KarstKarst topography is a landscape of distinctive dissolution patterns often marked by underground drainages. These are areas where the bedrock has a soluble layer or layers, usually, but not always, of carbonate rock such as limestone or dolomite. In such places there may be little or no surface drainage. Some areas of karst topography, such as the region of southern Missouri and northern Arkansas in the USA, contain literally thousands of caves.
The word Karst is the German name for Kras, a Slovenian region along the Adriatic coast that rests on a limestone plateau.
Adriatic
Chemistry of karst landscapes
Karst landforms are generally the result of mildly acidic rainfall acting on soluble limestone or dolostone bedrock. The process of subsurface rock dissolution results in a topography with distinctive features, including sinkholes or dolines (closed basins), vertical shafts, disappearing streams, and springs. After sufficient time, complex underground drainage systems (such as karst aquifers) and extensive caves and cavern systems may form.
The carbonic acid that causes these features is formed as rain passes through the atmosphere picking up CO2, which dissolves in the water. Once the rain reaches the ground, it passes through the soil, gathering up more CO2 to form a weak carbonic acid solution: H2O + CO2 → H2CO3.
This mildly acidic water begins to dissolve any fractures and bedding planes in the limestone bedrock. Over time these fractures enlarge as the bedrock continues to dissolve. Openings in the rock increase in size, and an underground drainage system begins to develop, allowing more water to pass through and accelerating the formation of underground karst features.
dissolve
Karst formations
Erosion along limestone shores, common in the tropics, produces typical karst topography, including a sharp makatea surface above the normal reach of the sea and undercuts that are mostly the result of biological activity or bioerosion at or a little above mean sea level. Some of the most dramatic of these formations can be seen in Thailand's Phangnga Bay and Halong Bay in Vietnam.
bioerosion]]
Calcium carbonate removed by water may deposit elsewhere. In caves, stalactites and stalagmites are formed by deposition of calcium carbonate and other dissolved minerals as the water drips from above. An example is the Gruta Rei do Mato in the Lagoa Santa Karst formation around Sete Lagoas, Brazil with a stalactite of 20 meters height.
Other formations consist of shields (where the flow is from a fissure rather than from a point), and flowstone, which occurs when the flow of calcite-rich water is somewhat impeded and calcite is deposited in the flow. Helictites are curlicue-shaped formations associated with the roofs and walls of caves. Larger flow-type formations are rimstone pools and gours, which are bathtub-shaped and may contain large calcite or aragonite crystals as a result of slow evaporation. Rivers which emerge from limestone caves may also produce tufa terraces, consisting of layers of calcite deposited over extended periods of time as the water leaves the CO2-rich cave environment.
Water drainage and problems
Farming in karst areas must take into account the excessive drainage. The soils may be fertile enough, and rainfall may be adequate, but rainwater quickly moves through the crevices into the ground, sometimes leaving the surface soil parched between rains.
Water supplies from wells in karst topography are inherently hazardous, as the well water may simply run from a sinkhole in a cattle pasture through a cave and to the well, bypassing the normal filtering that occurs in a porous aquifer.
Groundwater in karst areas is just as easily polluted as surface streams. All too often, sinkholes have been used as farmstead or even community trash dumps. In karst areas where septic tanks are the main sewage disposal system, overloaded or malfunctioning systems dump raw sewage directly into underground channels.
The karst topography itself also poses some difficuties for human inhabitants. Sinkholes can develop gradually as surface openings enlarge, but quite often progressive erosion is unseen and the roof of an underground cavern suddenly collapses. Such events have swallowed homes, cattle, cars, and farm machinery.
The Driftless Area National Wildlife Refuge in Iowa protects ice age snails surviving in air chilled by flowing over buried karst ice formations.
Pseudokarst
Pseudokarst occurs where the primary erosive agent is not rainwater, but there is underground drainage. This can occur in basalt, where drainage is through lava caves, or among granite tors (for example Labertouche Cave in Victoria, Australia).
Partial list of karst areas
- Mammoth Cave area and Bluegrass region of Kentucky
- The Ozark Plateau of Missouri and Arkansas
- The Florida peninsula
- The regions of Dalmatia, Lika, Gorski Kotar, Kvarner and the islands in Croatia
- The region of Inner Carniola in Slovenia
- The Cenotes of the Yucatan Peninsula
- The Karst forest in Puerto Rico
- Kras, a plateau in northeastern Italy and southwestern Slovenia
- Moravian Karst
- The Burren (Co.Clare, Ireland)
- The Stone Forest (Yunnan Province, China)
- Area around Guilin and Yangshuo in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China
- Gunung Mulu National Park Malaysia
- Phangnga Bay Area, Southern Thailand
- Halong Bay, Vietnam
- The Nahanni region in the Northwest Territories, Canada
- Malham Cove, England
- The Apuseni Mountains, Romania
See also
- Karst field
- Proteus anguinus
- Speleothem
- Speleology
- Golden Sun character, Karst.
Category:Landforms
Category:Cave geology
ja:カルスト地形
DrainageDrainage is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area. Many agricultural soils need drainage to improve production or to manage water supplies.
Reasons for artificial drainage
Wetland soils may need drainage to be used for agriculture. In the northern USA and Europe, glaciation created numerous small lakes which gradually filled with humus to make marshes. Some of these were drained using open ditches and trenches to make mucklands, which are primarily used for high value crops such as vegetables.
The largest project of this type in the world has been in process for centuries in the Netherlands. The area between Amsterdam, Haarlem and Leiden was, in prehistoric times swampland and small lakes. Turf cutting (Peat mining), subsidence and shoreline erosion gradually caused the formation of one large lake, the Haarlemmermeer, or lake of Haarlem. The invention of wind powered pumping engines in the 15th century permitted drainage of some of the marginal land, but the final drainage of the lake had to await the design of large, steam powered pumps and agreements between regional authorities. The elimination of the lake occurred between 1849 and 1852, creating thousands of km2 of new land.
Coastal plains and river deltas may have seasonally or permanently high water tables and must have drainage improvements if they are to be used for agricultural purposes. An example is the flatwoods citrus-growing region of Florida. After periods of high rainfall, drainage pumps are employed to prevent damage to the citrus groves from overly wet soils. Rice production requires complete control of water, as fields need to be flooded or drained at different stages of the crop cycle. The Netherlands has also led the way in this type of drainage, not only to drain lowland along the shore, but actually pushing back the sea until the original nation has been greatly enlarged.
In moist climates, soils may be adequate for cropping with the exception that they become waterlogged for brief periods each year, from snow melt or from heavy rains. Soils that are predominantly clay will pass water very slowly downward, meanwhile plant roots suffocate because the excessive water around the roots eliminates air movement through the soil.
Other soils may have an impervious layer of mineralized soil, called a hardpan or relatively impervious rock layers may underlie shallow soils. Drainage is especially important in tree fruit production. Soils that are otherwise excellent may be waterlogged for a week of the year, which is sufficient to kill fruit trees and cost the productivity of the land until replacements can be established. In each of these cases appropriate drainage is used to carry off temporary flushes of water to prevent damage to annual or perennial crops.
In farming drier areas, irrigation is often used, and one would not consider drainage necessary. However, irrigation water always contains minerals and salts, and these can be concentrated to toxic levels by evapotranspiration. Irrigated land may need periodic flushes with excessive irrigation water and drainage to remove these toxic minerals.
Drainage in the 19th century
From the 1881 Household Cyclopedia
This operation is always best performed in spring or summer, when the ground is dry. Main drains ought to be made in every part of the field where a cross-cut or open drain was formerly wanted; they ought to be cut four feet (1.2 m) deep, upon an average. This completely secures them from the possibility of being damaged by the treading of horses or cattle, and being so far below the small drains, clears the water finely out of them. In every situation, pipe-turfs for the main drains, if they can be had, are preferable. If good stiff clay, a single row of pipe-turf; if sandy, a double row. When pipe-turf cannot be got conveniently, a good wedge drain may answer well, when the subsoil is a strong, stiff clay; but if the subsoil be only moderately so, a thorn drain, with couples below, will do still better; and if the subsoil is very sandy, except pipes can be had, it is in vain to attempt under-draining the field by any other method. It may be necessary to mention here that the size of the main drains ought to be regulated according to the length and declivity of the run, and the quantity of water to be carried off by them. It is always safe, however, to have the main drains large, and plenty of them; for economy here seldom turns out well.
Having finished the main drains, proceed next to make a small drain in every furrow of the field if the ridges formerly have not been less than fifteen feet (5 m) wide. But if that should be the case, first level the ridges, and make the drains in the best direction, and at such a distance from each other as may be thought necessary. If the water rises well in the bottom of the drains, they ought to be cut three feet (1 m) deep, and in this ease would dry the field sufficiently well, although they were from twenty-five to thirty feet (8 to 10 m) asunder; but if the water does not draw well to the bottom of the drains, two feet (0.6 m) will be a sufficient deepness for the pipe-drain, and two and a half feet (1 m) for the wedge drain. In no case ought they to be shallower where the field has been previously leveled. In this instance, however, as the surface water is carried off chiefly by the water sinking immediately into the top of the drains, it will be necessary to have the drains much nearer each other--say from fifteen to twenty feet (5 to 6 m). If the ridges are more than fifteen feet (5 m) wide, however broad and irregular they may be, follow invariably the line of the old furrows, as the best direction for the drains; and, where they are high-gathered ridges, from twenty to twenty-four inches will be a sufficient depth for the pipe-drain, and from twenty-four to thirty inches for the wedge-drain. Particular care should be taken in connecting the small and main drains together, so that the water may have a gentle declivity, with free access into the main drains.
When the drains are finished, the ridges are cleaved down upon the drains by the plough; and where they had been very high formerly, a second clearing may be given; but it is better not to level the ridges too much, for by allowing them to retain a little of their former shape, the ground being lowest immediately where the drains are, the surface water collects upon the top of the drains; and, by shrinking into them, gets freely away. After the field is thus finished, run the new ridges across the small drains, making them about ten feet (3 m) broad, and continue afterwards to plough the field in the same manner as dry land.
It is evident from the above method of draining that the expense will vary very much, according to the quantity of main drains necessary for the field, the distance of the small drains from each other, and the distance the turf is to be carried.
The advantage resulting from under-draining, is very great, for besides a considerable saving annually of water furrowing, cross cutting, etc., the land can often be ploughed and sown to advantage, both in the spring and in the fall of the year, when otherwise it would be found quite impracticable; every species of drilled crops, such as beans, potatoes, turnips, etc., can be cultivated successfully; and every species, both of green and white crops, is less apt to fail in wet and untoward seasons.
Wherever a burst of water appears in any particular spot, the sure and certain way of getting quit of such an evil is to dig hollow drains to such a depth below the surface as is required by the fall or level that can be gained, and by the quantity of water expected to proceed from the burst or spring. Having ascertained the extent of water to be carried off, taken the necessary levels, and cleared a mouth or loading passage for the water, begin the drain at the extremity next to that leader, and go on with the work till the top of the spring is touched, which probably will accomplish the intended object. But if it should not be completely accomplished, run off from the main drain with such a number of branches as may be required to intercept the water, and in this way disappointment will hardly be experienced. Drains, to be substantially useful, should seldom be less than three feet (1 m) in depth, twenty or twenty four inches thereof to be close packed with stones or wood, according to circumstances. The former are the best materials, but in many places are not to be got in sufficient quantities; recourse therefore, must often be made to the latter, though not so effectual or durable.
It is of vast importance to fill up drains as fast as they are dug out; because, if left open for any length of time, the earth is not only apt to fall in but the sides get into a broken, irregular state, which cannot afterwards be completely rectified. A proper covering of straw or sod should be put upon the top of the materials, to keep the surface earth from mixing with them; and where wood is the material used for filling up, a double degree of attention is necessary, otherwise the proposed improvement may be effectually frustrated.
The pit method of draining is a very effectual one, if executed with judgment. When it is sufficiently ascertained where the bed of water is deposited, which can easily be done by boring with an auger, sink a pit into the place of a size which will allow a man freely to work within its bounds. Dig this pit of such a depth as to reach the bed of the water meant to be carried off; and when this depth is attained, which is easily discerned by the rising of the water, fill up the pit with great land-stones and carry off the water by a stout drain to some adjoining ditch or mouth, whence it may proceed to the nearest river.
Current practices
Modern drainage systems incorporate [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Geotextile geotextile] filters that retain and prevent fine particles of soil from passing into and clogging the drain. Geotextiles are synthetic textile fabrics specially manufactured for civil and environmental engineering applications. Geotextiles are designed to retain fine soil particles while allowing water to pass through. In a typical drainage system they would be laid along a trench which would then be filled with coarse material: gravel, sea shells, stone or rock. The geotextile is then folded over the top of the stone and the trench is then covered by soil. Groundwater seeps through the geotextile and flows within the stone to an outfall. In high groundwater conditions a perforated plastic (PVC or PE) pipe is laid along the base of the drain to increase the volume of water transported in the drain.
Alternatively prefabricated plastic drainage systems, often incorporating geotextile, coco fiber or rag filters can be considered. The use of these materials has become increasingly more common due to their ease of use which eliminates the need for transporting and laying stone drainage aggregate which is invariably more expensive than a synthetic drain.
Over the past 30 years geotextile and PVC filters have become the most commonly used soil filter media. They are cheap to produce and easy to lay, with factory controlled properties that ensure long term filtration performance even in fine silty soil conditions.
See also
- John Johnston, who introduced land drainage to the United States.
- Building construction
- Watershed
External link
- [http://www.geosyntheticssociety.org International Geosynthetics Society], information on geotextiles and geosynthetics in general.
Category:HydrologyCategory:Civil engineering
simple:Drain
CarbonateCarbonate is an anion with a charge of -2 and an empirical formula of CO32-.
For an aqueous solution, carbonate exists in three forms. In strongly basic conditions, the carbonate ion, CO32-, predominates. In weakly basic conditions, bicarbonate ion, HCO3- is prevalent. In acid conditions, aqueous carbon dioxide, CO2(aq), is the main form. This also contains a minute amount of carbonic acid, H2CO3. Thus sodium carbonate is basic, sodium bicarbonate is weakly basic, while carbon dioxide itself is a weak acid.
In biological systems the enzyme, carbonic anhydrase, catalyzes this interconversion between carbon dioxide and carbonate ions. To test for the presence of the carbonate anion in a salt, the addition of dilute hydrochloric acid will yield carbon dioxide gas.
Carbonate-containing salts are industrially and mineralogically
ubiquitous. The term "carbonate" is also commonly used to refer to one of these salts or carbonate minerals. Most common is calcite, or calcium carbonate, the chief constituent of limestone. The process of removing these salts is called calcination.
The term is also used as a verb, to describe the process of
raising carbonate and bicarbonate concentrations in water, see also carbonated water, either by the introduction under pressure of carbon dioxide gas into the water, or by dissoving carbonate or bicarbonate salts into the water.
At one time, it was thought that the presence of carbonates in rock was unequivocal evidence for the presence of liquid water. Recent observations of two planetary nebulae reported in the January 17, 2002 issue of the scientific journal Nature indicate that carbonates can form in interplanetary space.
Carbonates were detected in the Gusev Crater on Mars by the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit on January 9, 2004. [http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/mer2004/rover-images/jan-09-2004/captions/image-10.html]
See also
- Ocean acidification
Category:Oxoanions
ja:炭酸塩
Limestone, Tennessee]]
Limestone is a chemical sedimentary rock composed largely of the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate: CaCO3). Limestones often contain variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or flint, as well as amounts of clay, silt and sand as disseminations, nodules, or layers within the rock unit. The primary source of this calcite is most commonly marine organisms. These organisms secrete shells that settle out of the water column and are deposited on ocean floors as pelagic ooze (see lysocline for information on calcite dissolution). Secondary calcite may also be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters (groundwater that precipitates the material in caves). This produces speleothems such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form is composed of oolites (oolitic limestone) and can be recognised by its granular appearance. Limestone makes up about 10 percent of the total volume of all sedimentary rocks.
oolites
Pure limestones are white or almost white. Because of impurities, such as clay, sand, organic remains, iron oxide and other materials, many limestones exhibit different colors, especially on weathered surfaces. Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock.
Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly where there are waterfalls and around hot or cold springs. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the water leaves a solution that is supersaturated with chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls. Coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells.
During regional metamorphism limestone recrystallizes into marble.
Limestone is a parent material of Mollisol soil group.
Limestone landscape
Limestone is partially soluble, especially in acid, and therefore forms many erosion landforms. These include limestone pavements, pot holes, caves and gorges. Such erosion landscapes are known as karsts. Limestone is less resistant than most igneous rocks, but more resistant than most other sedimentary rocks. Limestone is therefore usually associated with hills and downland and occurs in regions with other sedimentary rocks, typically clays. clay
Bands of limestone emerge from the Earth's surface in often spectacular rocky outcrops and islands. Examples include the Burren in Co. Clare, Ireland; the Verdon Gorge in France; Malham Cove in North Yorkshire, England; and the Ha Long Bay National Park in [[Vietnam{commonscat|Limestone
Missouri
:For the Native American tribe, see Missouri tribe.
Missouri, named after the Missouri Siouan Indian tribe meaning "town of the large canoes", is a U.S. state in the United States with Jefferson City as its capital. It is a midwestern state, with some Northern, Eastern, Western, and Southern cultural influences. The state's nickname is the [http://www.sos.mo.gov/archives/history/slogan.asp Show-Me] State; the U.S. Post Office abbreviation for Missouri is MO and the state public university's main campus is located in Columbia. The Mississippi and Missouri rivers are the two large rivers which flow through this state.
USS Missouri was named in honor of this state.
History
Originally part of the Louisiana Purchase, Missouri was admitted as a state in 1821 as part of the Missouri Compromise. It earned the nickname "Gateway to the West" because it served as a departure point for settlers heading to the west. It was the starting point and the return destination of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. During the Civil War, Missouri, a slave state, remained in the Union, but sentiment was split with a significant portion of the populace in some areas supporting the Confederate cause.
Law and government
The capital of Missouri is Jefferson City.
The current constitution of Missouri, the fourth constitution for the state, was adopted in 1945 and provides for three branches of government, the legislative, judicial and executive branches. The legislative branch consists of two bodies, the House of Representatives and the Senate. These bodies comprise the General Assembly of the State of Missouri.
The House of Representatives has 163 members that are apportioned based on the last decennial census. The Senate consists of 34 members from districts divided such that the population of each district is approximately equal.
The Judicial department consists of a supreme court consisting of 7 judges. Superior and inferior courts are also provided.
The executive branch is headed by the Governor.
- The Governor of Missouri is Matt Blunt (Republican).
- The Lieutenant Governor of Missouri is Peter Kinder (Republican)
- The Missouri Attorney General is Jay Nixon (Democrat)
- The Missouri Secretary of State is Robin Carnahan (Democrat)
- The Missouri State Auditor is Claire McCaskill (Democrat)
- The Missouri State Treasurer is Sarah Steelman (Republican)
- The Senior United States Senator is Christopher S. "Kit" Bond (Republican)
- The Junior United States Senator is James M. Talent (Republican)
Although neither major party has traditionally been dominant in Missouri, the Republican Party has been gaining strength there in recent years. Missouri has a longer stretch of supporting the winning presidential candidate than any other state, having chosen with the nation in every election since 1904 with the exception of Adlai Stevenson in 1956. In 2004, George W. Bush won the state's 11 electoral votes by a margin of 7 percentage points with 53.3% of the vote. Democrat John Kerry only won four of the state's 115 counties—St. Louis City, St. Louis County, Ste. Genevieve, and Jackson County.
Geography
1956
Missouri's border physically touches a total of eight different states. It is bounded on the north by Iowa; on the east, across the Mississippi River, by Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee; on the south by Arkansas; and on the west by Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska (the latter two across the Missouri River.)
North of the Missouri River lie the Northern Plains that stretch into Iowa, Nebraska and Kansas. Here, gentle rolling hills remain behind from a glacier that once had extended from the north to the Missouri River.
The Ozark plateau begins south of the river and extends into Arkansas, S. E. Kansas, and N. E. Oklahoma. Springfield, Missouri in southwestern Missouri lies on the Ozark plateau. Southern Missouri is the home of the Ozark Mountains, a dissected plateau surrounding the Precambrian igneous St. Francois Mountains. It is in the Ozarks that a distinct dialect, often compared to that of residents in certain areas of Kentucky and Tennessee, still exists.
The southeastern part of the state is home to the Bootheel, part of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain or Mississippi embayment. This region is the lowest, flattest and wettest part of the state. It is also the most fertile. It is here that one finds cotton and rice production. The Bootheel area was the focus of the great New Madrid Earthquake of 1811–1812.
Although now generally considered part of the Midwest, Missouri was once thought of as Southern, and still is by many Missourians today.
For example, Mark Twain, who grew up in Hannibal, Missouri, in Life on the Mississippi described his upbringing as in "the South." Still, while larger cities, especially those in the northern part of the state (i.e. St. Louis, Columbia, Kansas City) consider themselves "Midwestern", rural areas and cities further south (i.e. Cape Girardeau and Springfield) consider themselves more "Southern".
Additional topics
- Climate of Missouri
- Missouri National and State Parks
- List of Missouri counties
Transportation
List of Missouri counties
Kansas City is still a major railroad hub for Burlington Northern Santa Fe, Norfolk Southern, Kansas City Southern, and Union Pacific. The state of Missouri also has two major airport hubs now as well with Kansas City International Airport and Lambert-Saint Louis International Airport. Several highways also traverse the state.
- Interstate 29, Interstate 229
- Interstate 35, Interstate 435 (the Perimeter around the Kansas City Metropolitan Area), Interstate 635
- Interstate 44
- Interstate 55, Interstate 155, Interstate 255
- Interstate 57
- Interstate 64
- Interstate 70, Interstate 170, Interstate 270 (the Perimeter around the Missouri side of the St. Louis Metropolitan Area), Interstate 470, Interstate 670
- Interstate 72
- Interstate 49 (Proposed)
Economy
[http://www.bea.gov/ The Bureau of Economic Analysis] estimates that Missouri's total state product in 2003 was $195 billion. Per capital personal income in 2003 was $29,464, 27th in the nation.
Major industries include aerospace, transportation equipment, food processing, chemicals, printing/publishing, electrical equipment, light manufacturing.
The agriculture products of the state are beef, soybeans, pork, dairy products, hay, corn, poultry, and eggs. Missouri is ranked 6th in the nation for the production of hogs and 7th for cattle. As of 2001, there were 108,000 farms, the second largest number in any state after Texas. Missouri also actively promotes its quickly-growing wine industry.
Missouri has vast quantities of limestone. Other minerals mined are lead, coal, Portland cement and crushed stone. Missouri produces the most lead of all of the states in the Union with most of these mines in the central eastern portion of the state. Missouri also ranks first or near first among the production of lime.
Tourism, services and wholesale/retail trade follow manufacturing in importance.
Demographics
As of 2004, the population of Missouri was estimated to be 5,754,618. This includes 194,000 foreign-born (3.4% of the state population). The state's population has increased by 638,000 since 1990, a growth of 12.5%.
Race and ancestry
The racial makeup of the state and comparison to the prior census:
The five largest ancestry groups in Missouri are: German (23.5%), Irish (12.7%), American (10.5%), English (9.5%), French (3.5%). 'American' includes those reported as Native American or African American.
German-Americans are a large ancestry group present in most of Missouri. In southern Missouri, most residents are of British/American ancestry. The northern edge of the state also has a high proportion of residents of British and American ancestry. Blacks are a populous minority in the City of St. Louis and central Kansas City and are also an important minority in the southeastern bootheel and the Missouri River Valley, areas where plantation agriculture was once important. Missouri Creoles of French ancestry are concentrated in the Mississippi River valley south of St. Louis.
6.6% of its population were reported as under 5, 25.5% under 18, and 13.5% were 65 or older. Females made up approximately 51.4% of the population.
3.4% of Missourians are foreign-born, and 5.1% speak a language other than English at home. The 1997 birth and death rates were:
| Births: | 74,037 |
| Deaths: | 54,322 |
| Infant deaths: | 564 |
81.3% were high school graduates (higher than the national average) while 21.6% had a bachelor's degree or higher.
The mean commute time to work was 23.8 minutes. The homeownership rate in 2000 was 70.3% with the mean value of the owner occupied dwelling being $89,900. There were 2,194,594 households with 2.48 people per household. The median household money income for 1999 was $37,934 with the 1999 Per Capita Money Income of $19,936. There were 11.7% (637,891) Missourians living below the poverty line in 1999.
Religion
The religious affiliations of the people of Missouri:
- Christian – 83%
- Protestant – 62%
- Baptist (mostly Southern Baptist) – 23%
- Methodist – 8%
- Lutheran – 4%
- Episcopal – 4%
- Other Protestant – 23%
- Roman Catholic – 20%
- Other Christian – 1%
- Other Religions – 1%
- Non-Religious – 16%
Of those Missourians who identify with a religion, three in four are Protestants. There is also a moderate-sized Catholic community present in the some parts of the state; approximately one out of five Missourians are Catholics. Heavily Catholic areas include Kansas City and St. Louis.
A number of religious organizations have their headquarters in Missouri, including the Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod, which has its headquarters in Kirkwood, outside St. Louis. Kansas City is the headquarters of the Church of the Nazarene. Independence, outside of Kansas City, is the headquarters for the Community of Christ (formerly the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints), and the Latter Day Saints group Remnant Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. Springfield is the headquarters of the Assemblies of God.
Culture
There is an idiom "being from Missouri" which relates to the state's unofficial slogan: "show me" (which even appears on their license plates). People from Missouri have a reputation for being skeptical. (See [http://www.virtualtourist.com/m/6d7ce/515/] and
[http://www.sos.mo.gov/archives/history/slogan.asp].)
Important cities and towns
license plate
Education
Missouri's public school system includes kindergarten to 12th grade and requires all children between the ages of 7–16 inclusive to be enrolled in a school. The University of Missouri is Missouri's statewide public university system, having campuses in Saint Louis, Kansas City, Columbia and Rolla. Additionally, Missouri has several regional public universities in different parts of the state, the largest being Missouri State University (after heated political debate in Jefferson City, the name was changed from Southwest Missouri State University in spring 2005) having the second largest student enrollment after University of Missouri-Columbia (commonly referred to as "Mizzou").
Colleges and universities
Professional sports teams
- Baseball: Saint Louis Cardinals and Kansas City Royals
- Football: Saint Louis Rams and Kansas City Chiefs
- Hockey: Saint Louis Blues
- Soccer: Kansas City Wizards
- Indoor Soccer: St. Louis Steamers
- Arena Football: Kansas City Brigade
Minor leagues
- Baseball:
- Springfield Cardinals (Class AA, Texas League)
- Mid-Missouri Mavericks (Independent, Frontier League)
- River City Rascals (Independent, Frontier League)
See also
- Missouri River
- Missouri tribe
- Missouri Pacific Railroad
- Henry Shaw Ozark Corridor
- List of people from Missouri and the Missouri Wall of Fame
- List of individuals executed in Missouri
- List of BSA local councils and districts in Missouri
- List of Missouri State Highways
- List of television stations in Missouri
References
- U.S. Census Bureau.
- [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/29000.html Missouri QuickFacts]. Geographic and demographic information.
- [http://www.census.gov/population/documentation/twps0056/tab40.pdf Missouri - Race and Hispanic Origin: 1810 to 1990] (PDF)
External links
- [http://www.state.mo.us/ Missouri Government]
- [http://www.mohistory.org/ Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis]
- [http://www.system.missouri.edu/shs/ State Historical Society of Missouri, Columbia]
- [http://www.sos.mo.gov/archives/resources/africanamerican/intro.asp Missouri's African American History]
- [http://www.missouritourism.org Missouri State Tourism Office]
- [http://www.statelocalgov.net/mo.htm State and Local Government on the Net]
- [http://www.vitalrec.com/mo.html Vital Records Information]
- [http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/2001/tables/redist_mo.html Census Data]
-
Category:States of the United States
ko:미주리 주
ja:ミズーリ州
simple:Missouri
Arkansas
----
Arkansas (pronounced or ) is a southern state in the United States. The population according to the 2000 census was 2,673,400. Its U.S. postal abbreviation is AR, and its Associated Press abbreviation is Ark. It was admitted as the 25th state of the United States in 1836.
History
The early French explorers of the state gave it its name, which is probably a phonetic spelling for the French word for "downriver" people, a reference to the Quapaw people and the river along which they settled. Other Native American nations living in present-day Arkansas were Caddo, Cherokee and Osage Nations.
On June 15, 1836, Arkansas became the 25th state of the United States as a slave state. Arkansas seceded from the Union on May 6, 1861 during the American Civil War. Under the Military Reconstruction Act, Congress, by June 1868, had readmitted Arkansas, as well as North Carolina, South Carolina, Louisiana, Georgia, Alabama and Florida.
The state is the only one with an official pronunciation. The traditional form "arkanSAW" was made official by the state legislature in 1881.
Law and government
Florida
The current governor of Arkansas is Mike Huckabee, a Republican. [http://www.mikehuckabee.com Mike Huckabee], who had been elected lieutenant governor in a 1993 special election, ascended to the governor's office in 1996 when Governor Jim Guy Tucker, a Democrat, was convicted as part of the Whitewater Scandal. This led to a state "Constitutional crisis" when Tucker refused to give up the governor's office for a short period of time, because the Arkansas Constitution does not allow a convicted felon to be governor of the state. Tucker had been lieutenant governor under Bill Clinton and had become governor as a result of Clinton's election to the presidency.
Arkansas's two U.S. Senators are Democrats Blanche Lincoln and Mark Pryor. The state has four seats in House of Representatives. Three seats are held by Democrats—Marion Berry (District 1), Vic Snyder (District 2), and Mike Ross (District 4). One seat is held by the state's lone Republican Congressman, John Boozman (District 3). The Democratic Party holds super-majority status in the Arkansas General Assembly. Republicans actually lost seats in the State House in 2004. A majority of local and statewide offices are also held by Democrats. This arrangement is extremely rare in the modern South, where a majority of statewide offices are held by Republicans.
Most Republican strength lies mainly in northwest Arkansas in the area around Fort Smith, while the rest of the state is strongly Democratic. Arkansas has only elected one Republican to the United States Senate since Reconstruction. However, the Arkansas General Assembly has not been controlled by the Republican Party since Reconstruction, and is the fourth most Democratic Legislature in the country, after Massachusetts, Hawaii, and Connecticut.
In Arkansas, the lieutenant governor is elected separately from the governor and thus can be from a different political party.
Each office's term is four years long. Office holders are term-limited to two full terms plus any partial terms prior to the first full term.
Some of Arkansas' counties have two county seats, as opposed to the usual one seat. The arrangement dates back to when travel was extremely difficult in the states. The seats are usually on opposite sides of the county. Though travel is no longer the difficulty it once was, there are few efforts to eliminate the two seat arrangement where it exists, since the county seat is a source of pride (and jobs) to the city involved.
Section 105 of Chapter 4 of Title 1 of the Arkansas code[http://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/NXT/gateway.dll/ARCode/title00000.htm/chapter00063.htm/section00068.htm?f=templates$fn=document-frame.htm$3.0#JD_1-4-105] determines the official, codified pronunciation of Arkansas: "It should be pronounced in three (3) syllables, with the final "s" silent, the "a" in each syllable with the Italian sound, and the accent on the first and last syllables." The same section states that the variation are-KAN-sas "is an innovation to be discouraged." It is believed that Arkansas is the only U.S. State with such a law on the books.
See: List of Arkansas Governors
State symbols
The following state symbols are officially recognized by the state law.
- State American Folk Dance: Square Dance
- State Anthem: Arkansas by Eva Ware Barnett
- State Beverage: Milk
- State Bird: Mockingbird
- State Flower: Apple Blossom
- State Folk Dance: Square Dance
- State Fruit: South Arkansas Vine Ripe Pink Tomato
- State Gem: Diamond
- State Historical Song: The Arkansas Traveler (folk song)
- State Historic Cooking Vessel: Dutch oven
- State Insect: Honeybee
- State Mammal: White-tailed Deer
- State Mineral: Quartz Crystal
- State Motto: Regnat Populus (The People Rule)
- State Musical Instrument: the Fiddle
- State Rock: Bauxite
- State Soil: Stuttgart Soil Series
- State Songs: "Arkansas (You Run Deep in Me)" by Wayland Holyfield and "Oh, Arkansas" by Terry Rose and Gary Klass
- State Tree: Pine
- State Vegetable: South Arkansas Vine Ripe Pink Tomato
Geography
See: List of Arkansas counties, List of cities in Arkansas, List of Arkansas townships.
The capital of Arkansas is Little Rock. Arkansas is the only state in the US where diamonds are found naturally (near Murfreesboro, Arkansas).
The eastern border for most of Arkansas is the Mississippi River except in Clay and Greene counties where the St. Francis River forms the western boundary of the Missouri Bootheel. Arkansas shares its southern border with Louisiana, its northern border with Missouri, its eastern border with Tennessee and Mississippi, and its western border with Texas and Oklahoma. Arkansas is a beautiful land of mountains and valleys, thick forests and fertile plains. Northwest Arkansas is part of the Ozark Plateau including the Boston Mountains, to the south are the Ouachita Mountains and these regions are divided by the Arkansas River; the southern and eastern parts of Arkansas are called the Lowlands.
The so called Lowlands are better known as the Delta and the Grand Prairie. The land along the Mississippi river is referred to as the "Delta" of Arkansas. It gets this name from the formation of its rich alluvial soils formed from the flooding of the mighty Mississippi. The Grand Prairie is slightly away from the Mississippi river in the southeast portion of the state and consists of a more undulating landscape. Both are fertile agricultural areas and home to much of the crop agriculture in the state.
Delta
Arkansas is home to many caves, such as Blanchard Springs Caverns. Hot Springs National Park and the Buffalo National River can also be found within its borders.
- Interstate 30
- Interstate 40
- Interstate 55
- Interstate 430
- Interstate 440
- Interstate 530
- Interstate 540
- Interstate 630
Major Arkansas highways
Economy
The state's total gross state product for 2003 was $76 billion. Its Per Capita Personal Income for 2003 was $24,384, 50th in the nation. The state's agriculture outputs are poultry and eggs, soybeans, sorghum, cattle, cotton, rice, hogs, and milk. Its industrial outputs are food processing, electric equipment, fabricated metal products, machinery, paper products, bromine, and vanadium.
In recent years, automobile parts manufacturers have opened factories in eastern Arkansas to support auto plants in other states (though Arkansas does not, as of August 2005, have an auto plant itself).
Tourism is also very important to the Arkansas economy; the official state nickname "The Natural State" is prominently displayed in state tourism advertising.
Demographics
:See also: List of people from Arkansas
As of 2003, the state's population was 2,725,714 according to Census Bureau estimates.
48.8% is male, and 51.2% is female.
Racially, Arkansas is:
- 78.6% White non-Hispanic
- 15.7% Black
- 3.2% Hispanic
- 0.8% Asian
- 0.7% Native American
- 1.3% Mixed race
The five largest ancestry groups in the state are: American (15.9%), African American (15.7%), Irish (9.5%), German (9.3%), English (7.9%).
People of American ancestry have a strong presence in the northwestern Ozarks and the central part of the state. Blacks live mainly in the fertile southern and eastern parts of the state, especially along the Mississippi river. Arkansans of British and German ancestry are mostly found in the far northwestern Ozarks near the Missouri border.
As of 2000, 95.0% of Arkansas residents age 5 and older speak English at home and 3.3% speak Spanish. French is the third most spoken language at 0.3%, followed by German at 0.3% and Vietnamese at 0.1%.
Religion
Arkansas, like most other Southern states, is overwhelmingly Protestant. The religious affiliations of the people are as follows:
- Christian – 86%
- Protestant – 78%
- Baptist – 39%
- Methodist – 9%
- Pentecostal – 6%
- Church of Christ – 6%
- Assemblies of God – 3%
- Other Protestant – 15%
- Roman Catholic – 7%
- Other Christian – 1%
- Other Religions – <1%
- Non-Religious – 14%
Important cities and towns
Education and Research centers
Centers of Research
- [http://www.comanchelodge.com/chickamauga-cherokee.html Arkansas Cherokee Indian Research]
- Dale Bumpers National Rice Research Center [http://www.dbnrrc.ars.usda.gov/ website]
- National Center for Toxicological Research [http://www.fda.gov/nctr/ website]
Colleges and universities
National Center for Toxicological Research
- University of Arkansas System
- University of Arkansas
- University of Arkansas - Fort Smith
- University of Arkansas at Little Rock
- University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences
- University of Arkansas at Monticello
- University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff
- Arkansas Baptist College
- Arkansas Tech University
- Central Baptist College
- Harding University
- Henderson State University
- Hendrix College
- John Brown University
- Lyon College
- Ouachita Baptist University
- Philander Smith College
- Southern Arkansas University
- University of Central Arkansas
- University of the Ozarks
- Williams Baptist College
Williams Baptist College
- Arkansas State University System
- Arkansas State University - Jonesboro
- Arkansas State University - Beebe
- Arkansas State University - Mountain Home
- Arkansas State University - Newport
- Arkansas State University - Marked Tree
- Arkansas State University - Heber Springs
- Arkansas State University - Searcy
See also
- Arkansas Literature
- Ivory-billed Woodpecker, long thought extinct, was recently re-discovered in the Big Woods of Arkansas
- South Arkansas
External links
- [http://www.state.ar.us Official State website Homepage]
- [http://www.arkansas.com/things-to-do/history-heritage/facts.asp Facts About Arkansas]
- [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/05000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
- [http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/arkansas Arkansas Newspapers]
- [http://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/data/ar_code.asp Arkansas State Code (the state statutes of Arkansas)]
-
Category:States of the United States
zh-min-nan:Arkansas
ko:아칸소 주
ms:Arkansas
ja:アーカンソー州
simple:Arkansas
CaveAlternate meanings: Cave (disambiguation)
This article is about natural caves; for artificial caves used as dwellings, such as those in north China, see yaodong.
yaodong
A cave is a natural underground void large enough for an adult human to enter. Some scientists stipulate that it must be large enough that some portion of it will not receive daylight; however, in popular usage, the term includes smaller spaces like cliff cavities, rock shelters and sea caves. Speleology is the scientific exploration and study of all aspects of caves. The act of exploring a cave for recreation is called 'caving', 'potholing', or (only in the USA) 'spelunking'.
Cave types and formation
Caves are formed by geologic processes. These may involve a combination of chemical processes, tectonic forces and atmospheric influences.
Primary caves
Some caves are formed at the same time as the surrounding rock. These are called primary caves.
geologic]
- Lava tubes are formed through volcanic activity. They are the most common primary caves. Lava flows downhill and the surface cools and solidifies. The lava now flows under this crust, until the eruption ends.
If the liquid lava inside the crust flows out, a hollow tube remains.
The most important lava tubes are found on Hawaii (Big Island). Kazumura Cave near Hilo is the longest and deepest lava tube of the world and also the eighth longest cave of the United States.
- Blister caves are also formed through volcanic activity.
Secondary caves
Secondary caves are formed inside the rock after the rock itself has formed by processes which removes material such as solution and erosion.
- Sea caves are very common at all coasts of the world, but as they are restricted to the zone where waves work on the rocks of the coast they are generally rather small.
erosion, ca. 1920]]
- Ice caves occur in and under glaciers, formed by melting. They are also influenced by the very slow flow of the ice which tends to close the caves again.
- Solutional caves may form anywhere with rock which is soluble, and are most prevalent in limestone, but can also form in other material, including chalk, dolomite, marble, loess, ice, granite, salt, lava, sandstone, and gypsum. The most common process of cave formation is karstification, which is the solution of rocks by rain water.
- Fracture caves are formed when layers of more soluble minerals such as gypsum dissolve out from between layers of less soluble rock. These rocks fracture and collapse in blocks.
- Talus caves are the openings between rocks that have fallen down into a pile, often at the bases of cliffs.
- Caverns are large caves (or large chambers in caves).
Cave formation in limestone occurs because limestone dissolves under the action of rainwater and groundwater charged with CO2 (carbonic acid) and naturally occurring organic acids. The dissolution process produces a distinctive landform known as karst and characterized by sinkholes, sinking streams, and underground drainage.
Limestone solution is an important process in cave formation and the origin of the great majority of all caves on Earth. The reasons for this abundance are the facts that limestone is so common and the slowness of the solution process. If it were faster, the lifespan of limestone caves would be much shorter and their number much lower.
sinking stream, South Wales]]
Limestone caves are often adorned with calcium carbonate formations produced through slow precipitation, including the most common and well-known stalactites and stalagmites. These secondary mineral deposits in caves are called speleothems. The world's most spectacularly decorated cave is generally regarded to be Lechuguilla Cave (New Mexico, USA).
Lechuguilla and nearby Carlsbad Caverns are now believed to be examples of another type of solutional cave. They were formed by acid rising from below, where reservoirs of oil give off sulfurous fumes, rather than by acidic water percolating from the surface.
Distribution
Caves are sparse in South America, Africa, and Antarctica, but are found widely in Europe, Asia, and North America.
The distribution of cave systems so far discovered is widely skewed toward countries where caving is popular (such as the United States, France, Italy, the UK etc.). It is likely that many more systems remain to be discovered, especially in China, which, despite containing around half the world's exposed limestone - more than 1,000,000 km2 - has hardly been explored underground.
China
Cave inhabitants
Cave inhabiting animals can be categorized as troglobites (cave limited-species), troglophiles (species which can live their entire lives in caves, but also occur in other environments), trogloxenes (species which utilize caves, but must leave the caves to complete their life cycle) and accidentals. Some authors use separate terminology for aquatic forms (i.e., stygobites, stygophiles, stygoxenes).
Of these animals, the troglobites are among the most extraordinary of organisms. Troglobitic species often show a suite of characters, termed troglomorphies, associated with their adaptation to subterranean life. Among these characters are a loss of pigment (often resulting in a pale or white coloration), loss of eyes (or at least of optical functionality), elongation of appendages, and an enhancement of other senses (such as ability to sense vibrations in water). Aquatic troglobites (or stygobites), such as the endangered Alabama cave shrimp, live in bodies of water found in the caves and are fed by detritus washed into the caves, and by the feces of bats and other cave inhabitants.
Bats, like the Gray bat and Mexican Free-tailed Bat, are trogloxenes, and are commonly found in caves, but forage outside of the caves. Some species of cave crickets are classified as trogloxenes, as they roost in caves by day and forage above ground at night.
Because of the fragile nature of the cave ecosytem, and the fact that cave regions tend to be isolated from one another, caves harbor a number of endangered species, such as, for example the Tooth cave spider, Liphistiidae Liphistius trapdoor spider and the Gray bat.
Caves are visited by many surface-loving animals, including humans. These are usually relatively short-lived incursions, due to the lack of light and sustenance.
Some tropical caves of southeast Asia are rich in [http://www.geocities.com/cavingliz/Cavefauna.html cave fauna] and some even have [http://www.geocities.com/cavingliz/Caveflora.html cave flora]
Records
Since new caves are continually being explored, the various records of cave dimensions need to be updated fairly frequently.
The system with the greatest (by some distance) total length of passage is Mammoth Cave (Kentucky, USA) at 579km in length. This record is unlikely to be surpassed in the near future as the next most extensive known cave is the Optymistychna system in Ukraine, at 214km.
As of 2005, the deepest known cave (measured from its highest entrance to its lowest point) is Voronya Cave (Abkhazia, Georgia), with a depth of 2,140m. This was the first cave to be explored to a depth of more than 2km. (The first cave to be descended below 1km was the famous Gouffre Berger in France). The Gouffre Mirolda - Lucien Bouclier cave in France (1733m) and the Lamprechtsofen Vogelschacht Weg Schacht in Austria (1632m) are the current second and third deepest caves. This particular record has changed several times in recent years.
The deepest individual pitch (vertical drop) within a cave is 603m in the Vrtoglavica cave in Slovenia, followed by Patkov Gušt (553m) in the Velebit mountain, Croatia.
The largest individual cavern ever discovered is the Sarawak Chamber, in the [http://www.forestry.sarawak.gov.my/forweb/np/np/mulu.htm Gunung Mulu National Park] (Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia), a sloping, boulder strewn chamber with an area of approximately 600m by 400m and a height of 80m.
For a list of the world's notable caves, see list of caves.
Archaeological and social importance
Throughout history, primitive peoples have made use of caves for shelter, burial, or as religious sites. Since items placed in caves are protected from the climate and scavanging animals, this means caves are an archaeological treasure house for learning about these people. Cave paintings are of particular interest. One example is the Great Cave of Niah, which contains evidence of human habitation dating back 40,000 years.
Caves are also important for geological research because they can reveal details of past climactic conditions in speleothems and sediment layers.
Caves are frequently used today as sites for recreation. Caving, for example, is the popular sport of cave exploration. For the less adventurous, a number of the world's prettier and more accessible caves have been converted into show caves, where artificial lighting, floors, and other aids allow the casual visitor to experience the cave with minimal inconvenience. Caves have also been used for BASE jumping and cave diving.
See also
- Mining
- Cavus
- Cave Research Foundation
External links
- [http://www.thingsasian.com/goto_article/article.1462.html About Gua Niah]
- [http://www.british-caving.org.uk/ British Caving Association (BCA)], UK
- [http://www.showcaves.com/english/explain/Speleology/Classification.html Classification of Caves] Very detailed list of cave types with links to further information
- [http://www.caves.org/ National Speleological Society (NSS)], US
- [http://www.pipeline.com/~caverbob/ NSS Geo2 Committee on Long and Deep Caves] A website with numerous pages on cave world records, e.g., the longest and deepest caves; compiled by Bob Gulden
- [http://ogof.net/ Ogof Ffynnon Ddu] A virtual tour of Ogof Ffynnon Ddu, the deepest cave in the UK
- [http://www.goodearthgraphics.com/virtcave.html The Virtual Cave] A site with exceptional photography by Dave Bunnell, the editor of the NSS News. Make a virtual caving trip!
- [http://www.herbert-thiess.de/Kapsia/Index.html Kapsia Cave - Exploration of a Sinkhole in Arkadia (Southern Greece)]
- [http://www.caves.org/pub/journal/ Journal of Cave and Karst Studies]
- [http://www.cavebooks.com CAVE BOOKS] Publisher and seller of books about caves.
- [http://www.geocities.com/cavingliz/MalaysianCaves.html Caves of Malaysia]
Category:Subterranea
Category:Landforms
ms:Gua
ja:洞窟
Kras:There is a separate article "Karst topography".
Karst topographyKras (Carso in Italian), also called the Classical Karst or the Kras Plateau, is a limestone borderline plateau region of southwestern Slovenia extending into northeastern Italy. It lies between the Vipava valley, the Vipavska brda, the most westerly part of Brkini hills, Gulf of Trieste and a short part of Italian state border between the Trieste Bay and the Vipava River. Its western border is an old ethnic border between Italians and Slovenes. The region is famous as the inspiration for the geological term karst topography.
The plateau rises quite steeply above the neighboring landscape, with the exception of the southeastern side, where the steepness is less prounounced. The plateau gradually descends from the southeast to the southwest. On average it lies 334 metres above sea level. Because Kras steeply descends towards the Adriatic Sea (see: Kraški rob), it is less exposed to the beneficial climatological effects of the sea. The main vegetation in the past were oaks, but now are pine forests. Forests now cover only one third of Kras.
Kras is famous for its caves. In Slovenia, they include Vilenica (the oldest tourist cave in the world), Lipica cave, Divača cave, Kačna cave and Škocjan caves (UNESCO world heritage site), while in Italy there is the Grotta Gigante (the biggest tourist cave in the world, with a special horizontal pendulum that measures the ebb and flow effect of the moon on the earth).
Most of Kras is located in Southwestern Slovenia on an area of 429 square kilometres, and has a population of about 19,000 people. Kras as a whole has exactly 100 settlements. The town of Sežana is the center of Kras on the Slovene side of the border; it is where the poet Srečko Kosovel was born. The main rural centers are the settlements of Divača, Dutovlje, and Komen. Štanjel is a picturesque nucleate settlement at the top of the northern rim of the plateau; its houses are tightly clustered around the Turn hill, giving it the appearance of a medieval city.
Natural conditions, including the bora (burja) wind, and the local way of life all shaped the elements of Kras architecture, creating simple but well-defined forms. Kras is widely known for its wine, named teran, and pršut (prosciutto). One of the main tourist centers in the area is Lipica, with horse stables (the home of the Lipizzan horse breed) as well as other tourist facilities.
See also
- Geography of Slovenia
- Geography of Italy
Category:Geography of Slovenia
Category:Plateaus
Category:Geography of Italy
Slovenia
The Republic of Slovenia (Slovenian: Republika Slovenija) is a coastal sub-Alpine country in southern Central Europe bordering Italy to the west, the Adriatic Sea to the southwest, Croatia to the south and east, Hungary to the northeast, and Austria to the north.
Slovenia was part of: Kingdom of Yugoslavia until 1945, SFR of Yugoslavia from 1945 until gaining independence in 1991. It became a member of the European Union on 1 May 2004. It is also a member of the Council of Europe, NATO, and has observer status in La Francophonie.
History
It is believed that the Slavic ancestors of the present-day Slovenians settled in the area in the 6th century. The Slavic Duchy of Carantania, the first proto-Slovenian state and the first stable Slavic state, was formed in the 7th century. In 745, Carantania lost its independence, being largely subsumed into the Frankish empire. Many Slavs converted to Christianity.
The Freising manuscripts, the earliest surviving written documents in a Slovenian dialect and the first ever Slavic dialect documents in Latin script, were written around 1000. During the 14th century, most of Slovenia's regions passed into ownership of the Habsburgs whose lands later formed the Austro-Hungarian Empire, with Slovenians inhabiting all or most of the provinces of Carniola, Gorizia and Gradisca, and parts of the provinces of Istria, Carinthia and Styria.
In 1848 a strong programme for a united Slovenia emerged as part of the "Spring of Nations" movement within Austria.
With the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in 1918, Slovenians initially formed part of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, which shortly joined the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later renamed (1929) the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Following the re-establishment of Yugoslavia at the end of World War II, Slovenia became a part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, officially declared on 29 November 1945. Present-day Slovenia was formed on 25 June 1991 upon its independence from Yugoslavia. Slovenia joined NATO on 29 March 2004 and the European Union on 1 May 2004.
See also Timeline of Slovenian history
Politics
The Slovenian head of state is the president, who is elected by popular vote every 5 years. The executive branch is headed by the prime minister and the council of ministers or cabinet, which are elected by the parliament.
The bicameral Slovenian parliament consists of the National Assembly or Državni zbor, and the Državni svet or National Council. The National Assembly has 90 seats, which are partially filled with directly elected representatives, and partially with proportionally elected representatives (two seats reserved for autochthonous Hungarian and Italian minorities). The National Council has 40 seats, and is made up of representatives of social, economic, professional and local interest groups. Parliamentary elections are held every four years, while National Council members are elected indirectly every 5 years.
Regions
Državni zbor
Historical Regions
As given by Enciklopedija Slovenije (Encyclopedia of Slovenia), traditional Slovenian regions, based on the former division of Slovenia on three crown lands (Carniola, Styria and Goriška) and their parts, are:
- Gorenjska (Upper Carniola) (denoted on the map by U.C.)
- Štajerska (Styria) (S)
- Prekmurje (Transmuraland) (T)
- Koroška (Carinthia) (C)
- Notranjska (Inner Carniola) (I.C.)
- Dolenjska (Lower Carniola) (L.C.)
- Goriška (G)
- Slovenska Istra (Slovenian Istria) (L)
The last two are usually considered together as Primorska (the Littoral Region). White Carniola (Bela krajina), otherwise part of Lower Carniola, is usually considered a separate region, as is Zasavje, which is otherwise a part of Upper and Lower Carniola and Styria.
Natural Regions
The first regionalizations of Slovenia were made by geographers Anton Melik (1935-1936) and Svetozar Ilešič (1968). The newer regionalization by Ivan Gams divides Slovenia in the following macroregions:
- the Alps (visokogorske Alpe)
- the Prealpine Hills (predalpsko hribovje)
- the Ljubljana basin (Ljubljanska kotlina)
- Submediterranean (Littoral) Slovenia (submediteranska - primorska Slovenija)
- the dinaric Karst of inner Slovenia (dinarski kras notranje Slovenije)
- Subpannonian Slovenia (subpanononska Slovenija)
According to a newer natural geographic regionalization, the country consists of four macroregions. These are the Alpine world, the Mediterranean world, the Dinaric world and the Pannonian world. Macroregions are defined according to major relief units (the Alps, the Pannonian plain, the Dinaric mountains) and climate types (continental, alpine, mediterranean). These are often quite interwoven.
Macroregions consist of multiple and very diverse mesoregions. The main factor that defines them is the relief together with the geologic composition. Mesoregions in turn consist of numerous microregions.
Administrative Regions
As of May 2005, only Statistical regions exist, and, as their name suggests, are only used for statistical purposes. There are 12 of these regions.
The Statistical regions are:
- Pomurska (1)
- Podravska (2)
- Koroška (3)
- Savinjska (4)
- Zasavska (5)
- Spodnjeposavska (6)
- Jugovzhodna Slovenija (7)
- Osrednjeslovenska (8)
- Gorenjska (9)
- Notranjsko-kraška (10)
- Goriška (11)
- Obalno-kraška (12)
The Government, however, is preparing a plan for new Administrative regions. The number of these regions is not yet defined, but is said to b |
