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Kazimierz Siemienowicz

Kazimierz Siemienowicz

Kazimierz Siemienowicz (Belarusian: Казімер Семяновіч, Kazimir Siemianovič) (born c.1600 - c.1651) was a Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth nobleman (szlachcic), General of artillery, gunsmith, military engineer, artillery specialist and pioneer of rocketry. His coat of arms was Ostoja. No portrait or detailed biography of him have survived. Ostoja Born in Viciebsk (Grand Duchy of Lithuania, modern Belarus), likely in a relatively poor szlachta family with military service traditions, Siemenowicz was educated in the Vilnius University. As he wrote himself, he was fascianted by artillery since childhood, and he studied many sciences to increase his knowledge (mathematics, mechanics, hydraulics, architecture, optics, tactics). In 1634 he took part in the Smolensk War, in the siege of Biała. It is possible in 1644 he took part in the battle of Achmatów. He spent some time in the Netherlands, where he was sent by the King Wladyslaw IV to serve in the army of Duke Frederick Henry of Orange during the war with Spain. In 1646 he returned to Poland, when Wladyslaw created the Polish artillery corps and gathered specialists from Europe. From 1648 he served as Second in Command of Polish Royal Artillery, as an expert in the field of artillery and rocketry. However, in 1649 after the conflict with Krzysztof Arciszewski over a bureaucratic matter, he decied to leave the Commonwealth and work on his book in Amsterdam. Krzysztof Arciszewski] He is the famous for his work Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima. Only the first part was finished before his death, although it is rumored he did write a manuscript before his death. In the first part of his work he wrote that the second one would contain the universal pyrotechnic invention, containing all of our current knowledge. According to his short description, this invention was supposed to greatly ease all measurments and calculations. It is also rumored that he was killed by members of the metallurgy/gunsmith guilds, who were opposed to him publishing a book about their secrets, and that they his or destroyed the manuscript of the second part.

Fundamental work

"Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima" ("Great Art of Artillery, the First Part". also known as "The Complete Art of Artillery"), first printed in Amsterdam in 1650, was translated to French in 1651, German in 1676, English and Dutch in 1729 and Polish in 1963. For over two centuries this work was used in Europe as a basic artillery manual. The book provided the standard designs for creating rockets, fireballs, and other pyrotechnic devices. It discussed for the first time the idea of applying a reactive technique to artillery. It contains a large chapter on caliber, construction, production and properties of rockets (for both military and civil purposes), including multistage rockets, batteries of rockets, and rockets with delta wing stabilizers (instead of the common guiding rods). Siemienowicz considered the use of poison gases unhonorable. In his work, he wrote: and most of all, they shall not construct any poisoned globes, nor other sorts of pyrobolic inventions, in which he shall introduce no poison whatsoever, besides which, they shall never employ them for the ruin and destruction of men, because the first inventors of our art thought such actions as unjust among themselves as unworthy of a man of heart and a real soldier.

References

- Tadeusz Nowak "Kazimierz Siemienowicz, ca.1600-ca.1651", MON Press, Warsaw 1969

External links

- [http://www.cosmo.tadla.net/artismagmae.shtml Short bio in English and a large one in Polish]
- [http://www.kismeta.com/diGrasse/Siem.htm Pictures of Siemennowicz desings]
- [http://www.uranos.org.pl/biogr/siemie.html Short bio and 20th century picture on Uranos.org]
- [http://www.brown.edu/Facilities/University_Library/exhibits/Fireworks/4.html Short bio and few pics]
- [http://www.spaceline.org/history/1.html History of rocketry] Siemienowicz, Kazimierz Siemienowicz, Kazimierz Siemienowicz, Kazimierz Siemienowicz, Kazimierz Siemienowicz, Kazimierz Siemienowicz, Kazimierz Siemienowicz, Kazimierz Siemienowicz, Kazimierz

1600

:See also 1600 (number), 1600s

Events

January

- January 1 - Scotland adopts January 1st as being New Year's Day

February

- February 17 - Giordano Bruno burned at the stake for heresy in Rome

July

- July 2 - Battle of Nieuwpoort: Dutch forces under Maurice of Nassau defeat Spanish forces under Archduke Albert in a battle on the coastal dunes.

October

- October 6 - Jacopo Peri's Euridice, the earliest surviving Opera, is premiered in Florence.
- October 8 - San Marino gains its written constitution.
- October 21 - Battle of Sekigahara in Japan, in which Tokugawa Ieyasu defeated Ishida Mitsunari, setting the stage for the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate. End of the Azuchi-Momoyama period and beginning of the Edo period.

December

- December 31 - Royal charter incorporates the British East India Company in London

Undated

- Sumo Wrestling becomes a professional sport in Japan.
- William Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream is first performed.
- William Gilbert publishes De Magnete which describes the Earth's magnetic field and is the beginning of modern Geomagnetism.
- Fabritio Caroso's Nobiltà de dame is published.
- Battle of Suceava - Prince Sigismund Bathory of Transylvania is defeated by the Voivode Michael the Brave of Moldavia as part of the internecine conflict in Hungary and the Danubian Principalities.
- Ulster chieftains with the lead of Hugh O'Neill, 2nd Earl of Tyrone, resist English reconquest of Ireland

Births

- January 1 - Friedrich Spanheim, Dutch theologian (d. 1649)
- January 17 - Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Spanish playwright (died 1681)
- January 28 - Pope Clement IX (died 1669)
- February 2 - Gabriel Naudé, French librarian and scholar (died 1653)
- November 19 - King Charles I of England, Scotland, and Ireland (died 1649)
- November 19 - Leo Aitzema, Dutch historian and statesman (d. 1669)
- Jonas Bronck, Swedish colonist in America (died 1643)
- Edmund Calamy the Elder, English presbyterian (died 1666)
- Piaras Feiritéar, Irish language poet (died 1653)
- Gheorghe Ghica, Prince of Wallachia (died 1664)
- Marin le Roy de Gomberville, French poet and novelist (died 1674)
- Samuel Gorton, English sectary (died 1677)
- Sir Richard Grenville, 1st Baronet, English Royalist leader (died 1658)
- Peter Heylin, English ecclesiastical writer (died 1662)
- Antoine de Laloubère, French Jesuit mathematician (died 1664)
- John Ogilby, English writer and cartographer (died 1676)
- Anna Alojza Ostrogska, Polish noblewoman (died 1654)
- William Prynne, English puritan politician (died 1669)
- Samuel Rutherford, English theologian and controversialist (died 1660)
- Brian Walton, English divine and scholar (died 1661)
- Tokugawa Yoshinao, Japanese nobleman (died 1650) See also :Category:1600 births.

Deaths

- February 13 - Gian Paolo Lomazzo, Italian painter (b. 1538)
- February 17 - Giordano Bruno, Italian philosopher (burned at the stake) (born 1548)
- July 17 - Hosokawa Gracia, Japanese noblewoman (born 1563)
- September 1 - Tadeáš Hájek, Czech physician and astronomer (born 1525)
- September 26 - Claude Le Jeune, French composer (born 1530)
- October 12 - Luis Molina, Spanish Jesuit (b. 1535)
- October 21 - Toda Katsushige, Japanese warlord (born 1557)
- November 3 - Richard Hooker, Anglican theologian (born 1554)
- November 6 - Ishida Mitsunari, Japanese feudal lord (decapitated) (born 1560)
- November 6 - Konishi Yukinaga, Japanese Christian warlord (born 1555)
- November 8 - Natsuka Masaie, Japanese warlord (born 1562)
- November 17 - Kuki Yoshitaka, Japanese naval commander (born 1542)
- Jose de Acosta, Spanish Jesuit missionary and naturalist (born 1540)
- Thomas Deloney, English writer (born 1543)
- Abe Masakatsu, Japanese nobleman (born 1541)
- Thomas Nashe, English pamphleteer (born 1567)
- Nicholas Remy, French Catholic priest (born 1534)
- John Ruthven, 3rd Earl of Gowrie, Scottish conspirator (born 1577)
- Mizuno Tadashige, Japanese nobleman (born 1541) See also :Category:1600 deaths.

References

- Spielvogel -- Western Civilization -- Volume II: Since 1500 (5th Edition), p.401 Category:1600 ko:1600년 simple:1600

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Republic of the Two Nations, or Republic of Both Nations (Polish: Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów, Lithuanian: Žečpospolita or Abiejų tautų respublika, Belarusian: Рэч Паспалітая or Рэч Паспалітая Абодвух Народаў, Latin: Regnum Serenissima Poloniae) was a federal monarchy–republic formed by the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1569, lasting until 1795. The Commonwealth was an extension of the Polish-Lithuanian Union, a personal union between those two states that had existed from 1386. The Commonwealth was one of the largest and most populous states in Europe and for over two centuries successfully withstood wars with the Teutonic Order, the Mongols, the Russians, the Ottomans, and Sweden. The Commonwealth was notable for its political system, which was a precursor to modern democracy and federation; for its remarkable religious tolerance; and for the second-oldest codified national constitution in the world. Its economy was dominated by agriculture. While the Commonwealth's first century was a golden age for both Poland and Lithuania, the second century was marked by military defeats, a return to serfdom for the peasants, and growing anarchy in political life. The Duchy of Warsaw, established in 1807, traced its origins to the Commonwealth. Other revival movements appeared during the January Uprising (1863–1864) and in the 1920s, when Józef Piłsudski advanced the concept of a federation of Międzymorze (translatable as "Tween-Seas"). Today's Republic of Poland considers itself a successor to the Commonwealth.

History

The creation of the Commonwealth by the Union of Lublin in 1569 was one of the signal achievements of Sigismund II Augustus, last king of the Jagiellon dynasty. His death in 1572 was followed by a three-year interregnum during which adjustments were made to the constitutional system that effectively increased the power of the nobility (the szlachta) and established a truly elective monarchy. The Commonwealth reached its Golden Age in the first half of the 17th century. Its powerful parliament (the Sejm) was dominated by nobles who were reluctant to wage offensive wars, thus sparing the country the ravages of the Thirty Years' War. The Commonwealth was mostly victorious against numerous incursions by Sweden, Russia, and vassals of the Ottoman Empire, and even managed for a time to take Moscow during the Russian Time of Troubles. From 27 September 1610 to 4 November 1612 Moscow belonged to the Commonwealth. Commonwealth power waned after the double blow of 1648: history's greatest Cossack rebellion (the Chmielnicki Uprising, supported by Crimean Khanate Tatars, in the eastern territories of Kresy), which resulted in Cossacks falling under the Muscovy sphere of influence in 1652, and the Swedish invasion in 1655 (supported by troops of Transylvanian duke George II Rakoczy and Friedrich Wilhelm I, Elector of Brandenburg), known as the Deluge, provoked by the policies of Commonwealth kings from the Swedish royal House of Vasa. In the late 17th century, the weakened Commonwealth under King Jan III Sobieski was still strong enough to deal crushing defeats to the Ottoman Empire: in 1683, the Battle of Vienna marked the final turning point in a 250-year struggle between the forces of Christian Europe and the Islamic Ottoman Empire. Over the next 16 years (in the "Great Turkish War") the Turks would be permanently driven south of the Danube River, never to threaten central Europe again. By the 18th century, the Commonwealth was facing many internal problems and was vulnerable to foreign influences. This destabilized its political system almost to the brink of anarchy. Attempts at reform, such as those made by the Four-Year Sejm of 1788–1792, which culminated in the May 3rd Constitution of 1791, came too late, and the country was partitioned in three stages by the neighboring Russian Empire, Kingdom of Prussia, and Austrian Empire. By 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had been completely erased from the map of Europe. Poland and Lithuania re-established their independence, as separate countries, only in 1918. How the Commonwealth disappeared from the map of Europe: Image:Rzeczpospolita 1600.png|The Commonwealth at its greatest extent (ca. 1630) Image:Rzeczpospolita.png|Losses in the effect of the Deluge (1648) Image:Rzeczpospolita Rozbiory 1.png|The First Partition (1772) Image:Rzeczpospolita Rozbiory 2.png|The Second Partition (1793) Image:Rzeczpospolita Rozbiory 3.png|The Third Partition (1795). Poland disappears for 123 years (or for 12 years — to Duchy of Warsaw).

State organization and politics

Commonwealth military

Offices in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] Commonwealth armies were commanded by four hetmans. The armies comprised:
- Wojsko kwarciane: Regular units with wages paid from taxes (these units were later merged with the wojsko komputowe)
- Wojsko komputowe: Semi-regular units created for times of war (in 1652 these units were merged with the wojsko kwarciane into a new permanent army)
- Pospolite ruszenie: Szlachta levée en masse
- Piechota łanowa and piechota wybraniecka: Units based on peasant recruits
- Registered Cossacks: Troops made up of Cossacks, used mainly as infantry, less often as cavalry (with tabors) were recruited until 1699
- Royal guard: A small unit whose primary purpose was to escort the monarch and members of his family
- Mercenaries: As with most other armies, hired to supplement regular units
- Private armies: In time of peace usually small regiments (few hundred men) were paid for and equipped by magnates or cities. However, in times of war, they were greatly augmented (to even a few thousand men) and paid by state Some units of the Commonwealth used fairly unique tactics. These units included:
- Hussars: heavy cavalry armed with lances; their charges were extremely effective until advances in firearms in the late 17th century substantially increased infantry firepower. Members were known as towarzysz husarski and were supported by pocztowy's.
- Pancerni: medium cavalry, armed with sabers or axes, bows, later pistols. Second important cavalry branch of the Polish army.
- Cossacks: general name for all Commonwealth units of light cavalry, even if they did not contain a single ethnic Cossack; fast and maneuverable like oriental cavalry units of Ottoman Empire vassals, but lacking the firepower of European cavalry such as the Swedish pistol-armed reiters.
- Tabor: military horse-drawn wagons, usually carrying army supplies. Their use for defensive formations was perfected by the Cossacks, and to a smaller extent by other Commonwealth units. The Commonwealth Navy was small and played a relatively minor role in the history of the Commonwealth.

Golden Liberty

Commonwealth Navy, oil on canvas by Jan Matejko, 1869, 298×512 cm, National Museum (Warsaw).]] The political doctrine of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was: our state is a republic under the presidency of the King. Chancellor Jan Zamoyski summed up this doctrine when he said that "Rex regnat et non gubernat" ("The King reigns but does not govern"). The Commonwealth had a parliament, the Sejm, as well as a Senat and an elected king. The king was obliged to respect citizens' rights specified in King Henry's Articles as well as in pacta conventa negotiated at the time of his election. The monarch's power was limited, in favor of a sizable noble class. Each new king had to subscribe to King Henry's Articles, which were the basis of Poland's political system (and included near-unprecedented guarantees of religious tolerance). Over time, King Henry's Articles were merged with the pacta conventa, specific pledges agreed to by the king-elect. From that point, the king was effectively a partner with the noble class and was constantly supervised by a group of senators. The foundation of the Commonwealth, the unique "Golden Liberty" (Polish Zlota Wolność, a term used from 1573), included:
- free election of the king by all nobles wishing to participate;
- Sejm, the Commonwealth parliament which the king was required to hold every two years;
- pacta conventa (Latin), "agreed-to agreements" negotiated with the king-elect, including a bill of rights, binding on the king, derived from the earlier King Henry's Articles;
- rokosz (insurrection), the right of szlachta to form a legal rebellion against a king who violated their guaranteed freedoms;
- liberum veto (Latin), the right of an individual Sejm deputy to oppose a decision by the majority in a Sejm session; the voicing of such a "free veto" nullified all the legislation that had been passed at that session; during the crisis of the second half of the 17th century, Polish nobles could also use the liberum veto in provincial sejmiks;
- konfederacja (from the Latin confederatio), the right to form an organization to force through a common political aim. confederatio in 1573," by Jan Matejko]] The provinces of the Commonwealth enjoyed wide autonomy. Each voivodship had its own parliament (sejmik), which exercised serious political power, including choice of poseł (deputy) to the national Sejm and charging of the deputy with specific voting instructions. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania had its own army, treasury and other institutions. The Golden Freedoms created a state that was unusual for its time. Perhaps the most similar political system existed in the city-state Republic of Venice, and it is interesting to note that both states were known as the Most Serene Republic. At a time when most European countries were headed toward centralization, absolute monarchy and religious and dynastic warfare, the Commonwealth experimented with decentralization, confederation and federation, democracy, religious tolerance and even pacifism. Since the Sejm usually vetoed a monarch's plans for war, this constitutes an interesting argument for the democratic peace theory. This unique system stemmed from the victories of the szlachta (noble) class over other social classes and over the political system of monarchy. In time, the szlachta accumulated enough privileges (such as those established by the Nihil novi Act of 1505) that no monarch could hope to break the szlachta's grip on power. The Commonwealth's political system is difficult to fit into a simple category, but it can be tentatively described as a mixture of:
- confederation and federation, with regard to the broad autonomy of its regions. It is however difficult to decisively call the Commonwealth either confederation of federation, as it had some qualities of both of them;
- oligarchy, as only the szlachta—around 10% of the population—had political rights;
- democracy, since all the szlachta were equal in rights and privileges, and the Sejm could veto the king on important matters, including legislation (the adoption of new laws), foreign affairs, declaration of war, and taxation (changes of existing taxes or the levying of new ones). Also, the 10% of Commonwealth population who enjoyed those political rights (the szlachta) was a substantially larger percentage than in any other European country; note that in 1831 in France only about 1% of the population had the right to vote, and in 1867 in the United Kingdom, only about 3%;
- elective monarchy, since the monarch, elected by the szlachta, was Head of State;
- constitutional monarchy, since the monarch was bound by pacta conventa and other laws, and szlachta could disobey any king's decrees they deemed illegal.

The political players

See also list of szlachta. The major players in the politics of the Commonwealth were:
- monarchs, who struggled to expand their power and create an absolute monarchy.
- magnates, the wealthiest of the szlachta, who wanted to rule the country as a privileged oligarchy, and to dominate both the monarch and the poorer nobles.
- szlachta, who desired a strengthening of the Sejm and rule of the country as a democracy of the szlachta. The magnates and the szlachta were far from united, with many factions supporting either the monarch or various of the magnates.

Shortcomings of the Commonwealth

Once the Jagiellons had disappeared from the scene in 1572, the fragile equilibrium of the Commonwealth's government began to shake. Power increasingly slipped away from the central government to the nobility. In their periodic opportunities to fill the throne, the szlachta exhibited a preference for foreign candidates who would not found another strong dynasty. This policy often produced monarchs who were either totally ineffective or in constant debilitating conflict with the nobility. Furthermore, aside from notable exceptions such as the able Transylvanian Stefan Batory (1576–1586), the kings of foreign origin were inclined to subordinate the interests of the Commonwealth to those of their own country and ruling house. This was especially visible in the policies and actions of the first two elected kings from the Swedish House of Vasa, whose politics brought the Commonwealth into conflict with Sweden, culminating in the war known as The Deluge (1648), one of the events that mark the end of the Commonwealth's Golden Age and the beginning of the Commonwealth's decline. The aftermath of the rokosz of Zebrzydowski (1606–7) marks the time when magnates significantly increased their power, and this szlachta democracy has transformed into magnate oligarchy. The Commonwealth's political system was vulnerable to outside interference, as Sejm deputies bribed by foreign powers might use their liberum veto to block attempts at reform. Such actions sapped the power of the Commonwealth and threw it into political paralysis and anarchy for over a century (from the mid-17th century to the end of the 18th century), while its neighbors stabilized their internal affairs and increased their military might.

Late reforms

18th century on canvas by Jan Matejko, 1891, 227×446 cm. Royal Castle (Warsaw).]] Eventually the Commonwealth did make a serious effort to reform its political system, adopting in 1791 the May 3rd Constitution, Europe's first codified national constitution and the world's second, after the United States Constitution that began functioning in 1789. The revolutionary Polish Constitution recast the erstwhile Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a unitary state with a hereditary monarchy and abolished many of the deleterious features of the old system. The new constitution:
- abolished the liberum veto and the confederation;
- provided for a separation of powers among legislative, executive and judicial branches of government;
- established "popular sovereignty" and extended political rights to include not only the nobility but the bourgeoisie;
- increased the rights of the peasantry;
- preserved religious tolerance (but with a condemnation of apostasy from the Catholic faith). These reforms came too late, however, as the Commonwealth was immediately invaded from all sides by its neighbors. The latter feared the revolutionary implications of the May 3rd Constitution's political reforms and the prospect of the Commonwealth regaining its position as a European empire. In the end the May 3rd Constitution was never fully implemented, and the Commonwealth entirely ceased to exist only four years after the Constitution's adoption.

Economy

May 3rd Constitution The economy of the Commonwealth was dominated by feudal agriculture. Typically a nobleman's landholding comprised a folwark, a large farm worked by serfs to produce surpluses for internal and external trade. The peasantry's situation worsened from the late 17th century on, when the landed szlachta sought to compensate for falling grain prices by increasing the peasants' workload, thus leading to the creation of second serfdom, a phenomena common throughout contemporary Eastern Europe. second serfdom The Commonwealth's preoccupation with agriculture, coupled with the szlachta's dominance over the bourgeoisie, resulted in a fairly slow process of urbanization and thus a fairly slow development of industries. While similar conflicts among social classes may be found all over Europe, nowhere were the nobility as dominant as in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. There is, however, much debate among historians as to which processes most affected those developments, since until the wars and crises of the mid-17th century the cities of the Commonwealth had not markedly lagged in size and wealth behind their western counterparts. The Commonwealth did have numerous towns and cities, commonly founded on Magdeburg rights. Some of the largest trade fairs in the Commonwealth were held at Lublin. See the geography section, below, for a list of major cities in the Commonwealth (commonly capitals of voivodships). Although the Commonwealth was Europe's largest grain producer, the bulk of her grain was consumed domestically. Estimated grain consumption in the "Crown" (Poland proper) and Prussia in 1560–70 was some 113,000 tons of wheat (or 226,000 łaszt (a łaszt, or "last," being a large bulk measure; in the case of grain, about half a ton). Average yearly production of grain in the Commonwealth in the 16th century was 120,000 tons, 6% of which was exported, while cities consumed some 19% and the remainder was consumed by the villages. The exports probably satisfied about 2% of the demand for grain in Western Europe, feeding 750,000 people there. Commonwealth grain achieved far more importance in poor crop years, as in the early 1590s and the 1620s, when governments throughout southern Europe arranged for large grain imports to cover shortfalls in their jurisdictions. 1620s, by Wilhelm August Stryowski (1834–1917), 110×138 cm.]] Still, grain was the largest export commodity of the Commonwealth. The owner of a folwark usually signed a contract with merchants of Gdansk (German Danzig), who controlled 80% of this inland trade, to ship the grain north to that seaport on the Baltic Sea. Many rivers in the Commonwealth were used for shipping purposes: the Vistula, Pilica, Western Bug, San, Nida, Wieprz, Niemen. The rivers had relatively developed infrastructure, with river ports and granaries. Most of the river shipping moved north, southward transport being less profitable, and barges and rafts were often sold off in Gdańsk for lumber. From Gdańsk, ships, mostly from the Netherlands and Flanders, carried the grain to ports such as Antwerp and Amsterdam. Gdańsk ships accounted for only 2–10% of this maritime trade. Besides grain, other seaborne exports included lumber and wood-related products such as tar and ash. By land routes, the Commonwealth exported hides, furs, hemp, cotton (mostly from Wielkopolska) and linen to the German lands of the Holy Roman Empire, including cities like Leipzig and Nuremberg. Large herds (of around 50,000 head) of cattle were driven south through Silesia. The Commonwealth imported spices, luxury goods, clothing, fish, beer and industrial products like steel and tools. A few riverboats carried south imports from Gdańsk like wine, fruit, spices and herring. Somewhere between the 16th and 17th centuries, the Commonwealth's trade balance shifted from positive to negative. trade balance]] trade balance (Sigismund III Vasa period)]] With the advent of the Age of Exploration, many old trading routes such as the Amber Road lost importance as new ones were created. Poland's importance as a caravan route between Asia and Europe diminished, while new local trading routes were created between the Commonwealth and Russia. But even with improvements in shipping technology the Commonwealth remained an important link between Occident and Orient, as many goods and cultural artifacts passed from one region to another via the Commonwealth. For example, Persian carpets imported across the Commonwealth were actually known in the West as "Polish carpets". Also, the price of eastern spices in Poland was several times lower than in western ports, which led to the creation of a distinct Polish cuisine, owing much both to the eastern and western influence. Commonwealth currency included the złoty and the grosz. The City of Gdańsk had the privilege of minting its own coinage. If such a commonwealth of countries existed in 2005, it might have been among the largest economies in the world.

Culture

Gdańsk Gdańsk, built 1726]] 1726, Museum of Arts (Łódź)]] Łódź–1645 and frequently remodeled. Foreground: equestrian statue of Prince Jozef Poniatowski by Bertel Thorvaldsen]] Bertel Thorvaldsen]] Bertel Thorvaldsen in front of Warsaw Castle]] Warsaw Castle and blue silk żupan. Holds hetman's baton (buława hetmańska)]] The Commonwealth was one of the important European sites for the development of modern social and political ideas. It was famous for its unique quasi-democratic political system praised by philosophers such as Erasmus, was known for a near-unparallelled religious tolerance during the Counter-Reformation, hence the numerosity of peacefuly coexisting Catholic, Jewish, Eastern Orthodox, Protestant, and even Muslim communities. It gave rise to the famous Christian sect of Polish Brethren, antecedents of the British and American Unitarians. With its unique political system, the Commonwealth gave birth to political philosophers such as Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski (1503–1572), Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki (1530–1607) and Piotr Skarga (1536–1612). Later, works by Stanisław Staszic (1755–1826) and Hugo Kołłątaj (1750–1812) helped pave the way for the Commonwealth's Constitution of May 3rd, 1791, the first written national constitution in Europe, which enacted revolutionary principles of political science for the first time in Europe. The Jagiellonian University in Kraków is one of the oldest universities in the world. The Commonwealth's Commission for National Education (Polish Komisja Edukacji Narodowej), formed in 1773, was the world's first national ministry of education. Commonwealth scientists included:
- Martin Kromer (1512–1589), historian and cartographer,
- Michał Sędziwój (1566–1636), alchemist and chemist,
- Kazimierz Siemienowicz (1600–1651), military engineer, artillery specialist and one of the founders of rocketry,
- Johannes Hevelius (1611–1687), astronomer, founder of lunar topography. The many classics of Commonwealth literature include:
- Jan Kochanowski, (1530–1584), writer, dramatist and poet,
- Wacław Potocki, (1621–1696), writer, poet
- Ignacy Krasicki, (1735–1801), writer, poet
- Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, (1758–1841), writer, dramatist and poet. Many szlachta wrote memoirs and diaries; perhaps the most famous of those are the Memoirs of Polish History by Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł (1595–1656) and the Memoirs of Jan Chryzostom Pasek (ca. 1636 – ca. 1701). Magnates often undertook construction projects as monuments to themselves: churches, cathedrals, and palaces like the present-day Presidential Palace in Warsaw built by Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski. The largest projects involved entire towns, although in time many of them would lapse into obscurity or be totally abandoned. Usually they were named after the sponsoring magnate. Among the most famous is the town of Zamość, founded by Jan Zamoyski and designed by the Italian architect Bernardo Morando.

Szlachta and Sarmatism

The prevalent ideology of the szlachta became "Sarmatism", named after the Sarmatians, alleged ancestors of the szlachta. This belief system was an important part of the szlachta's culture, penetrating all aspects of its life. Sarmatism enshrined equality among szlachta, horseback riding, tradition, provincial rural life, peace and pacifism; championed oriental-inspired attire (żupan, kontusz, sukmana, pas kontuszowy, delia, szabla); and served to integrate the multi-ethnic nobility by creating an almost nationalistic sense of unity and of pride in the szlachta's Golden Freedoms. In its early, idealistic form, Sarmatism represented a positive cultural movement: it supported religious belief, honesty, national pride, courage, equality and freedom. In time, however, it became distorted. Late extreme Sarmatism turned belief into bigotry, honesty into political naïveté, pride into arrogance, courage into stubbornness and freedom into anarchy.

Demographics and religion

The population of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was never overwhelmingly either Roman Catholic or Polish. The Commonwealth comprised primarily four nations: Lithuanians, Poles, Ukrainians and Belarusians (the latter two refered usually as the Ruthenians). This circumstance resulted from Poland's possession of Ukraine and federation with Lithuania, in both of which countries ethnic Poles were a distinct minority. To be Polish, in the non-Polish lands of the Commonwealth, was then much less an index of ethnicity than of rank; it was a designation largely reserved for the landed noble class (szlachta), which included members of Polish and non-Polish origin alike. Generally speaking, the ethnically non-Polish noble families of Ukraine and Lithuania adopted the Polish language and culture, by an ineluctable process of Polonization. As a result, in the eastern territories a Polish (or Polonized) aristocracy dominated a peasantry whose great majority was neither Polish nor Roman Catholic. Moreover, the decades of peace brought huge colonization efforts to Ukraine, heightening the tensions among Ruthenian and Polish peasants, Cossacks, Jews and nobles. The tensions were aggravated by conflicts between Eastern Orthodoxy and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church following the Union of Brest, and by several Cossack uprisings. In the west and north, many cities had sizable German minorities, often belonging to Reformed churches. Due to its almost unequaled political tolerance, the Commonwealth had also one of the largest Jewish diasporas in the world. Until the Reformation, the Polish szlachta were mostly Catholic or Eastern Orthodox. However, many families quickly adopted the Reformed religion. After the Counter-Reformation, when the Roman Catholic Church regained power in Poland, the szlachta became almost exclusively Roman Catholic, despite the fact that Roman Catholicism was not a majority religion (the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches counted approximately 40% of the population each, while the remaining 20% were Jews and members of various Protestant churches). It should be noted that the Counter-Reformation in Poland, influenced by the Commonwealth tradition of religious tolerance, was based mostly on Jesuit propaganda, and was very peaceful when compared to excesses such as the Thirty Years' War elsewhere in Europe.

Provinces and geography

Europe The lands that once belonged to the Commonwealth are now largely distributed among several Central and East European countries: Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Ukraine, Belarus and Russia, with smaller pieces in Estonia, Slovakia, Romania and Moldova. While the term "Poland" was also commonly used to denote this whole polity, Poland was in fact only part of a greater whole — the Commonwealth, which comprised primarily two parts:
- the Crown of the Polish Kingdom (Poland proper), colloquially "the Crown"; and
- the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, colloquially "Lithuania." The Crown in turn comprised two "provinces": Greater Poland and Lesser Poland. These and a third province, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, were the only three regions that were properly termed "provinces." The Commonwealth was further divided into smaller administrative units known as voivodships (województwa). Each voivodship was governed by a voivod (governor). Voivodships were further divided into starostwa, each starostwo being governed by a starosta. Cities were governed by castellans. There were frequent exceptions to these rules: for details on the administrative structure of the Commonwealth, see the article on offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Other notable regions of the Commonwealth often referred to, without respect to province or voivodship divisions, include:
- Lesser Poland (Polish: Małopolska), southern Poland, with its capital at Kraków;
- Greater Poland (Polish: Wielkopolska), west–central Poland, including much of the area drained by the Warta River and its tributaries;
- Masovia (Polish: Mazowsze), central Poland, with its capital at Warsaw;
- Duchy of Livonia (Polish: Inflanty), a northern fief of the Commonwealth from 1561, lost to Sweden in the 1620s and in 1660;
- Courland (Polish: Kurlandia), a northern fief of the Commonwealth;
- Prussia (Polish: Prusy), parts of which belonged to the Commonwealth:
- Royal Prussia (Polish: Prusy Królewskie), incorporated into the Crown in 1569, at the time of the Commonwealth's formation;
- Duchy of Prussia, a Polish fief until 1660;
- Kresy, the southeastern "Borderlands" of the Crown;
- Ruthenia (Polish: Ruś), the eastern Commonwealth, adjoining Russia;
- Samogitia (Polish: Żmudź), western Lithuania.
- Silesia (Polish: Śląsk) was not part of the Commonwealth, but small parts belonged to various Commonwealth kings; in particular, the Vasa kings were dukes of Opole from 1645 to 1666.
- Pomerania (Polish: Pomorze) is the term for the southern shore of the Baltic Sea, partially outside the Commonwealth and/or in Prussia.
- Galicia (Polish: Galicja) was a term not widely used until the 18th century. Commonwealth borders shifted with wars and treaties, sometimes several times in a decade, especially in the eastern and southern regions. 18th century 18th century.]] Thought was given at various times to the creation of a Duchy of Ruthenia, particularly during the 1648 Cossack insurrection against Polish rule in Ukraine. Such a Duchy, as proposed in the 1658 Treaty of Hadiach, would have been a full member of the Commonwealth, which would thereupon have become a tripartite Polish-Lithuanian-Ruthenian Commonwealth, but due to szlachta demands, Muscovite invasion, and division among the Cossacks, the plan was never implemented. For similar reasons, plans for a Polish-Lithuanian-Muscovite Commonwealth also were never realized, although during the Polish-Muscovite War (1605-1618) the Polish Prince (later, King) Władysław IV Waza was briefly elected Tsar of Muscovy. The Crown had about double the population of Lithuania and five times the income of the latter's treasury. As with other countries, the borders, area and population of the Commonwealth varied over time. After the Peace of Jam Zapolski (1582), the Commonwealth had approximately 815,000 km² area and a population of 6.5 million. After the Truce of Deulino (1618), the Commonwealth had an area of some 1 million km² (990,000 km²) and a population of 10–11 million (including some 4 million Poles). In the 16th century, the Polish bishop and cartographer Martin Kromer published a Latin atlas, entitled Poland: about Its Location, People, Culture, Offices and the Polish Commonwealth, which was regarded as the most comprehensive guide to the country. Kromer's works and other contemporary maps, such as those of Gerardus Mercator, show the Commonwealth as mostly plains. The Commonwealth's southeastern part, the Kresy, was famous for its steppes. The Carpathian Mountains formed part of the southern border, with the Tatra Mountain chain the highest, and the Baltic Sea formed the Commonwealth's northern border. As with most European countries at the time, the Commonwealth had extensive forest cover, especially in the east. Today, what remains of the Białowieża Forest constitutes the last largely intact primeval forest in Europe.

Voivodships of the Commonwealth

Note that some sources use the word palatinate instead of voivodship.

Greater Poland

Greater Poland
- Brześć Kujawski Voivodship (województwo brzesko-kujawskie, Brześć Kujawski)
- Gniezno Voivod

Szlachcic

Szlachta (pronounced: Image:Ltspkr.png ) was the noble class in Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which together formed the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The szlachta were formed in the late Middle Ages and existed through the 18th century and into the 19th century. Traditionally, the szlachta were owners of landed property, often in the form of folwarks. The szlachta enjoyed substantial and almost unrivalled political privileges until the Partitions of Poland in the late 18th century. The nobility was officially abolished during the Second Polish Republic by the March 1921 Constitution, though membership in its ranks remains widely claimed in various strata of Polish society at home and abroad.

History

Etymology

The Polish word "szlachta" (meaning the "gentle class" or "noble class", an untranslatable term essentially encompassing the idea of gentility or nobility of blood, and treating the English words gentry and nobility as roughly coterminous: a specific nobleman was a "szlachcic," a noblewoman was a "szlachcianka"). Early Polish historians thought it may derive from the name of the legendary proto-Polish chief, Lech, mentioned in Polish and Czech writings. "Szlachta" is thought by some simply to mean "Lechitians," or "men of Lech's" (in modern Polish, "z Lecha"), probably denoting the ruling warrior class in Lech's tribe. Even to this day, some Ukrainians refer to Poles as "Lachy" (Lechitians), while Turks use the term "Leh". Another theory states that this word derives from old German "geschlech" or "slahta" ("house, family"), like many of the other Polish words concerning nobility [for example Polish "rycerz" ("knight") comes from German "ritter" and Polish "herb" ("crest") comes from German "erbe" ("heirdom")] A kindred term that might be applied to an early Polish nobleman was "knight" ("rycerz"), Latin nobilis (plural: nobiles), or możny (plural: możni). Some powerful Polish nobleman were refered to as magnates ("magnat").

Origins

See also: History of Poland (966-1385) History of Poland (966-1385)). Painting by Jan Matejko, 1869, National Museum, Warsaw.]] The Polish nobility probably derived from a Slavic warrior class, forming a distinct element within the ancient Polonic tribal groupings. This is uncertain, however, as there is little documentation on the early history of Poland, or of the movements of the Slavonic people into what became the territory so designated. Around 14th century there was little difference between those called knights and those referred to as szlachta in Poland. Members of the szlachta had the personal obligation to defend the country (pospolite ruszenie), and thereby became the kingdom's privileged social class.

Szlachta rise to power

See also Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth#State organisation and politics Nobles were born into a noble family, adopted by a noble family (this was abolished in 1633) or ennobled by a king or Sejm for various reasons (bravery in combat, service to the state, etc. - yet this was the rarest means of gaining noble status). Many nobles were, in actuality, really usurpers, being peasants or merchants, who moved into another part of the country and falsely pretended to noble status. Hundreds of such false nobles were denounced by Walerian Nekanda Trepka in his Liber generationis plebeanorium (or Liber chamorum) in the first half of 16th century. Many sejms issued decrees over the centuries in an attempt to resolve this issue, but with little success. It is unknown what percentage of the Polish nobility came from the 'lower' orders of society, but most historians agree that nobles of such base origins formed a 'significant' element of the szlachta. The Polish nobility enjoyed many rights that were not available to the noble classes of other countries and, typically, each new monarch conceded them further privileges. Those privileges became the basis of the Golden Liberty in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Despite having a king, Poland was called a noble "republic" (Rzeczpospolita) because the king was elected by all interested members of the nobility and Poland was considered to be the property of this class, not of the king or the ruling dynasty. This state of affairs grew up in part because of the extinction of the male-line descendants of the old royal dynasty, and the selection by the nobility of the Polish king from among the dynasty's female-line descendants. dynasty's buława.]] Poland's successive kings granted privileges to the nobility at the time of their election to the throne (the privileges being specified in the king-elect's pacta conventa) and at other times in exchange for ad hoc permission to raise an extraordinary tax or a levée en masse (pospolite ruszenie). Poland's nobility thus accumulated a growing array of privileges and immunities: In 1355 King Kazimierz III (the Great) decreed that the nobility would no longer be required to pay taxes, or pay with their own funds for military expeditions outside Poland. In 1374 King Louis the Hungarian approved the Privilege of Koszyce (Polish: "przywilej koszycki" or "ugoda koszycka") in Koszyce in order to guarantee the Polish throne for his daughter Jadwiga. He broadened the definition of who was a member of the nobility and exempted the entire class from all but one tax (łanowy, which was limited to 2 grosze from łan (a measure of land size)). In addition, the King's right to raise taxes was abolished; no new taxes could be raised without the agreement of the nobility. Henceforth, also, district offices (Polish: "urzędy ziemskie") were reserved exclusively for local nobility, as the Privilege of Koszyce forbade the king to grant official posts and major Polish castles to foreign knights. Finally, this privilege obliged the King to pay indemnities to nobles injured or taken captive during a war outside Polish borders. In 1422 King Władysław II Jagiełło by the Privilege of Czerwińsk (Polish: "przywilej czerwiński") established the inviolability of nobles' property (their estates could not be confiscated except upon a court verdict) and ceded some jurisdiction over fiscal policy to the Royal Council (later, the Senat), including the right to mint coinage. In 1430 with the Privileges of Jedlnia, confirmed at Kraków in 1433 (Polish: "przywileje jedlneńsko-krakowskie"), based partially on his earlier Brześć Kujawski privilege (April 25, 1425), King Władysław Jagiełło granted the nobility a guarantee against arbitrary arrest, similar to the English Magna Carta's Habeas corpus, known from its own Latin name as "neminem captivabimus (nisi jure victum)." Henceforth no member of the nobility could be imprisoned without a warrant from a competent court of justice: the king could neither punish nor imprison any noble at his whim. King Władysław's quid pro quo for this boon was the nobles' guarantee that his throne would be inherited by one of his sons (who would be bound to honor the privileges theretofore granted to the nobility). On May 2, 1447 the same king issued the Wilno Privilege which gave the Lithuanian boyars the same rights as those possessed by the Polish szlachta. boyar. Painting by Wilhelm August Stryowski.]] In 1454 King Kazimierz IV the Jagiellon granted the Nieszawa Statutes (Polish: "statuty cerkwicko-nieszawskie"), clarifying the legal basis of voivodship sejmiks (local parliaments). The king could promulgate new laws, raise taxes, or call for a levée en masse (pospolite ruszenie) only with the consent of the sejmiks, and the nobility were protected from judicial abuses. The Nieszawa Statutes also curbed the power of the magnates, as the Sejm (national parliament) received the right to elect many officials, including judges, voivods and castellans. These privileges were demanded by the szlachta as a compensation for their participation in the Thirteen Years' War. The first "free election" (Polish: "wolna elekcja") of a king took place in 1492. (To be sure, some earlier Polish kings had been elected with help from bodies such as that which put Kazimierz II the Just on the throne, thereby setting a precedent for free elections.) Only senators voted in the 1492 free election, which was won by Jan I Olbracht. For the duration of the Jagiellonian Dynasty, only members of that royal family were considered for election; later, there would be no restrictions on the choice of candidates. In 1493 the national parliament, the Sejm, began meeting every two years at Piotrków. It comprised two chambers:
- a Senate of 81 bishops and other dignitaries; and
- a Sejm of 54 deputies (in Polish, "deputy" is "poseł") representing their respective sejmiks. The numbers of senators and deputies later increased. On April 26 1496, as a compensation for the unsuccessful incursion on Moldavia which had decimated the szlachta, King Jan Olbracht granted the Privilege of Piotrków (Polish: "przywilej piotrkowski" or "konstytucja piotrkowska"), increasing the nobility's feudal power over serfs. It bound the peasant to the land, as only one son (not the eldest) was permitted to leave the village; townsfolk (Polish: "mieszczaństwo") were prohibited from owning land; and positions in the Church hierarchy could be given only to nobles. On 23 October 1501, at Mielnik Polish-Lithuanian Union was reformed as the Union of Mielnik (Polish: unia mielnicka, unia piotrkowsko-mielnicka). It was there that the tradition of the coronation Sejm (Polish: "Sejm koronacyjny") was founded. Once again the nobility attemped to reduce the power of the magnates with a law that made them impeachable before the Senate for malfeasance. However the Act of Mielno (Polish: Przywilej Mielnicki) of 25 October did more to strenghten the magnate dominated Senate of Poland then the lesser nobility. The nobles were conceded the right to refuse to obey the King or his representatives--in the Latin, "non praestanda oboedientia"--and to form confederations, an armed rebellion against the king or state officers if the nobles thought that the law or their legitimate privileges were being infringed. confederations of 1573." Painting by Jan Matejko.]] On 3rd May 1505 King Alexander the Jagiellon granted the Act of "Nihil novi nisi commune consensu" (Latin: "nothing new without our consensus"). This forbade the king to pass any new law without the consent of the representatives of the nobility, in Sejm and Senat assembled, and thus greatly strengthened the nobility's political position. Basically, this act transferred legislative power from the king to the Sejm. This date commonly marks the beginning of the First Rzeczpospolita, the period of a szlachta-run "republic". In 1520 the Act of Bydgoszcz granted the Sejm the right to convene every four years, with or without the king's permission. About that time the "executionist movement" (Polish: "egzekucja praw"--"execution of the laws") began to take form. Its members would seek to curb the power of the magnates at the Sejm and to strengthen the power of king and country. In 1562 at the Sejm in Piotrków they would force the magnates to return many leased royal lands to the king, and the king to create a standing army (wojsko kwarciane). One of the most famous members of this movement was Jan Zamoyski. After his death in 1605, the movement lost its political force. Until the death of Sigismund Augustus, the last king of the Jagiellonian dynasty, monarchs could only be elected from within the royal family. However, starting from 1573, practically any Polish noble or foreigner of royal blood could become a Polish-Lithuanian monarch. Every newly elected king was supposed to sign two documents - the Pacta conventa ("agreed pacts") - a confirmation of the king's pre-election promises, and Henrican articles (artykuły henrykowskie, named after the first freely elected king, Henry of Valois). The latter document served as a virtual Polish constitution and contained the basic laws of the Commonwealth:
- free election of kings;
- religious tolerance;
- the Diet to be gathered every two years;
- foreign policy controlled by the Diet;
- a royal advisory council chosen by the Diet;
- official posts restricted to Polish and Lithuanian nobles;
- taxes and monopolies set up by the Diet only;
- nobles' right to disobey the king should he break any of these laws.

Transformation into aristocracy

For many centuries, wealthy and powerful members of the szlachta sought to gain legal privileges over their "equals." Few szlachta were wealthy enough to be known as magnates (karmazyni — the "crimson ones," from the crimson color of their boots). A proper magnate should be able to trace noble ancenstors back for many generations and own at least 20 villages or estates. He should also hold a major office in the Commonwealth. Some historians estimate the number of magnates as 4% of szlachta number. Out of 1 million of szlachta, tens of thousands of families, perhaps only 200-300 persons could be classed as great magnates with country-wide possessions and influence, and 30-40 of them could be viewed as those with significant impact on country's politics. Magnates often received gifts from monarchs, which significantly increased their wealth. Often, those gifts were only temporary leases, which the magnates never returned (in 16th century, the anti-magnate opposition among szlachta were known as the ruch egzekucji praw - movement for execution of the laws - which demanded that all such possetions are returned to their proper owner, the king). One of the most imporant victories of the magnates was the late 16th century right to create ordynacja's (similar to majorats), which ensured that a family which gained wealth and power could more easily preserve this. Ordynacje's of families of Radziwiłłs, Zamoyski's, Poniatowski's or Lubomirski's often rivaled the estates of the king and were important power bases for the magnates. With the partitions of Poland, the magnates finally got the recognition in law they craved. The equality among szlachta was no more, as the law systems of the partitioning powers recognized only the privileged aristocracy and treated the poorer szlachta as normal citizens, or extreme cases, peasants. All szlachta privileges were finally abolished after the Second World War under the communist regime of the People's Republic of Poland.

Szlachta culture

The Polish nobility differed in many respects from the nobility of other countries. The most important difference was that, while in most European countries the nobility lost power as the ruler strove for absolute monarchy, in Poland the reverse process occurred: the nobility actually gained power at the expense of the king, and the political system evolved toward a partial democracy (and eventually, anarchy). anarchy Poland's nobility were also more numerous than those of all other European countries, they formed some 8-10% of the population, and in some poorer regions (e.g. Mazowsze, the area centred on Warsaw) nearly 30%. By contrast, the nobilities of other European countries, except for Spain, amounted to a mere 1-3%. There were a number of ways to upward social mobility and the achievement of nobility. Poland's nobility, unlike France's aristocracy, was not a rigidly exclusive, closed class. Many low-born individuals, including townsfolk, peasants and Jews, could and did rise in Polish society. Thus Poland's noble class was more stable than those of other countries, and so was spared the societal tensions and eventual disintegration that characterised the French revolution. Each szlachic had enormous influence over the country's politics, in some form even greater that what is enjoyed by the citizens of modern democratic countries. Between 1652 and 1791 any nobleman could nullify all the proceedings of a given sejm (Commonwealth parliament) or sejmik (Commonwealth local parliament) by exercising his individual right of liberum veto (Latin: I don't allow), except in the case of a confederated sejm or confederated sejmik. All children of the Polish nobility inherited their noble status from a noble mother and father. Any individual could attain ennoblement (Polish: "nobilitacja") for special services to the state. A foreign noble might be naturalised as a Polish noble (Polish: "indygenat") by the Polish king (later, from 1641, only by a general sejm). general sejm In theory at least, all Polish noblemen were social equals. The poorest enjoyed the same rights as the wealthiest magnate. The exceptions were a few privileged families such as the Radziwiłł, Lubomirski and Czartoryski, who sported aristocratic titles received from foreign courts, such as "Prince" or "Count." All other szlachta simply addressed each other by their given name or as "Sir Brother" (Panie bracie) or the feminine equivalent. Count in crimson red bekiesza. Holds buława in right hand. Note crimson shoes (buty karmazynowe), a sign of wealth and rank. Crimson color wore by wealthy szlachta led to the magnates nickname, 'karmazyni' - the crimson ones.]] According to their financial standing, the nobility could be divided into:
- magnates: the wealthiest class;
- middle nobility;
- lesser nobility (often referred to by a variety of colourful Polish terms such as
- szaraczkowa - 'grey ones', from their grey, woollen, uncoloured zupans
- zaściankowa - from zaścianek, a name for szlachta village, full of zagrody, the impoverished
- okoliczna - 'nearby', similar to zaściankowa
- zagrodowa - from zagroda, a poor szlachta house, often little different from a peasant's dwelling
- zagonowa - from zagon, a small unit of land measure
- cząstkowa - 'partial', owners of only part of a single village
- drążkowa - when gathered, had no comfortable chairs, so they had to sit on fences and the like
- gołota - 'naked ones', i.e. the landless, or ones who owned no land
- panki - little 'pan' (i.e. lordling), term used in Kaszuby, the Kashubian region
- brukowa - 'cobbled ones', for those living in towns like townsfolk
- hreczkosiej - 'those who sow' and have to work on their own fields by themselves

Heraldry

Coats of arms were very important to the Polish nobility. It is notable, that the Polish heraldic system evolved separately from its western counterparts and differed in many ways from the heraldry of other European countries. The most notable difference is that, contrary to other european heraldic systems, the coat of arms did not "belong" to a family or a clan, but the other way around, the szlachta family pertained to a coat of arms. As a consequence, it was common that many distinct, unrelated families (sometimes as many as 600) share the same coat of arms. Because of that, the symbols were barely ever parted. Logically, the number of coats of arms in this system was rather low and did not exceed 200 in late Middle Ages. Also, the tradition of differentiating between the coat of arms proper and a lozenge granted to women did not develop in Poland. Usually men inherited the coat of arms from their fathers (or the member of the clan who "adopted them") while women inherited it after their mothers or were adopted to the family of the husband. Also, the brisure was rarely used.

Sarmatism

The szlachta's prevalent mentality and ideology were manifested in "Sarmatism," a name derived from supposed ancestors of the szlachta, the Sarmatians. This belief system became an important part of szlachta culture and affected all aspects of their lives. It enshrined traditional village life, peace and pacifism; popularised oriental-style apparel (the żupan, kontusz, sukmana, pas kontuszowy, delia); and made the scimitar-like szabla, too, a near-obligatory item of everyday szlachta apparel. Sarmatism served to integrate the multi-ethnic nobility as it created an almost nationalistic sense of unity and pride in the szlachta's Golden Freedom (złota wolność). Knowledge of Latin was widespread, and most szlachta freely mixed Polish and Latin ("macaronisms" — from "macaroni") in everyday conversation. macaronism and blue silk żupan.]] In its early, idealistic form, Sarmatism seemed like a salutary cultural movement: it fostered religious faith, honesty, national pride, courage, equality and freedom. As with any doctrine, however, that puts one social class above others, it eventually became perverted. Late Sarmatism turned belief into bigotry, honesty into political naiveté, pride into arrogance, courage into stubbornness, equality and freedom within the szlachta class into dissension and anarchy.

Religious beliefs

Prior to the Reformation, the Polish nobility were mostly Catholic or Orthodox. Many families, however, soon adopted the Reformed faiths. After the Counter-Reformation, when the Roman Catholic Church regained power in Poland, the nobility became almost exclusively Catholic, despite the fact that Roman Catholicism was not the majority religion in Poland (the Catholic and Orthodox churches each accounted for some 40% of the population, with the remaining 20% being Jews or members of Protestant denominations). Szlachta, as the Commonwealth itself, was extremely tolerant of other religions. There were almost no conflicts based on faith, and szlachta members are known to have intervened several times to pacify religious conflicts in cities and towns. In the 18th century, many followers of Jacob Frank joined the ranks of Jewish-descended Polish gentry.

External links

- [http://www.szlachta.org/ Confederation of the Polish Nobility]
- [http://www.nobility.by/ Association of the Belarusian Nobility]
- [http://www.bajorusajunga.lt/ Association of Lithuanian Nobility]
- [http://www.geocities.com/polishnobles The Polish Aristocracy - History of Polish titled families, heraldry, Orders]
- [http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/Slavonic/staff/Szlachta.html The Inexorable Political Rise of the szlachta]
- [http://www.angelfire.com/mi4/polcrt/PolNobility.html Short article on The Polish Nobility ]
- [http://www.wbc.poznan.pl/ Digital Library of Wielkpolska] Category:History of Poland

General

General is a high military rank, used by nearly every country in the world. General may be a rank on its own, or can be used as a generic term for "general officers". In most nations, the various grades of General are at the top of the rank structure; but some countries have even higher ranks such as Field Marshal or Marshal. General Officer, often referred to less formally and imprecisely as "General", refers to a military officer who holds any rank grade of General. The exact rank of a general may be determined by combining a prefix (e.g. Major General) or suffix (e.g. General of the Army) with the word general. A General, without prefix or suffix (and sometimes referred to informally as a "full general"), is usually the most senior general officer rank, above Lieutenant General. In some armies, however, the rank of Captain General, General of the Army, Army General or Colonel General occupied or occupies this position. These ranks may be considered to be equivalent to a full General or to a Field Marshal, depending on the army in question. While historically an army rank, General is also used in most air forces, although those based on the British Royal Air Force use Air Marshal instead, with Air Officer being the generic title. In most navies of the world, the equivalent rank is Admiral and the generic term is Flag Officer; however a noteworthy historical exception was the Cromwellian naval rank General at sea. The rank of General began appearing around the time of the organization of professional armies in the 17th century. At first, it was added as an adjective to existing names of ranks, yielding Colonel General, Captain General, Lieutenant General and Sergeant Major General. These titles were used to distinguish the ruler's most important officers and usually involved a certain amount of negotiation over precedence.

General ranks by seniority

The following are the commoner modern grades of General, listed by seniority. Not all countries use all these ranks, although the lowest four are common to many. The highest rank is only used in the US. Grades of general are also not necessarily equal in all countries (for instance, in some countries Major General is the lowest general officer rank and may well be closer to Brigadier General in countries that have them). In some European and Commonwealth nations, the equivalent to Brigadier General is Brigadier, which is not considered to be a general officer rank, although it is generally considered to be equivalent to the rank of Brigadier General. During World War I and World War II, the German Navy maintained a rank known as General Admiral, but this was a naval position unconnected to the regular land forces rank of General. The rank of General may also be found