additional natural resources, such as oil and iron ore, due in part to the lack of natural resources on Japan's own home islands.

Participants

iron ore and Joseph Stalin, during the Yalta Conference in 1945]] Main article: Participants in World War II The belligerents of the Second World War are usually considered to belong to either of the two blocs: the Axis and the Allies. A number of smaller countries participated in the war, though often under occupation or as proxies of one of the large powers. The Axis Powers consisted primarily of Germany, Italy, and Japan, which split the Earth into three spheres of influence under the Tripartite Pact of 1940, and vowed to defend one another against aggression. This replaced the German-Japanese Anti-Comintern Pact of 1936 that Italy had joined in 1937. Spain's fascist government led by Francisco Franco was a great asset in trade to the Axis powers during the war. A number of smaller countries were counted among the Axis powers. Among these were Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Slovenia, and arguably Finland. Among the Allied powers, the so-called Big Three were the United Kingdom (from September 3 1939), the Soviet Union (from June 1941) and the United States (from December 1941). China had been at war with Japan since 1937. 1937 On August 23, 1939, just before the war broke out, the USSR and Germany signed the non-aggression Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, which, among other things, divided Eastern Europe into regions of influence. But Germany violated the pact when it invaded the USSR in 1941. Similarly, the US had the (much older) unilateral Monroe Doctrine, which stated that Europe should not interfere in the Americas and in turn the U.S. would not interfere in European affairs (including wars). But the U.S. entered the war after first Japan and then Germany declared war on it and launched direct attacks on its navy, shipping and other interests. Many other countries, including Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, France, Greece, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, the Philippines, Poland, Thailand and Yugoslavia are also considered important Allies, although some of these were conquered and occupied by Axis forces or even officially joined the Axis as a result of coercion. Countries that attempted to remain neutral in the conflict were often viewed with suspicion by the participants, and often pressured to make contributions to the most influential power in their neighbourhood. Sovereignty was often difficult to maintain as many countries that did not directly participate in the conflict nevertheless held vested interests in seeing a particular side prevail. For example, neutral Switzerland was generally considered to be "Allied-friendly", while neutral Spain was considered "Axis-friendly", despite the fact that neither country openly proclaimed any alliances. Such situations allowed neutral countries to become hotbeds of espionage. It is important to note as well, that Sweden's participation in the war was negligable due to specific relations with the German state at the time.

A debated starting date

On which date World War II started is a debated subject; historians do not all agree on which event signified the start of the war. The most common date used is 1 September 1939, marking the German invasion of Poland which resulted in the British and French declarations of war two days later. Other candidates include the Japanese invasion of China on 7 July1937 (the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War) or the entry of Hitler's armies to Prague in March 1939. Some historians argue that the Italian occupation of Ethiopia (The Second Italo-Abyssinian War) which lasted seven months in 1935-1936 was the actual start of World War II. There are some historians that argue the war started on the start of the Manchurian Incident on 18 September 1931.

Chronology 1937-45

Main articles: European Theatre of World War II, Mediterranean Theatre of World War II, Pacific War, End of World War II in Europe

1937: Second Sino-Japanese War

On 7 July 1937, Japan, after occupying northeastern China as Manchuria in 1931, launched another attack against China near Beijing (see Marco Polo Bridge Incident). Rather than retreating swiftly as in engagements with the Japanese before, the Chinese government declared war on Japan, marking the official start of the Second Sino-Japanese War, which would soon become part of the World War. In December 1937, the capital, Nanking (now Nanjing), fell and the Chinese government moved its seat to Chongqing for the rest of the war. Surprised by the unanticipated level of resistance from China, the Japanese forces committed brutal atrocities against civilians and POWs when Nanking was occupied (see Nanjing Massacre), killing up to 200,000 civilians within a month. In Europe, the peace was uneasy, with Germany annexing Austria and Czechoslovakia, and taking apparent aim at Poland.

1939: War breaks out in Europe

Poland]] Main articles: Polish September Campaign, Phony War War broke out in Poland on 1 September 1939, with the German invasion of Poland. France and the United Kingdom honoured their defensive alliance of March 1939 by declaring war two days later on 3 September. Australia and New Zealand declared war the same day, although through the quirk of the international date line, New Zealand then Australia were the first to declare war on Germany. Canada followed a week later, on 10 September. Only partly mobilised and with troops inadequately equipped with largely outdated weapons (which included large numbers of horse-mounted cavalry), and without the anticipated support of French or British forces, Poland unsurprisingly fared poorly against the Wehrmacht's superior numbers and "blitzkrieg" tactics. In accordance with the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Red Army invaded Poland from the east on 17 September. Hours later, the Polish government escaped to Romania. The last Polish Army unit was defeated on 6 October. As Poland fell, the British and French were either caught unaware of German intentions or had not allowed themselves to believe that Germany would invade Poland. Germany paused to regroup during a period that would be termed "the Phony War", or the "Sitzkrieg", which lasted until May 1940. Polish forces continued to fight the Axis powers after their country fell. A prominent example was the assistance of Polish pilots during the Battle of Britain. The Soviet Uni