Home About us Products Services Contact us Bookmark
:: wikimiki.org ::
Kathmandu

Kathmandu

This article is about the city. For the furry comic book, see Katmandu (comic). Kathmandu (Nepali: काठमाडौं) is the capital city of Nepal. It is also the largest city in Nepal. It is an urban and suburban area of about 3.2 million inhabitants in the tri-city area in the Kathmandu valley in central Nepal, along the Bagmati River. The two other cities are Patan and Bhaktapur. Kathmandu is located at 27°43' North, 85°22' East (27.71667, 85.36667). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html]

History

Bhaktapur Kathmandu is said to have been founded by king Gun Kamdev in AD 723. According to legend, the area was a lake in the past, but Manjushri, a disciple of the Shakyamuni Buddha, cut open a hill to the south and allowed the water to flow out, making the region habitable. The origin of the present name is unclear, but one of the more likely theories is that it was named after Kastha-Mandap ("temple of wood" in Sanskrit), after a pagoda carved from the single tree on the order of King Lakshmi Narasingha Malla in 1596.

Present

The old city is noted for its many Buddhist and Hindu temples and palaces, most dating from the 17th century. Many of these landmarks have been damaged by earthquakes and pollution. Seven UNESCO World Heritage Sites are in this valley. Kathmandu has been popular with western tourists since the 1960s when it became a key stop on the hippie trail. It is also the subject of a popular Bob Seger song, because of the same reason. It is the most densely populated city in Nepal. Image:Kathmandu signs.jpg|Street full of signs in Kathmandu Image:Small stupa in Kathmandu.jpg|Small stupa in Kathmandu Image:Stone carving in Kathmandu.jpg|Stone carving in Kathmandu street Image:DSCI0441.JPG|View over Kathmandu Image:Hashish-shop-Kathmandu-1973.jpg|Hashish-shop 1973 (pre-prohibition)

See also


- Tribhuvan International Airport
- Kathmandu valley

External links


- [http://www.kathmandu.gov.np: Kathmandu Metropolitan City]
- [http://www.nepalnews.com.np/ktmpost.htm The Kathmandu Post]
- Category:Capitals in Asia Category:Cities and towns in Nepal ko:카트만두 ja:カトマンズ

Furry

Furry is slang often used by members within the furry fandom which may refer to:
- A character or artwork depicting anthropomorphic or zoomorphic characteristics, also known as:
  - Funny animal
  - Kemono
  - Talking animal
- A member of the furry fandom, which is a loose amalgamation of interests including:
  - Fans of artwork and stories which feature anthropomorphic animals
  - Furry lifestylers
  - Fursuiters
  - Furverts Furry is also slang used by some in the gay community to refer to hirsute men, though a more common term for this use is bear.

Comic book

A comic book is a magazine or book containing the sequential art in the form of a narrative. Comic books are often called comics for short. Although the term implies otherwise, the subject matter in comic books is not necessarily humorous, and in fact its dramatic seriousness varies widely. The term "comics" in this context does not refer to comic strips (such as Peanuts or Dilbert). In the last quarter of the 20th century, greater acceptance of the comics form among the general reading populace coincided with a greater usage of the term graphic novel, often meant to differentiate a book of comics with a spine from its stapled, pamphlet form, but the difference between the terms seems fuzzy at best as comics become more widespread in libraries, mainstream bookstores and other places. The earliest comic books were simply collections of comic strips that had originally been printed in newspapers. The commercial success of these collections led to work being created specifically for the comic-book form, which fostered specific conventions such as splash pages. Long-form comic books, generally with hardcover or trade-paper binding came to be known as graphic novels, but as noted above, the term's definition is especially fluid. Like jazz and a handful of other cultural artifacts, comic books are a rare indigenous American art form, [http://www.comicon.com/cgi-bin/ultimatebb.cgi?ubb=get_topic;f=36;t=004133] [http://www.disinfotainmenttoday.com/darenet/comicbook.htm] though prototypical examples of the form exist. American comic books have become closely associated with the superhero sub-genre. In the U.K., the term comic book is used to refer to American comic books by their readers and collectors, while the general populace would mainly consider a comic book a hardcover book collecting comics stories. The analogous term in the United Kingdom is a comic, short for comic paper or comic magazine.

The comic book in the United States

Since the invention of the comic book format in the 1930s, the United States has been the leading producer, with only the British comic (during the inter-war period through the 1970s) and Japanese manga as close competitors in terms of quantity of titles (although, Japan outweighs America currently in overall sales by a vast margin). The majority of all comic books in the U.S. are marketed at younger teenagers, though the market also produces work for general as well as more mature audiences. The history of the comic book in the United States is split into several ages or historical eras: The Platinum Age, The Golden Age, The Silver Age, The Bronze Age, and The Modern Age. The exact boundaries of these eras, the terms for which originated in fandom press, is a debatable point among comic book historians. The Golden Age is generally thought as lasting from 1938's introduction of Superman until the early 1950s, during which comic books enjoyed a surge of popularity, the archetype of the superhero was invented and defined, and many of comic books' most popular superheroes debuted. The Platinum Age refers to any material produced prior to this. While comics as an artform could arguably extend as far back as sequential cave paintings from thousands of years ago, comic books are dependent on printing, and the starting point for them in book form is generally considered to be the tabloid-sized The Funnies begun in 1929, or the more traditional sized Funnies on Parade from 1933. Both of these were simply reprints of newspaper strips. The Silver Age of Comic Books is generally considered to date from the first successful revival of the dormant superhero form — the debut of the Barry Allen Flash in Showcase #4 (Sept.-Oct. 1956) — and last through the early 1970s, during which time Marvel Comics revolutionized the medium with such naturalistic superheroes as the Fantastic Four and Spider-Man. The beginings of the Bronze and Modern ages are far more disputable. Indeed, some suggest that we are still in the Bronze Age. Starting points that have been suggested for the Bronze Age of comics are Conan #1 (Oct. 1970), Green Lantern/Green Arrow #76 (Apr. 1970) or Amazing Spider-Man #96 (May 1971) (the non-Comics Code issue). The start of the Modern Age has even more potential starting points, but is most likely the publication of Alan Moore's Watchmen in 1986. Notable events in the history of the American comic book include the psychiatrist Frederic Wertham's criticisms of the medium in his book Seduction of the Innocent, which saw the Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency investigate comic books. In response to this attention from government and the media, the U.S. comic book industry created the Comics Code Authority in 1954 and drafted the Comics Code, a move which saw the particularly targeted EC change its satirical comic book Mad from comic book to magazine format in order to circumvent the Code.

Underground comics

During the late 1960s and early 1970s, a surge of underground comics occurred. These comics were published and distributed independently of the established mainstream, and most reflected the youth counterculture and drug culture of the time. Many were notable for their uninhibited, irreverent style; their frankness in graphic sex, nudity, language and overt politics hadn't been seen in comics outside of their precursors, the pornographic and even more underground "Tijuana bibles". Underground comics were virtually never sold on newsstands but in such youth-oriented outlets as head shops and record stores, and by mail order. The underground-comics movement is often considered to have started with Zap Comix #1 (1968) by Canadian cartoonist Robert Crumb, a former Cleveland greeting-card artist living in San Francisco. Crumb later created the popular characters Fritz the Cat and Mr. Natural, and published Gilbert Shelton's The Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers.

Independent and alternative comics

The rise of comic-book specialty stores in the late 1970s created a dedicated market for "independent" or "alternative comics"; two of the first were the anthology series Star Reach, published by comic-book writer Mike Friedrich from 1974-1979, and Harvey Pekar's American Splendor, published from the 1970s through the present day. Some independent comics continued in the tradition of underground comics, though were generally less overtly graphic, and others resembled the output of mainstream publishers in format and genre but were published by smaller artist-owned ventures or by a single artists. A few (notably RAW) were experimental attempts to bring comics closer to the world of fine art. The "small press" scene continued to grow and diversify. By the 1980s, several such independent publishers as Eclipse Comics, First Comics, and Fantagraphics were releasing a wide range of styles and formats from color superhero, detective and science fiction comic books to black-and-white magazine-format stories of Latin American magical realism. A number of small publishers in the 1990s changed the format and distribution of their comics to more closely resemble non-comics publishing. The "minicomics" form, an extremely informal version of self-publishing, arose in the 1980s and became increasingly popular among artists in the 1990s, despite reaching an even more limited audience than the small press.

Decline of serial comic-book format

In the early 2000s, sales of standard monthly comic books declined while graphic novels made increasing headway at retail bookstores. Along with the shift toward graphic novels among comics publishers, traditional book publishers such as Pantheon have released several dozen graphic novels, including works originally released by comics publishers with much less publicity.

The comic of Europe

Franco-Belgian comics

Franco-Belgian comics are comics written in Belgium and France. These two countries have a long tradition in comics and comic books, where they are called BDs (from Bande Dessinée) in French. Belgian comic books originally written in Dutch are influenced by the francophone "Franco-Belgian" comics, but have a different feel. La bande dessinée is derived from the original description of the artform as "drawn strips". It is not insignificant that the French term contains no indication of subject matter, unlike the American terms "comics" and "funnies," which imply an art form not to be taken seriously. Indeed, the distinction of comics as the "ninth art" is prevalent in Francophone scholarship on the form (le neuvième art), as is the concept of comics criticism and scholarship itself. Relative to the respective size of their countries, the innumerable authors in the region publish huge numbers of comic books. In North America, the more serious, Franco-Belgian comics are often seen as equivalent to graphic novels, for various reasons, but whether they are long or short, bound or in magazine format, in Europe there is no need for a more sophisticated term, as the art's name does not itself imply something frivolous. In France, most comics are published at the behest of the author, who will work within his self-appointed time frame, so a wait from six months to two years between installments is common. Most books are first published as a hard cover oversized book, usually 48 or 64 pages, with later re-releases in soft cover.

The British comic

Originally the same size as the comic book in the United States, although lacking the glossy cover, the British comic has adopted a magazine size, with The Beano and The Dandy the last to adopt this size in the 1980s. Although generally referred to as a comic, it can also be referred to as a comic magazine, and has also been known historically as a comic paper. Although Ally Sloper's Half Holiday (1884), the first comic published in Britain, was marketed at adults, publishers quickly targeted a younger market, which has led to most publications being for children and created an association in the public's mind of comics being somewhat juvenile. Popular titles within the United Kingdom have included The Beano, The Dandy, The Eagle, 2000 AD and Viz. Underground comics and "small press" titles have also been published within the United Kingdom, notably Oz and Escape Magazine. The content of Action, another title aimed at children and launched in the mid 1970s became the subject of discussion in the House of Commons, and although this was on a smaller scale to such similar investigations in the United States, it also led to a moderation of content published within comics, although such moderatiuon was never formalised to the extent of a creation of any code, and nor was it particularly lasting. The United Kingdom has also established a healthy market in the reprinting and repackaging of material, notably material originated within the United States. The lack of reliable supplies of American comic books led to a variety of black and white reprints, including Marvel's 1950s monster comics, Fawcett's Captain Marvel, and some other characters such as Sheena, Mandrake the Magician and the Phantom. Several reprint companies were involved in repackaging American material for the British market, notably the importer and distributor Thorpe & Porter. Marvel eventually established a UK office, with DC Comics and Dark Horse Comics also opening offices for periods in the the 1990s. The repackaging of European material has been less frequent, although the Tintin and Asterix serials have been succesfully translated and repackaged in soft cover books.

The comic annual

At Christmas time publishers will repackage and commision material for comic annuals, hardback A4 books. DC Thomson also repackage The Broons and Oor Wullie strips in softcover A4 books for the festive season.

Italian comics

In Italy, comics (known as fumetti) made their debut as humouristic strips at the end of the 19th century, and later evolved in adventure stories inspired to those coming from the U.S. After World War II, however, artists like Hugo Pratt and Guido Crepax imposed Italian comics to an international audience. "Author" comics contain often strong erotic contents. Best sellers remain popular comic books Diabolik or the Bonelli line, namely Tex Willer or Dylan Dog. Mainstream comics are usually published on the monthly basis, in a black and white digest size format, with about 100-132 pages of story. Collections of classic material for the most famous character, usually with over 200 pages, are also common. Author comics are published in the french BD format, with an example being Pratt's Corto Maltese. Italian cartoonists have and receive great influences from other countries including Belgium, France, Spain and Argentina. Italy is also famous for being one of the foremost producers of Walt Disney comic stories, particularly. Donald Duck's superhero alter ego, Paperinik, known in English as Superduck, was created in Italy.

Other European comics

Although Switzerland contributes less to the body of work, it is significant that many scholars point to a Francophone Swiss, Rodolphe Töpffer, as the true father of comics. This choice is still controversial, with critics feeling that Töppfer's work is perhaps somewhat unconnected to the genesis of the artform as it is now known in the region.

The graphic novel

The term graphic novel was first coined by Richard Kyle in 1964, mainly as an attempt to distinguish the newly translated works from Europe which were then being published from what Kyle saw as the more juvenile publications common in the United States. The term was popularised when Will Eisner used it on the cover of the paeprback edition of his work A Contract with God, and Other Tenement Stories (1978). This was a more mature work than many had come to expect from the comics medium, and the critical and commercial success of A Contract with God helped to establish the term "graphic novel" in common usage.

Regional categories


- American comic book
- Argentine comics
- British comics
- Indian comics
- Manga (Japanese comics)
- Manhua (Chinese comics)
- Manhwa (Korean comics)
- European comics
  - Franco-Belgian comics - Bande Dessinée, BD
  - Italian comics - Fumetti
- Brazilian comics - Histórias em Quadrinhos, HQ

Other Forms


- Tijuana bible (aka 8-pagers)
- Underground comics
- Alternative comics
- Adult comics
- Political and religious comics

Genres

Note: As with film and literature, genres are rarely pure and often blend. Frankenstein, for example, is a science fiction/horror novel; The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr. is a Western/comedy TV series. Not all superhero comics are necessarily science fiction; Marvel Comics' Daredevil, for example, despite an initial science-fiction premise, may be more usefully classified as a crime drama.
- Action/adventure comics (of which superhero is a sub-genre)
- Adaptations of narratives in other media, often movies
- Anthromorphic/funny animal comics (see also furry)
- Autobiographical comics
- Crime comics
- Dramatic adventure comics
- Historical comics
- Horror comics
- Humor comics
- Journalistic comics
- Religious comics
- Romance comics
- Satiric comics
- Science-fiction comics
- War comics
- Western comics

Some particularly notable comic books


- 2000 AD (British)
- Acme Novelty Library (United States - Fantagraphics Books)
- Akira (Japanese)
- Asterix (French)
- Batman (United States - DC Comics)
- The Beano (British)
- The Dandy (British)
- Donald Duck (United States - Disney)
- Eightball (United States - Fantagraphics Books)
- The Fantastic Four (United States - Marvel Comics)
- The Incredible Hulk (United States - Marvel Comics)
- Lone Wolf and Cub (Japanese)
- Lucky Luke (Belgium - Dupuis and Dargaud)
- Monica's Gang (Turma da Mônica) (Brazilian)
- Mortadelo y Filemón (Spain)
- Mickey Mouse (United States-Disney)
- Raw (United States - Raw Books)
- The Smurfs (Belgium - Dupuis)
- The Amazing Spider-Man (United States - Marvel Comics)
- Sandman (United States - DC Vertigo Comics, 1988 World Fantasy Award (unique win for a comic-book series)
- Spike and Suzy (Belgian Flemish, originally called Suske en Wiske)
- Superman (United States - DC Comics)
- Tintin (Belgian - Casterman)
- Viz (British)
- Wonder Woman (United States - DC Comics)
- X-Men (United States - Marvel Comics)
- Zap Comix (United States-underground comix)

See also

Comics - the sequential art form in general


- Comic strip
- Graphic novel
- Webcomic
  - Sprite comic
- Storyboard
- Cartoon
  - Political cartoon

Comic book awards


- Eisner Awards
- Harvey Awards
- Ignatz Awards
- Kirby Awards
- Prix de la critique
- Angoulême International Comics Festival Prizes (aka Alph'arts) and the Grand Prix de la ville d'Angoulême
- Tezuka Awards
- Comics Buyer's Guide Fan Awards

Miscellaneous


- Cartoonist
- Comic book creator
- Comic book collecting
- Comic-Con International

Lists


- List of comic creators
- List of comic books
- List of comic book publishing companies
- List of comic and cartoon character pairs
- List of comic strips
- List of cartoonists
- List of comic and cartoon characters named after people
- Comic books in dialects

References

Inge, Thomas M., "Comics as culture" Journal of Popular Culture 12:631, 1979 (not online)

External links


- [http://www.cbgxtra.com/Default.aspx?tabid=695 Database of Comic Book Sales Figures]
- [http://www.heritagecomics.com/common/worth.php How To Figure Out How Much Your Comics Are Worth]
- [http://www.comicbookdb.com/ ComicBookDB.com]
- [http://www.comiccovers.com/ ComicCovers.com]
- [http://www.cbgxtra.com Comics Buyer's Guide]
- [http://www.comics-db.com/ The Big Comic Book Database]
- [http://www.comicbookgalaxy.com/ Comic Book Galaxy]
- [http://www.cbr.cc/ Comic Book Resources]
- [http://www.comics.org/ The Grand Comics Database]
- [http://www.crimeboss.com/history03-1.html The Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency]
- [http://www.gweeb.com/ Bronze Age 1970s Comic Book Cover Showcase]
- [http://www.toonopedia.com/index.htm Don Markstein's Toonopedia]
- [http://www.knightmare6.com/faq/ Fan Site: Comic Book FAQ]
- [http://www.boldcomicsstudio.com/main/ Bold Comic Studios - A site for the independant comic creator]
- [http://www.nostalgiazone.com/doc/zine/ Comics Fan Zine: articles on comics in pop culture] Nostalgia Zine
- [http://ichibancomics.blogspot.com First Edition Comic Reviews at Ichiban Comics] ja:漫画
- Category:Comics Category:MagazinesCategory:Entertainment

Nepalese language

Nepali (Khaskura) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in Nepal, Bhutan, and some parts of India and Burma. It is the official language of Nepal. Roughly half the population of Nepal speaks Nepalese as a mother tongue, and many other Nepalese speak it as a second language. Nepali goes by various names. English speakers generally call it Nepali or Nepalese (i.e. the language of Nepal). It is also called Gorkhali or Gurkhali, "the language of the Gurkhas, "and Parbatiya, "the language of the mountains." Khaskura is the oldest term, literally speech of the Khas who were rice-growing Indo-Aryan settlers in the Karnali-Bheri basin of far western Nepal since prehistoric or early historic times. Khaskura exists in opposition to Khamkura, a group of Tibeto-Burman dialects spoken by Kham peoples in highlands separating the Kharnali-Bheri basin from the Gandaki basin in central Nepal. Then perhaps 500 years ago, Khas peoples migrated eastward, bypassing the inhospitable Kham highlands to settle in the lower valleys of the Gandaki basin suited to rice cultivation. One notable extended family settled in Gorkha, a petty principality about halfway between Pokhara and Kathmandu. Then in the late 1800s a scion named Prithvi Narayan raised an army of Gurungs, Magars and possibly other hill tribesmen and set out to conquer and consolidate dozens of petty principalities in the himalayan foothills. Since Gorkha had replaced the original Khas homeland as the center of political and military initiative, Khaskura was redubbed Gorkhali, i.e. language of the Gorkhas. Prithvi Narayan's especially notable military achievement was conquest of the urbanized Kathmandu Valley, on the eastern rim of the Gandaki basin. This region was also called Nepal at the time. Kathmandu became Prithvi Narayan's new capital, then he and his heirs extended their domain east into the Kosi basin, north to the Tibetan Plateau, south into the plains of northern India, and west of the Karnali/Bheri basin. Expansion, particularly to the north, west and south brought the growing state into conflict with British and Chinese territorial ambitions. This led to wars that trimmed it back to roughly Nepal's present borders or less, however both great powers understood the value of a buffer state and did not attempt to reduce the new country further. Since the Kathmandu Valley or Nepal had become the new center of political initiative, this word gradually came to refer to the entire realm and not just the Kathmandu Valley. And so Gorkhali, language of Gorkha, was again redubbed Nepali. Nepali is the easternmost of the Pahari languages, a group of related languages spoken across the lower elevations of the Himalaya range, from eastern Nepal through the Indian states of Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh. Nepali developed in close proximity to a number of Tibeto-Burman languages, most notably Newari, and shows Tibeto-Burman influences. Nepali is closely related to Hindi but is more conservative, borrowing fewer words from Persian and English and using more Sanskritic derivations. Today, Nepali is commonly written in the Devanagari script. Bhujimol is an older script native to Nepal. Nepali developed a small literature during the second half of the nineteenth century, which included the by (1833), Birsikka, an anonymous collection of folk-tales, and a Ramayana by Bhanubhakta. There were also several translations of Sanskrit works, and a version of the Bible. See also: Lhotshampa Examples of phrases in Nepali include:
- namaste. नमस्ते -- all-purpose Hindu greeting is often translated as "I salute the god within you". (Namaste is also used as a salutation between New Agers) Its literal Sanskrit meaning is "your homage" and in common usage simply means "hello" or "goodbye."
- mero naam Alok ho.मेरो नाम आलोक हो -- my name Alok is -- My name is Alok.
- timi sanchai chau?--How are you?
- khaanaa khaane Thaaun kahaa chha? खाना खाने ठाउँ कहाँ छ? -- food eating place where is - Where is a place to eat?
- kaaThmaandaun jaane baaTo dherai laamo chha. काठमाडौँ जाने बाटो धेरै लामो छ -- Kathmandu going road very long is --The road to Kathmandu is very long.
- nepaalmaa baneko नेपालमा बनेको -- Nepal-in made -- Made in Nepal.
- ma nepaali hoo(n) म नेपाली हूँ -- I Nepali am -- I am Nepali.
- pugyo पुग्यो —[it] arrived/sufficed — That is enough.

See also


- Languages of India
- List of national languages of India
- List of Indian languages by total speakers

External links

- [http://www.balendu.com Download Nepali Word Processor: Madhyam] developed by Balendu Sharma Dadhich Category:Indo-Aryan languages Category:Languages of Bhutan Category:Languages of India Category:Languages of Nepal ja:ネパール語 ko:네팔어 th:ภาษาเนปาลี

Kathmandu valley

The Kathmandu valley, located in the Kingdom of Nepal, lies at the crossroads of ancient civilizations of Asia, and has at least 130 important monuments, including several places of pilgrimage for the Hindus as well as the Buddhists. The cities of Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur, located in this valley, present a high style of Nepalese art and architecture. Kathmandu valley was accorded the status of a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in the year 1979.

Places

Important monuments of Kathmandu valley include:

- Kathmandu Durbar Square
- Patan Durbar Square
- Bhaktapur Durbar Square
- Changu Narayan
- Syambhunath Stupa
- Bouddhanath Stupa
- Pashupatinath

See also


- Culture of Nepal

External link


- [http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=121 UNESCO - Kathmandu valley] Category:World Heritage Sites in Nepal ja:カトマンズの渓谷 ko:카트만두 계곡

Patan

Patan may refer to:
- India
  - Patan, Gujarat
  - Patan District, Gujarat
  - Patan, Rajasthan
  - kingdom of Patan, Rajputana
- Nepal
  - Patan, Nepal

723

Events
- Saint Boniface fells Thor's Oak near Fritzlar, marking the decisive event in the Christianization of the northern Germanic tribes
- The world's first mechanical clock is allegedly built in China. See celestial globe. Births Deaths Category:723 ko:723년

Manjushri

Mañjuśrī (Ch: 文殊 Wenshu or 文殊師利 Wenshushili; Jp: Monju; Tib: Jampelyang (Wylie "'jam dpal dbyangs")), also written Manjushri, is the bodhisattva of keen awareness in Buddhism. A disciple of the historical Buddha Shakyamuni, he represents wisdom, intelligence and realisation, and is one of the most popular Bodhisattvas following Avalokitesvara (Ch: Guan Yin). Together with Shakyamuni and fellow disciple Samantabhadra he forms the Shakyamuni trinity (Jp: Sanzon Shaka). Manjusri is one of the Eight Wisdom Bodhisattvas and one of the Japanese Thirteen Buddhas. In Tibetan Buddhism he sometimes is depicted in a trinity with Avalokiteshvara and Vajrapani. Manjusri is mentioned in many Mahayana sutras, particularly the Prajnaparamita Sutras. The Lotus Sutra assigns him a paradise called Vimala, which according to the Avatamsaka Sutra is located in the east. His consort is Saraswati. He is also sometimes called Manjughosha.

Manjusri Mantra

Chanting the Manjusri Mantra "Om Ah Ra Pa Tsa Na Dhih" is believed to enhance wisdom and improve one's skills in debating, memory, writing, explaining etc. "Dhih" is the seed syllable of the mantra and is chanted with greater emphasis.

Iconography

A male Bodhisattva, he is depicted wielding flaming sword in his left hand representing his realisation of wisdom which cuts through ignorance and wrong views. The scripture held in his right hand is the Prajnaparamita, representing his attainment of ultimate realisation and Enlightenment. Variations upon his traditional form as Manjusri include Guhya-Manjusri, Guhya-Manjuvajra, and Manjuswari, most of which are Tantric forms associated with Tibetan Buddhism. The two former appearances are generally accompanied by a shakti deity embracing the main figure, symbolising union of from and spirit, matter and energy, and so forth.

Manchu

According to legend, Jurchen, leader and founder of the Qing Dynasty Nurhaci, believed himself to be a reincarnation of Manjusri. He thus banned the name "Jurchen" and renamed his race the Manchus.

External links


- [http://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/bodhisattva The Bodhisattva Ideal - Buddhism and the Aesthetics of Selflessness]
category:Bodhisattvas Category:Ishtadevatas Category:Mahayana Buddhism ja:文殊菩薩

Shakyamuni

, northern Pakistan, 1st century CE, Musée Guimet.]] ::Siddhartha redirects here. For other meanings, see Siddhartha (disambiguation). Gautama Buddha was a spiritual teacher believed to have lived between approximately 563 BCE and 483 BCE on the Indian subcontinent, in the Gangetic Plains area of modern Nepal and northern India. Born as Siddhartha Gautama (Sanskrit: "descendant of Gautama whose aims are achieved / who achieves aims effectively") he became "the Buddha" after embarking on a quest for spiritual meaning. He is universally recognised by Buddhists as the Supreme Buddha (literally Enlightened One or Awakened One) of our age. He is also commonly known as Shakyamuni or Śakyamuni ("sage of the Shakya clan") and as the Tathagata ("thus-come-one"). Gautama is the key figure in Buddhism, and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules were summarized after his death and memorized by the sangha. Passed down by oral tradition, the Tripitaka was committed to writing about four hundred years later.

Buddha's life

Few of the details of the Buddha's life can be independently verified, and it is difficult to determine what is history and what is myth. Therefore this article will describe the life of Siddhartha Gautama as told in the earliest available Buddhist texts.

Conception and birth

Buddhist texts, 2-3rd century CE.]] Siddhartha Gautama was born in Kapilavastu (a town situated in Lumbini, what is now one of the 14 zones in Nepal) under the full moon of the sixth lunar month, in the spring. His father was Suddhodana, a chief among the Kshatriya, a warrior tribe. His mother was Queen Maya, one of Suddhodana's wives. The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Buddhist countries as Vesak. Gautama was born a prince, destined to a life of luxury. prince According to legend, before his birth, Gautama had visited his mother during a vision, taking the form of a white elephant. During the birth celebrations, a seer announced that this baby would either become a great king or a great holy man. His father, wishing for Gautama to be a great king, shielded his son from religious teachings or knowledge of human suffering.

Marriage

When the young was still a baby, an ascetic named Kaladevala went into the heaven of the 33 Gods of Veda, and predicts the young prince will become the Buddha. As the boy reached the age of 16, his father arranged his marriage to Yashodhara, a cousin of the same age. In time, she gave birth to a son, Rahula. Although his father ensured that Gautama was provided with everything he could want or need, Gautama was constantly troubled and internally dissatisfied.

The Great Departure

Rahula Inspired, Gautama determined to leave his home, his possessions and his family at age 29. He chose to become a monk. Abandoning his inheritance, he dedicated his life to learning how to overcome suffering. He pursued the path of Yogic meditation with two Brahmin hermits, and although he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness, he was not satisfied with this path. Brahmin.]] Gautama then chose the robes of a mendicant monk and headed to north-east India. He began training in the ascetic life and practicing vigorous techniques of physical and mental austerity. Gautama proved adept at these practices, and was able to surpass his teachers. However, he found no answer to his questions. Leaving behind his teachers, he and a small group of companions set out to take their austerities even further. Gautama attempted to find enlightenment through complete deprivation of worldly goods, including food, and became a complete ascetic. After nearly starving himself to death (some sources claim that he nearly drowned), Gautama began to reconsider his path. Then he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing, and he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state which was blissful and refreshing.

Enlightenment

After discarding asceticism and concentrating on meditation, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. He accepted a little buttermilk from a passing goatherd, Sumedha. Then, sitting under a pipal tree, which is now known as the Bodhi tree, he vowed never to arise until he had found the Truth. At the age of 35, he attained Enlightenment; by some traditions, this occurred in approximately May, and, by others, December. Gautama was from then on known as "The Perfectly Self-Awakened One", the Sammasambuddha. He stated that he had realized complete Awakening and insight into the nature and cause of human suffering, along with steps necessary to eliminate it. These truths were then catergorised into the Four Noble Truths, and the state of supreme liberation—possible for any being—was called Nibbana. According to one of the stories in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1), a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons, immediately after his Enlightenment, the Buddha was wondering whether or not he should teach the Dhamma. He was concerned that, as human beings were overpowered by greed, hatred and delusion, they would not be able to see the true dhamma which was subtle, deep and hard to understand. However, a spirit, Brahma Sahampati, interceded and asked that he teach the dhamma to the world, as "there will be those who will understand the Dhamma". With his great compassion, the Buddha agreed to become a teacher. Brahma Sahampati] At the Deer Park near Benares in northern India he set in motion the Wheel of Dhamma by delivering his first sermon to the group of five companions with whom he had previously sought enlightenment. They, together with the Buddha, formed the first Sangha, the company of Buddhist monks. The Buddha emphasized that he was not a god, he was simply enlightened. He stated that there is no intermediary between mankind and the divine; distant gods are subjected to karma themselves in decaying heavens; and the Buddha is solely a guide and teacher for the sentient beings who must tread the path of Nibbana themselves to attain spiritual awakening and see truth and reality as it is. The Buddhist system of insight, thought, and meditation practice was not revealed divinely, but by the understanding of the true nature of the mind, which could be discovered by anybody. For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha traveled in the Gangetic Plain of central India, teaching his doctrine and discipline to an extremely diverse range of people—from nobles to street outcaste sweepers, including many adherents of rival philosophies and religions. The Buddha founded the community of Buddhist monks and that of nuns (the Sangha) to continue the dispensation after his Parinibbana or complete Nibbana, and made thousands of converts. His religion was open to all races and classes and had no caste structure. On the other hand, Buddhist texts record that he was reluctant to ordain women as nuns: he eventually accepted them on the grounds that their capacity for enlightenment was equal to that of men, but he gave them certain additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.

The Great Passing

caste caste At the age of eighty, the Buddha ate his last meal, which, according to different translations, was either a mushroom delicacy or pork, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named Cunda. Falling violently ill, the Buddha realized that his end was approaching fast. He told his attendant Ananda to prepare a bed between two Sal trees at Kushinagar, and then finally passed away. The Buddha's final words were, "All composite things pass away. Strive for your own salvation with diligence." The Buddha's body was cremated and the relics were placed in monuments or stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present.

Personality and character

stupa.]] The Buddha as presented in the Buddhist scriptures is notable for such characteristics as:
- A comprehensive education and training in those fields appropriate to a warrior aristocrat, such as martial arts, agricultural management, and literature, and also a deep understanding of the religious and philosophical ideas of his culture.
- Athletic and fit throughout his life, competent in martial arts such as chariot combat, wrestling, and archery, and later easily hiking miles each day and camping in the wilderness. (Images of a fat "Jolly Buddha" or Laughing Buddha are actually depictions of either Maitreya, The future Buddha, or a 10th century Chinese monk, sometimes called Hotei, Hoti, or Milefo.)
- A superb teacher, with a fine grasp of the appropriate metaphors, and tailoring his teachings to the audience at hand.
- Fearless and unworried at all times, whether dealing with religious debators, royalty, or murderous outlaws. He was never past exasperation when monks of his order misrepresented his teachings.
- Temperate in all bodily appetites. He lived a completely celibate life from age 29 until his death. He was indifferent to hunger and environmental conditions.

Physical characteristics

metaphors.]] Buddha is perhaps one of the few sages for whom we have mention of his rather impressive physical characteristics. He was at least six feet tall and had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of the Kings and was asked to join his army as a general. Although the Buddha was not represented in human form until around the 1st century CE (see Buddhist art), his physical characteristics are described in one of the central texts of the traditional Pali canon, the Digha Nikaya. They help define the global aspect of the historical Buddha, his physical appearance is described by Buddha's wife to his son Rahula upon Buddha's return in the scripture of the "Lion of Men": 3. Like the full moon is His face; He is dear to Gods and men; He is like an elephant amongst men; His gait is graceful as that of an elephant of noble breed. That, indeed, is your father, lion of men. 4. He is of Aryan (aristocratic nobility) lineage, sprung from the warrior caste; His feet have been honoured by Gods and men; His mind is well established in morality and concentration. That, indeed, is your father, lion of men. 5. Long and prominent is His well-formed nose, His eye-lashes are like those of a heifer; His eyes are extremely blue ; like a rainbow are His deep blue eyebrows. (The word used is "adhi nila", meaning "very blue", nila is used for the word blue sapphire.) That, indeed, is your father, lion of men. 6. Round and smooth is His well-formed neck; His jaw is like that of a lion; His body is like that of king of beast; His beautiful skin is of bright golden colour. That, indeed is your father, lion of men. Interpretations may vary, and the reliability of the Sutras may be questioned. The description above is indicative of a typically Indo-Aryan body type. This can also be related to the tradition describing the historic Buddha as a member of the Indian Kshatriya warrior caste.

Teachings

Kshatriya]] The teachings of the Buddha are covered in the articles on Buddhism and Buddhist philosophy. Many Buddhist sects disagree as to what the Buddha actually taught. There seems to be major agreement on these points:
- The Four Noble Truths: that suffering is an inherent part of existence; that suffering is caused by craving; that craving can be ceased; and that following the Eightfold Path will lead to the cessation of craving (and suffering).
- The Eightfold Path: proper understanding, proper thought, proper speech, proper action, proper livelihood, proper effort, proper mindfulness, and proper concentration.
- The law of dependent causation: that events are not predestined, nor are they random, but that events are caused by the actions that preceded them.
- Rejection of the infallibility of accepted scripture: teachings should not be accepted unless they are borne out by our experiences.
- Anicca (pronouce as "anatesa"): That all things are impermanent.
- Anatta: That the perception of a constant "self" is an illusion.

The Buddha in other religions

Hinduism

It is said in Srimad-Bhagavatam, an important Purana, that the Buddha is the ninth Lila avatar of Lord Vishnu, and that he took form as Siddhartha Gautama to guide the people of India away from ritual animal sacrifice, which was prevalent at the time. To this end he advocated Ahimsa, or non-violence toward sentient beings, a principle first found in the Upanishads. Buddhists in general do not consider the Buddha to be God or an avatar of any god, and view such notions as Hinduism's (largely successful) attempt to "absorb" Buddhism. The general decline of Buddhism in India has been attributed to this "absorption" not only of the Buddha as a religious figure but of development in parallel Vedanta philosophy which began challenging Buddhism's logical and philosophically strong image.

Islam

Some Muslims believe that Siddharta Gautama is the same person who is referred to in the Koran as Dhul-Kifl, and that he was therefore a prophet of Islam. The meaning of Dhul-Kifl is unclear, but, according to this view, it means "the man from Kifl", where Kifl is the Arabic pronunciation of Kapilavastu, where the Buddha spent thirty years of his life. More common views, however, hold that Dhul-Kifl was a different person and not a prophet at all, or that he was the prophet called Ezekiel in the Bible.

Christianity

A theory surrounds Sts. Barlaam and Josaphat and that it is a retelling of the story of Buddha's conversion from the worldly life of a prince to the life of an ascetic. The legend of "Barlaam and Josaphat" was written down by St. John of Damascus and later enjoyed fame in its telling. Barlaam and Josaphat found their way into the Roman Martyrology (27 November), and into the Greek calendar (26 August). If Josophat was not a historical figure, Buddha would be canonized in the Roman Catholic church.

External links


- [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/buddha.html A sketch of the Buddha's Life]
- [http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/buddhist.htm Critical Resources: Buddha & Buddhism]
- [http://www.onelittleangel.com/wisdom/quotes/buddha_sakyamuni.asp Pictures and selected quotes]
- [http://www.azibaza.com/lecture/lectures_emaciated.htm The Emaciated Gandharan Buddha Images: Asceticism, Health, and the Body] Buddha Buddha Buddha Buddha Buddha Buddha Buddha Buddha ja:釈迦 ko:석가모니 ms:Gautama Buddha simple:Gautama Buddha



Hindu

:This article is about the followers of Hinduism; for other meanings of the word, see Hindu (disambiguation). This article discusses the Hindu people as adherents of Hinduism. For more information on the people of India, visit the Demographics of India. A Hindu is an adherent of Hinduism, the predominant religious, philosophical and cultural systems of Bharat (India) and Nepal. A popular name for India is Hindustan, or Land of the Hindus. While almost all Indians were known as Hindus to the outside world till the 20th century, this usage has become increasingly controversial in view of the religious diversity of the India and the subcontinent. There are close to 950 million Hindus living in the Indian subcontinent, where Hinduism was born. The Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal is the world's only Hindu nation. Although India has the largest population, it is a secular republic. There are a large number of Hindu communities in South East Asia, North America, the West Indies, Western Europe, the Middle East, East Africa and South Africa, mostly descendants of people from India. Many distinguished and native communities of Hindus exist in South East Asia, especially the island of Bali, Indonesia, and in parts of the West Indies.

Origins of the word Hindu

The origin of the word Hindu is still disagreed upon by historians and linguists. It is generally accepted as having originally been a Persian word for someone who lives around or beyond the river Indus, which is called Sindhu in Sanskrit, and meant any inhabitant of the Indian subcontinent, before the Partition of India. The term Hindu (Indu or Intu in China) is still used in some languages to denote an Indian. The Greek term "India" was originally pronounced Hindia, in classical Greek, there was no character for "H". In Persian and Arabic, the term "Hind" denotes the Indian subcontinent. Until about 19th century, the term Hindu implied a culture and ethnicity and not a religion. When the British government started periodic census and established a legal system, need arose to define Hinduism as a clearly-defined religion, along the lines of Christianity or Islam. Some scholars like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, defined it as a religion based on the Vedas, using the analogy of Bible being the basis of Christianity and Koran being the Muslim scripture. That even an atheist may be called a good Hindu is an example of the fact that Hinduism is far beyond a simple religious system, but actually an extremely diverse and complicated river of evolving philosophies and ancient traditions.

Who is a Hindu?

Prior to the arrival of Muslims from Arabia and European colonists, there was no distinct definition of religion in India. Reform movements like the Samanas were not far from the Jain and Buddhist orders, and such groups provided the wheels of philosophical evolution and cultural change. While strict social ordering existed in the Brahmanical system, it was never necessary for anyone to worship a particular form of God, perform a particular set of rituals, speak a particular language, or read only one book. Without doing any of these, a person was a common native, citizen of the land, a Hindu. Vegetarianism arose as a reform movement, and was never imposed on all people, which would have divided them. The colonial British government introduced the census as is today, and for legal purposes set worded definitions and distinctions between populations living interwoven for thousands of years. This practice, once established, was exploited for political power by various communities, with distinct religions getting special privileges and recognitions as opposed to members of a sect, reform movement or of the larger mass of people. These bookish definitions fail to alter, however, centuries-old practices and relationships between communities, which though not free of divisive conflicts, are certainly not victims of any schisms. Many Hindus identify the Supreme Being as the Lord Vishnu and are known as Vaishnavas; many others believe the Supreme Being is the Lord Siva and are known as Saivites; while some believe in the female Principle Shakti as supreme, and are called Shaktists while in other branches of Vaishnavism and Shaivism, Shakti is God's Power personified. The fourth major group, the Smarta, call the Supreme One Brahman, which manifests into personal forms of God, such as Vishnu or Siva. However, no barrier or distinction or rivalry of any nature exists between any of these. Each naturally respects all gods, only choosing to see the Supreme in one particular form. Hinduism, especially its history and heritage are vital as a strong, defining element of Indian Nationalism, and the political identity and expression of India's Hindus.

Hallmarks of Hindu Society

Ethnic and Cultural Fabric

Hinduism has one of the most ethnically diverse body of adherents in the world. Hinduism, its religious doctrines, traditions and observances are very typical and inextricably linked to the culture and demographics of India. The ancient religion finds its roots amongst the Indo-Aryan peoples who migrated to the subcontinent from Central Asia in ancient times, and the peoples of the vast Indus Valley Civilization, the oldest known human civilization in the Indian subcontinent. Large tribes and communities of indigenous origins, and the Dravidian communities are also closely linked to the earliest synthesis and formation of Hindu civilization. Peoples of Mongoloid roots living in the states of north eastern India and Nepal were also a part of the earliest Hindu civilization. Immigration and settlement of peoples from Central Asia and peoples of Indo-Greek heritage have brought their own influence on Hindu society. For example, the staunchest defenders of Hindu India against Muslim invaders were the Rajputs of modern Rajasthan, who were immigrants from Central Asia. The Mehr community of Rajasthan and Gujarat is also proud of its Central Asian roots, but more fiercely proud of its Hindu traditions and faith. The scriptures and earliest practices are identified as of a particularly Indo-Aryan nature, but the roots of Hinduism in southern India, and amongst tribal and indigenous communities is just as ancient and fundamentally contributive to the foundations of the religious and philosophical system. Today, almost all Hindus belong to the ethnic communities living in the 28 states and 7 union territories of India, and the provinces of Nepal, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. Ancient Hindu kingdoms arose and spread the religion and traditions across South East Asia, particularly Thailand, Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia, Cambodia and Vietnam. A form of Hinduism particularly different from Indian roots and traditions is practised in Bali, Indonesia, where Hindus form 90% of the population. Indian migrants have taken Hinduism and Hindu culture to South Africa, Fiji, Mauritius and other countries in and around the Indian Ocean, and in the nations of the West Indies and the Caribbean. Many Europeans, Africans and Americans have adopted spiritual and religious exercises inspired by Hinduism in North America, Western Europe and Southern Africa. The ISKCON is a growing congregation of the devotees of Lord Krishna, mainly in the United States but spreading across the world, embracing people and working in countries completely unassociated with India.

Linguistics of Hinduism

Although the Vedas, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana have been written in the ancient language of Sanskrit. Hinduism has several important religious and philosophical works written in other ancient languages like Tamil, Pali, Prakrit, and modern languages like Hindi, Punjabi, Malayalam, Telegu, Gujarati, Marathi and Bengali. The approximately 950 million Hindus who live in the Indian subcontinent are the people who speak the 18 official languages of India, Tamil in Sri Lanka, Gurkhali in Nepal, some 5-10 more unofficial languages and over 1,000 dialects. Most of modern discourses, essays and analysis of Hindu religion and society, and re-telling of its greatest epics, are published in the English language. Millions of Hindus are known to be well-versed with that language.

Dietary Habits and Doctrines

Hindus are often stereotyped as a vegetarian people. In fact, Hindus have only one specific rule - against the consumption of beef. Even in this case there are exceptions. Most Hindus in northern India eat all meats save beef. Buffalo Milk and milk products are extremely important to those living in India. Hindus living on the coasts of western and eastern India eat fish and shellfish. The cuisine of Hindus is enriched by regional and ethnic differentiations, and there is almost no universal rule. Pork is accepted in South India, while Malayalee Hindus eat beef. Hindus in the north east of India and some distinguished communities have been known to eat these meats as a part of the staple diet. Many Hindu communities have different ideological doctrines that inspire very specific dietary allowances and prohibitions. Vegetarianism has gained immense popular strength since medieval times, arising from the principle of ahimsa, or total non-violence to all forms of life. Inspired by a stricter, regimental adherence to vegetarianism in Jainism and Buddhism, Hindus across the country, but especially in the Indian state of Gujarat and many states in South India are puritanical in their adherence.

Ceremonies, Observances and Pilgrimage

Young male members of the Brahmin and Kshatriya caste may perform a coming of age ceremony, the Upanayana commonly known as Janoy, or the thread ceremony. The Janoy is many strings rolled together to resemble an umblical cord to symbolise the New birth as a student and from this day on he belongs to the Guru, who takes the place of mother and father. The Upanayana is akin to being born again. This ceremony was performed before the boy went up to the Guru's ashram (school). In a ceremony administered by a priest, a young boy shaves his hair off (or just some portions, as deemed appropriate) and a Janoy is Hung from around his shoulder to his waist line. The ceremony varies from region to community, and includes reading from the Vedas and special mantras and slokhas. The boy also swears to obey his Guru and also takes oaths to confirm that he will not take intoxicants, speak the Truth, serve the Guru,and to stay celibate. Rites of initiation exist for the other castes, but differ from region to region. Many North Indian Hindu women fast on Karvachauth, or the day before the full moon, and on other auspicious months to pray for the long life, safe being and prosperity of their husbands. Many religious Hindus make piligrimages to the holy Tirthas, especially Lord Siva's lingam in Amarnath and Anantnag, the holy cities of Haridwar, Kashi, Allahabad, Mathura and Ayodhya. The Kumbha Mela, or the gathering of between 10 to 20 million Hindus upon the banks of the holy rivers, as periodically ordained in different parts of India by Hinduism's priestly leadership. The most famous is the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna in Uttar Pradesh. It is considered the largest gathering of human beings in the world. Hundreds of millions of people annually visit the rivers and temples near them, and wash and bathe themselves to purify their sins, make sacrifices and win pivous credits.

Religion for the Common Hindu

To all Hindus, the Vedas are not the source of religious guidance. The Vedas and the Upanishads live on in the Hindu ethos as the inspiration of the ancient traditions, social practices and religious institutions of Hindu peoples. They were the basis of most commonly accepted social and religious practices in Hindu, and indeed Indian society. The Puranas are a wide collection of religious treatises, biographies and stories on the historical, mythological and religious characters in Hindu folklore, classic literature and sacred scriptures. There are often the source of popular Hindu folk tales and religious lessons. Yoga is an important connection to a Hindu to his religious and historical heritage. The art of spiritual and physical exercises are a distinguished native tradition pursued by millions of Hindus worldwide. Indian Vedic astrology is important to the conduct of any of life's important events such as marriage, applying for a post or admission, buying a house or starting a new business. To millions of Hindus, the kundali is an invaluable possession that charts the course of life for a man or a woman from the time of his birth, all ascertained by Vedic mathematics and astrology. The most popular Hindu scriptures are the Mahabharata, the holy war between good and evil. Lord Krishna's discourse to the warrior prince Arjuna, the Bhagavad Gita is the guide book on life for the common Hindu. It is the source of divine guidance and inspiration, where the reader learns to interpret Krishna's teachings in the personal and worldly contexts of life. Most Hindus consider this book as the main source of religious teaching. To hundreds of millions of Hindus, Lord Rama is more than just an incarnation of the Supreme, or simply a just king. He is the still living, thriving soul and identity of real Hinduism. Rama is the image of Hinduism, the Perfect Man, its conscience and undying hope of deliverance. The doctrines of moksha by the discharge of personal, social and religious duty has developed into a strong characteristic of fatalism, or acceptance of vagaries in life as the will of God, and not seeking to apply oneself to change institutions. Many untouchable Hindus have been criticized for not aggressively combating this evil against them, and the factors influencing the submissiveness of society to brahmin authority, epidemics, natural disasters and authoritarian government through the history of India has been attributed to fatalistic thinking.

Literature


- Elst, Koenraad: Who is a Hindu [http://koenraadelst.voiceofdharma.com/books/wiah/index.htm]
- Goel, Sita Ram: How I became a Hindu [http://voi.org/books/hibh/]

See also

Hindu people


- Hinduism
- India, Nepal, Bali
- Demographics of India
- History of India
- World Hinduism
- Hindu Nationalism, Indian Nationalism, Hindutva
- Survey of Hindu organisations

Hinduism


- Ramayana
- Mahabharata
- Bhagavad Gita
- Vaishnavism
- Shaivism
- Balinese Hinduism
- Criticism of Hinduism
- The Hindu prayer Jai Jagdish Hare

Other religions


- Jainism
- Buddhism
- Sikhism

External links


- [http://www.voi.org/books/htemples2/app3.htm Meaning of the word Hindu]
- [http://www.experiencefestival.com/a/Hinduism/id/22591 Who is a Hindu] Category:Hinduism

17th century

As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700 in the Gregorian calendar. Gregorian calendar, Iran (completed 1638) is considered to be one of the world's greatest architectural achievements.]] 1638.]]

Events


- 1602: Dutch East India Company founded. Its success contributes to the Dutch Golden Age.
- 1603: Elizabeth I of England dies and is succeeded by her cousin King James VI of Scotland, uniting the crowns of Scotland and England.
- 1603: Tokugawa Ieyasu seizes control of Japan and establishes the Tokugawa Shogunate which rules the country until 1868.
- 1603-23: After modernizing his army, Abbas I expands Persia by capturing territory from the Ottomans and the Portuguese.
- 1605: Gunpowder Plot foiled in England.
- 1607: The London Company establishes the Jamestown Settlement in North America precipitating the British colonization of the Americas.
- 1608: Quebec City founded by Samuel de Champlain in New France (present-day Canada).
- 1613: The Time of Troubles in Russia ends with the establishment of the House of Romanov which rules until 1917.
- 1615: The Mughal Empire grants extensive trading rights to the British East India Company.
- 1618-48: The Thirty Years' War devastates Central Europe.
- 1624-42: As chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu centralizes power in France.
- 1625: New Amsterdam founded by the Dutch West India Company in North America.
- 1637: The Dutch tulip mania bubble bursts.
- 1637: The Pequot War, the first of the American Indian Wars
- 1638: Completion of the Shah Mosque in Isfahan, Iran, instigated by Shah Abbas I of Safavid Persia.
- 1639-51: Wars of the Three Kingdoms, civil wars throughout Scotland, Ireland, and England.
- 1640: Portugal regains its independence from Spain bringing an end to the Iberian Union.
- 1640: Torture is outlawed in England.
- 1641: The Tokugawa Shogunate institutes Sakoku- foreigners are expelled and no one is allowed to enter or leave Japan.
- 1644: The Manchu conquer China ending the Ming Dynasty. The subsequent Qing Dynasty rules until 1912.
- 1648: The Peace of Westphalia ends the Thirty Years' War and the Eighty Years' War and marks the ends of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire as major European powers.
- 1648-53: Fronde civil war in France.
- 1648-67: The Deluge wars leave Poland in ruins.
- 1648-69: The Ottoman Empire captures Crete from the Venetians after the Siege of Candia.
- 1652: Cape Town founded by the Dutch East India Company in South Africa.
- 1652: Anglo-Dutch Wars begin.
- 1653: The Taj Mahal in India is completed.
- 1655-61: The Northern Wars cement Sweden's rise as a Great Power.
- 1660: The Commonwealth of England ends and the monarchy is brought back during the English Restoration.
- 1661: The reign of the Kangxi Emperor of China begins.
- 1662: Koxinga captures Taiwan from the Dutch and founds the Kingdom of Tungning which rules until 1683.
- 1664: British troops capture New Amsterdam and rename it New York.
- 1665: Portugal defeats the Kongo Empire.
- 1667-99: The Great Turkish war halts the Ottoman Empire's expansion into Europe.
- 1670: The Hudson's Bay Company is founded in Canada.
- 1674: Maratha empire founded in India by Shivaji.
- 1676: Russia and the Ottoman Empire commence the Russo-Turkish Wars.
- 1682: Peter the Great becomes joint ruler of Russia (sole tsar in 1696).
- 1682: La Salle explores the length of the Mississippi River and claims Louisiana for France.
- 1683: China conquers the Kingdom of Tungning and annexes Taiwan.
- 1685: Edict of Fontainebleau outlaws Protestantism in France.
- 1688-89: After the Glorious Revolution, England becomes a constitutional monarchy and the Dutch Republic goes into decline.
- 1688-97: The Grand Alliance sought to stop French expansion during the Nine Years War.
- 1689: Nerchinsk Treaty establishes a border between Russia and China.
- 1692: Salem witch trials in Massachusetts.
- 1700-21: Russia supplants Sweden as the dominant Baltic power after the Great Northern War.

Significant people


- Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden (1594-1632).
- Francis Bacon, English philosopher and politician (1561-1626).
- Gabriel Bethlen, Hungarian prince of Transylvania (1580-1629)
- Sir Thomas Browne, English author, philosopher and scientist (1605-1682).
- Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, Spanish Author (1574 - 1616)
- Charles I of England (1600 - 1649).
- Charles II of England (1630 - 1685).
- Queen Christina of Sweden, high profile Catholic convert, matron of arts (1626 - 1689)
- Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland (1599 - 1658)
- Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland (1626 - 1712).
- René Descartes, French philosopher and mathematician (1596 - 1650)
- John Donne, English metaphysical poet (1572 - 1631)
- Elizabeth I of England (1533 - 1603).
- Galileo Galilei, Italian natural philosopher (1564 - 1642)
- Andreas Gryphius, German poet and dramatist(1616 - 1664)
- Thomas Hobbes, English philosopher and mathematician (1588 - 1679)
- Christiaan Huygens, Dutch mathematician, physicist and astronomer (1629 - 1695)
- Johannes Kepler, German astronomer (1571 - 1630)
- Gottfried Leibniz, German philosopher and mathematician (1646 - 1716)
- John Locke, English philosopher (1632 - 1704)
- James I of England (1566 - 1625).
- James II of England (1633 - 1701).
- Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1640 - 1705)
- Louis XIV, King of France, (1638 - 1715)
- Mary II of England (1662 - 1694).
- Dubhaltach MacFhirbhisigh (d.1671), Irish historian and genealogist.
- John Milton, English author and poet (1608 - 1674)
- Miyamoto Musashi, famous warrior in Japan, author of The Book of Five Rings, a treatise on strategy and martial combat. (1584 - 1645)
- Isaac Newton, English physicist and mathematician (1642 - 1727)
- Blaise Pascal, French theologian, mathematician and physicist (1623 - 1662)
- Samuel Pepys, English civil servant and diarist (1633 - 1703)
- Henry Purcell, English composer (1659 - 1695)
- Samarth Ramdas, Hindu Saint (1608 - 1681)
- Cardinal Richelieu, French Cardinal, Duke, and politician (1585 - 1642)
- Rembrandt van Rijn, Dutch painter (1606 - 1669)
-