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Kentucky River

Kentucky River

The Kentucky River is a tributary of the Ohio River, 259 mi (417 km) long, in the U.S. state of Kentucky. The river and its tributaries drain much of the central region of the state, with its upper course passing through the coal-mining regions of the Cumberland Mountains, and its lower course passing through the Bluegrass region in the north central part of the state. Its watershed encompasses about 7,000 sq. mi (18,000 km²). It supplies drinking water to about one-sixth of the population of the state. The river is navigable along its entire length because of a series of 14 locks built by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and now under the management of the state-run Kentucky River Authority. The primary importance of the locks today is to maintain a pool that allows the city of Lexington to draw its drinking water from the river. Despite the fact that the Lexington area receives well over 40 inches (1000 mm) of precipitation annually, the limestone, karst geology of that area means that surprisingly little natural surface water is found in the region.

Description

It is formed in central Kentucky at Beattyville, in Lee County, by the confluence of the North and South Forks at about 670 feet (204 m) elevation, and flows generally northwest, in a highly meandering course through the mountains, through the Daniel Boone National Forest, then past Irvine and Boonesborough, then southwest, passing south of Lexington, then north through Frankfort. It joins the Ohio at Carrollton. Approximately 15 mi (25 km) southwest of Boonesborough it is joined by the Red River. Approximately 20 mi (30 km) southwest of Boonesborough it is joined by Silver Creek. At High Bridge, it is joined by the Dix River. At Frankfort, it is joined by Benson Creek. Approximately 10 mi (15 km) north of Frankfort, it is joined by Elkhorn Creek. Between Clays Ferry in Madison County and Frankfort, the river passes through the Kentucky River Palisades, a series of dramatic steep gorges approximately 100 mi (160 km) in length.

External links

- [http://www.ky.gov/agencies/finance/depts/kra/ Kentucky River Authority]
- [http://kywater.org/watch/ky.htm NWS: Kentucky River Watershed Watch]
- [http://www.ky.gov/agencies/parks/i75frames/kyrivermuseum.htm Kentucky Rive Museum in Boonesbourough]
- [http://www.appalachianstudies.eku.edu/web-page/Kentucky_River_Facts.htm Eastern Kentucky University: Kentucky River facts]
- [http://nature.org/wherewework/northamerica/states/kentucky/preserves/art10916.html Kentucky River Palisades] Category:Rivers of Kentucky Category:Tributaries of the Ohio River

Ohio River

The Ohio River is a principal tributary of the Mississippi River, 1,579 km (981 mi) long in the eastern United States.

United States
The Ohio River viewed from Liberty Hill in Ripley, Ohio.

Of great significance in the history of North America dating from the time of the Native Americans, the river was a primary transportation route during the westward expansion of the early U.S. It flows through or along the border of six states, and its watershed encompasses 14 states, including many of the states of the southeastern U.S. through its largest tributary, the Tennessee. During the eighteenth century it was the southern boundary of the Northwest Territory, thus serving as the border between free and slave territory.

Description

Northwest Territory Northwest Territory The river is formed by the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers in downtown Pittsburgh. From Pittsburgh, it flows to the northwest through western Pennsylvania, before making an abrupt, almost 180 degree, turn to the south-southwest at the West Virginia state line where it then forms the border between West Virginia and Ohio. The river then follows a roughly southwestern and then western course between Kentucky and Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois until it joins the Mississippi from the east at Cairo, Illinois. At its mouth, the Ohio is wider than the Mississippi itself. [http://terraserver.microsoft.com/map.aspx?t=1&s=14&lon=-89.1538398279652&lat=36.9976844072984&w=750&h=500&opt=0&f=Tahoma,Verdana,Arial&fs=8&fc=ffffff99] Major tributaries of the river, indicated by the location of their mouth, include:
- Allegheny River — Pennsylvania
- Monongahela River — Pennsylvania
- Beaver River— Pennsylvania
- Little Muskingum River — Ohio
- Duck Creek — Ohio
- Muskingum River — Ohio
- Little Kanawha River — West Virginia
- Hocking River — Ohio
- Kanawha River — West Virginia
- Guyandotte River — West Virginia
- Big Sandy River — Kentucky-West Virginia border
- Scioto River — Ohio
- Little Miami River — Ohio
- Licking River — Kentucky
- Great Miami River — Ohio-Indiana border
- Kentucky River — Kentucky
- Green River — Kentucky
- Wabash River — Indiana-Illinois border
- Saline River — Illinois
- Cumberland River — Kentucky
- Tennessee River — Kentucky

Watershed

The Ohio's watershed covers 490,603 square kilometers (189,422 square miles), including the eastern-most regions of the Mississippi Basin. States drained by the Ohio include: Mississippi Basin with Ohio River and Scioto River tributary on right.]]
- Illinois (the southeast corner of the state),
- Indiana (all but the northern area of the state),
- Ohio (the southern half of the state),
- New York (a small area of the southern border along the headwaters of the Allegheny River),
- Pennsylvania (a corridor from the southwestern corner to north central border),
- Maryland (a small corridor along the Youghiogheny River on the state's western border),
- West Virginia (all but the eastern border of the state),
- Kentucky (all but a tiny part in the extreme west of the state drained directly by the Mississippi River),
- Tennessee (all but a small part in the extreme west of the state drained directly by the Mississippi River),
- Virginia (the western border of the state),
- North Carolina (the western border of the state),
- Georgia (the northwest corner of the state),
- Alabama (the northern fringe of the state), and
- Mississippi (the northeast corner of the state). See [http://earthtrends.wri.org/maps_spatial/maps_detail_static.cfm?map_select=393&theme=2] for a map and information on the Ohio's watershed.

Pre-history

The Ohio River was formed by glacial meltwater from the last stage of this ice age, the Wisconsin glaciation. During the glacial retreat, the river was temporarily dammed just southwest of Louisville, Kentucky, creating a large lake until the dam burst. The Ohio River largely supplanted the former Teays River drainage system, which was disrupted by the glaciers. Today, the river still follows a significant portion of the old Teays River course in southernmost Ohio.

History

Since it was considered by pre-Columbian inhabitants of eastern North America to be part of a single river continuing on through the lower Mississippi, it is perhaps an understatement to characterize the Ohio as a mere tributary of the Mississippi. The river is 981 miles (1579 km) long and carries the largest volume of water of any upper tributary of the Mississippi. In fact, the Ohio typically carries a much greater volume of water than the upper Mississippi. On May 19, 1749 King George II of Great Britain granted the Ohio Company a charter of land around the forks of the Ohio River. Louisville, Kentucky was founded at the only major natural navigational barrier on the river, the Falls of the Ohio. These were a series of rapids where the river flowed over hard, fossil-rich beds of limestone. The first locks on the river were built at Louisville to circumnavigate the falls. Today, this is the site of McAlpine Locks and Dam. Because the Ohio River flowed westwardly, it became the convenient means of westward movement by pioneers travelling from western Pennsylvania. After reaching the mouth of the Ohio, settlers would travel north on the Mississippi River to St. Louis, Missouri. There, some continued on up the Missouri River, some up the Mississippi, and some further west over land routes. In these early days, in the early 19th century, pirates set up shop at Cave-in-Rock in southern Illinois, waylaid travellers on their way down the river, killed them, stole their goods, and scuttled their boats. The folktales of Mike Fink recall the keelboats used for commerce in the early days of European settlement. Because of its significant role as the southern border of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, the Ohio River is historically famous as the border dividing free states and slave states. As depicted in several novels by Harriet Beecher Stowe and Toni Morrison, the Ohio River was the barrier which, by crossing by boat or 'on ice floes', slaves were freed. Today, the Ohio River generally separates Midwestern and Great Lakes states from Southern border states. Interestingly, by an accident of history, the charter for Virginia went not to the middle of the Ohio River, but to its far shore so the entire river was included. Wherever the river serves as a boundary between states—Illinois, Indiana and Ohio on the north, and Kentucky and West Virginia on the south, the river essentially belongs to the two states on the south that were divided from Virginia. Kentucky brought suit against Indiana in the early 1980s because of the building of the Marble Hill nuclear power plant in Indiana, which would have discharged its waste water into the river. The U.S. Supreme Court held that Kentucky's jurisdiction (and, implicitly, that of West Virginia) extended only to the low water mark of 1793, important because the river has been extensively dammed for navigation, so that the present river bank is north of the old low water mark. Similarly in the 1990s, Kentucky disputed Illinois' right to collect taxes on a riverboat casino docked in Metropolis, citing their control of the entire river. In the early 1980s, the Falls of the Ohio National Wildlife Conservation Area was established at Louisville, Kentucky.

Cities along the Ohio

For a full listing, see List of cities and towns along the Ohio River. Besides Pittsburgh and Cairo, other cities along the Ohio include:
- Steubenville, Marietta, Belpre, Pomeroy, Gallipolis, Ironton, Portsmouth, Ripley and Cincinnati in Ohio
- Weirton, New Martinsville, Wheeling, Paden City, Parkersburg and Huntington in West Virginia
- Ashland, Newport, Covington, Louisville, Owensboro, Henderson and Paducah in Kentucky
- Madison, Jeffersonville, Clarksville, New Albany, Tell City, Evansville and Mount Vernon in Indiana.
- Cairo, Metropolis, Brookport, Old Shawneetown, Cave-In-Rock, Elizabethtown and Golconda in Illinois

External links

- [http://www.kyinbridges.com/Features.aspx The Ohio River Bridges Project] (note: site uses Flash) Ohio River Category:Rivers of Illinois Category:Rivers of Indiana Category:Rivers of Kentucky Category:Rivers of Ohio Category:Streams of Pennsylvania Category:Rivers of West Virginia simple:Ohio River

Kentucky

The Commonwealth of Kentucky became the 15th U.S. state when it was admitted to the U.S. in 1792. Kentucky and its residents are most well known for thoroughbred horses and horse racing, local whisky distilleries, and enthusiasm for basketball. particularly for the two principal basketball rivals in the state--the blue and white Wildcats of the University of Kentucky and the red and black Cardinals of the University of Louisville. Sports rivalries between the University of Kentucky and the Universities of Tennessee and North Carolina have also long existed. While Kentucky's pastimes are distinctly those of the South, Kentuckian cuisine is considered to be a synergistic blend of Midwestern cuisine and Southern US cuisine.

Origin of name

It was once believed that the name Kentucky was derived from the Native American word meaning "dark and bloody hunting ground," which is believed to be due to the fact that many Native American tribes went there to hunt in the game-rich forests and often fought each other there. However, it is now most commonly believed that the name Kentucky can be attributed to various Native American languages with several possible meanings from "land of tomorrow" to "cane and turkey lands" to "meadow lands." This last may come from the Iroquois name for the Shawnee town Eskippathiki. The name Kentucky referred originally to the Kentucky River and from that came the name of the region.

History

Kentucky is one of four states referred to as a commonwealth. Before the American War of Independence, this land was called Transylvania with its capital at Boonesborough. It was a major gateway for early migration to the west through the Cumberland Gap, and was the first major frontier developed west of the Appalachian Mountains. Guns enabled this movement westward, and even the term shotgun was first coined in Kentucky in 1776. After the war, it became Kentucky County, Virginia and ten constitutional conventions took place at the courthouse of Constitution Square in Danville between 1784 and 1792. In 1790, Kentucky delegates accepted Virginia's terms for separation and the state constitution was drafted at the final convention in April 1792. On June 1, 1792, Kentucky became the fifteenth state in the union and Isaac Shelby, a Revolutionary War hero from Virginia, was named the first Governor of the Commonwealth Of Kentucky. Revolutionary War were born in Kentucky.]] Kentucky was a border state during the American Civil War and for a time had two state governments, one supporting the Confederacy and one supporting the Union. Fittingly, the Presidents of both the United States (Abraham Lincoln) and the Confederate States (Jefferson Davis) during the Civil War were born in Kentucky. At the beginning of the war, control of Kentucky was coveted by both sides of the conflict because of its central location. So much so, in fact, that in September 1861, Lincoln wrote in a private letter, “I think to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game.” The Confederates made advances in the state during the "Kentucky Campaign" of Generals Braxton Bragg and Edmund Kirby Smith in 1862, but Braggs' retreat following the Battle of Perryville left the state under the control of the Union Army for the rest of the war.

Law and government

The capital of Kentucky is Frankfort and its current governor is Ernie Fletcher (Republican). Kentucky's two U.S. Senators are Jim Bunning (Republican) and Mitch McConnell (Republican). The Kentucky Constitution provides for three branches of government: the legislative, the judicial, and the executive. Kentucky's General Assembly has two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives. The executive branch is headed by the Governor. See List of Kentucky Governors. The judicial branch of Kentucky is made up of trial courts, called District and Circuit Courts, an intermediate appellate court, called the Kentucky Court of Appeals, and a court of last resort, the Kentucky Supreme Court. Historically, Kentucky has leaned towards the Democratic Party, and was included among the "Solid South." The majority of the state's voters are officially registered as Democrats, although the majority has slimmed substantially in recent election cycles. Kentucky has voted Republican in five of the last seven presidential elections, but has supported the Democratic candidates of the South. The commonwealth supported Democrats Jimmy Carter in 1976, and Bill Clinton in 1992 and 1996, but Republican George W. Bush in 2000 and 2004. Bush won the state's 8 electoral votes overwhelmingly in 2004 by a margin of 20 percentage points and 59.6% of the vote. The most solidly Democratic counties are in the mountainous eastern unionized coal mining region, especially Pike, Floyd, Knott, Menifee, and Breathitt, and the city of Louisville.

Geography

See also: List of Kentucky counties List of Kentucky counties Kentucky, also known as The Bluegrass State, borders the Midwest and the Deep South. It touches West Virginia, Virginia, and Tennessee, but is separated by water from Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Its northern border is the low-water mark on the north side of the Ohio River. Its western border is the Mississippi River. Other major rivers in Kentucky include the Kentucky River, Tennessee River, the Cumberland River, the Green River, and the Licking River. There are five main regions, the Cumberland Mountains and Cumberland Plateau in the southeast, the north-central Bluegrass Region, the south-central and western Pennyroyal Plateau, also sometimes termed "Pennyrile", the western coal-fields area, and the far-west Jackson Purchase. Jackson Purchase The largest cities in Kentucky in terms of geographic area are the two merged city/county governments of Lexington-Fayette and Louisville Metro, although Louisville and its metropolitan area both have a much larger population than Lexington and its metro area. Northern Kentucky, an assemblage of smaller cities across the Ohio River from Cincinnati, Ohio, also has a large metropolitan population. The Lexington MSA and the Kentucky portions of the Louisville and Cincinnati MSAs, together, only make up about 45% of the state population, suggesting how rural the state is although 83% of Kentuckians live in MSAs with populations greater than 65,000. Much of rural Kentucky has become suburban during the last decade of the twentieth century. Interestingly enough, Kentucky is the only U.S. state to have a non-contiguous part exist as an enclave of another state. Far western Kentucky includes a small part of land on the Mississippi River bordered by Missouri and accessible via Tennessee. This area is known as the Madrid Bend.

Regions

Bluegrass Region The Bluegrass region is commonly divided into two regions, the Inner Bluegrass - the encircling ninety miles around Lexington - and the Outer Bluegrass, the region that contains most of the Northern portion of the state, above the Knobs.

Significant natural attractions

- Cumberland Gap, chief passageway through the Appalachian Mountains in early American history.
- Cumberland Falls State Park, where a "moon-bow" may be seen in the mists of the falls.
- Mammoth Cave National Park, featuring tours of the world's longest cave.
- Red River Gorge Geological Area, part of the Daniel Boone National Forest.
- Land Between the Lakes, a National Recreation Area managed by the United States Forest Service.

Economy

The total gross state product for 2003 was $129 billion. Its Per Capita Personal Income was $26,575, 41st in the nation. Kentucky's agricultural outputs are horses, cattle, tobacco, dairy products, hogs, soybeans, corn, and often cotton in the west. Its industrial outputs are transportation equipment, chemical products, electric equipment, machinery, food processing, tobacco products, coal, and tourism.

Demographics

As of 2004, there were an estimated 4,145,922 people living in Kentucky. This is a increase of over 104,104 people from 2000. This includes about 95,000 foreign-born (2.3%). Racially, the population is:
- 89.3% White, non-Hispanic
- 7.3% Black
- 1.5% Hispanic
- 0.7% Asian
- 0.2% Native American
- 1.1% Mixed race The five largest ancestries in the state are: American (20.9%), German (12.7%), Irish (10.5%), English (9.7%), African American (7.3%). Blacks, who once represented a quarter of the state's population during the height of the tobacco, cotton, and hemp plantation era, are most concentrated in the southwest (notably Christian County and the city of Paducah), the Bluegrass, and the city of Louisville. "American ancestry" is the largest reported ancestry group throughout most of the state in the Census.

Religion

Religiously, Kentucky is mostly Protestant. The religious affiliations of the state are as follows:
- Christian – 86%
- Protestant – 70%
- Baptist – 35%
- Methodist – 5%
- Pentecostal – 4%
- Church of Christ – 3%
- Lutheran – 2%
- Presbyterian – 2%
- Other Protestant – 19%
- Roman Catholic – 15%
- Other Christian – 1%
- Jewish 0.01%
- Other Religions – <1%
- Non-religious – 14% Religious movements were important in the early history of Kentucky. Perhaps the most famous event was the interdenominational revival in August 1801 at the Cane Ridge Meeting house in Bourbon County. As part of what is now known as the "Western Revival" thousands began meeting around a Presbyterian communion service on August 6, 1801 and ended six days later on August 12, 1801 when both humans and horses ran out of food. The service was originally scheduled for August 8th but people began arriving two days earlier on a rainy August 6th. The meeting was hosted by Barton Stone. Presbyterians, Methodists and some Baptist were present as the services were attempted to be interdominational as possible. As the days wore on, some counted as many as seven preachers preaching at the same time from tree stumps or wagons.

Important cities and towns

Population > 1,000,000 (urbanized areas)

- Louisville

Population > 100,000 (urbanized areas)

- Lexington

Population > 10,000 (urbanized areas)

Important suburbs and small towns

Education

Colleges and universities

Private

Public

Community colleges

Professional sports teams

Kentucky is home to no major league sports team, but several minor league teams. Minor league baseball
- Louisville Bats (Triple-A International League affiliate of the Cincinnati Reds)
- Lexington Legends (Single-A South Atlantic League affiliate of the Houston Astros)
- Florence Freedom (Single-A Frontier League independent) Football
- Lexington Horsemen (United Indoor Football)
- Louisville Fire (AF2) Basketball
- Kentucky Colonels (American Basketball Association (21st century))

State symbols

American Basketball Association (21st century)
- State bird: Northern Cardinal
- State flower: Goldenrod
- State tree: Tulip Poplar (formerly the Kentucky coffeetree)
- State horse: Thoroughbred
- State fish: Kentucky Bass
- State wild animal: Grey Squirrel
- State butterfly: Viceroy Butterfly
- State gemstone: Fresh Water Pearl
- State fossil: Brachiopod
- State song: "My Old Kentucky Home" by Stephen Foster (1853)
- State bluegrass song: "Blue Moon of Kentucky" by Bill Monroe (1947)
- State drink: Milk
- State motto: "United We Stand, Divided We Fall"
- State slogan: "Unbridled Spirit"
- See also: Flag of Kentucky

Trivia

Several U.S. Navy ships have been named USS Kentucky in honor of the state. The USS Paducah and USS Louisville also served as naval vessels.

External links

- [http://www.genealogybuff.com/ky/ GenealogyBuff.com - Kentucky Library of Files]
- [http://www.kentuckytourism.com Kentucky Department of Tourism]
- [http://www.kentuckyhighlands.com/kh/index.asp The Kentucky Highlands Project]
- [http://history.ky.gov/Museums/Kentucky_History_Center.htm The Kentucky History Center]
- [http://obit.obitlinkspage.com/ky.htm Kentucky Obituary Links]
- [http://www.kentuckyunbridledspirit.com/ Kentucky: Unbridled Spirit]
- [http://kentucky.gov Kentucky.gov: My New Kentucky Home]
- [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/21000.html U.S. Census Bureau Kentucky QuickFacts]
- Category:States of the United States ko:켄터키 주 ms:Kentucky ja:ケンタッキー州 simple:Kentucky

Coal

Coal is a fossil fuel extracted from the ground by deep mining, coal mining (open-pit mining or strip mining). It is a readily combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock. It is composed primarily of carbon and hydrocarbons, along with assorted other elements, including sulfur. Often associated with the Industrial Revolution, coal remains an enormously important fuel and is the most common source of electricity world-wide. In the United States, for example, the burning of coal generates over half the electricity consumed by the population. United States

Etymology and folklore

Coal is thought ultimately to derive its name from the Old English col but this actually meant charcoal at the time; coal was not mined prior to the late Middle Ages; i.e. after ca. 1000 AD. Mineral coal was referred to as sea-coal, either because it was found on beaches occasionally having fallen from the exposed coal seams above, or because it was easier to transport by sea rather than on the very poor road system (in London, England there is still a sea coal road/lane where the coal merchants conducted their business). It is associated with the astrological sign Capricorn. It is carried by thieves to protect them from detection and to help them to escape when pursued. It is an element of a popular ritual associated with New Year's Eve. To dream of burning coals is a symbol of disappointment, trouble, affliction and loss, unless they are burning brightly, when the symbol gives promise of uplifting and advancement. Santa Claus is said to leave a lump of coal instead of Christmas presents in the stockings of naughty children.

Composition and creation

Carbonacous material forms more than 50 percent by weight and more than 70 percent by volume of coal (this includes inherent moisture). Coal is formed from plant remains that have been compacted, hardened, chemically altered, and metamorphosed by heat and pressure over geologic time. Much coal was formed from ancient plants that grew in swamp ecosystems. When such plants died, their biomass was deposited in anaerobic, aquatic environments where low oxygen levels prevented their decay and oxidation (rotting and release of carbon dioxide). Successive generations of this type of plant growth and death formed thick deposits of unoxidized organic matter that were subsequently covered by sediments and compacted into carbonaceous deposits such as peat or bituminous or anthracite coal. Evidence of the types of plants that contributed to carbonaceous deposits can occasionally be found in the shale and sandstone sediments that overlie coal deposits, and, with special techniques, within the coal itself. The greatest coal-forming time in geologic history was during the Carboniferous era (280 to 345 million years ago).

Types of coal

As geological processes apply pressure to peat over time, it is transformed successively into:
- Lignite - also referred to as brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal and used almost exclusively as fuel for steam-electric power generation. Jet is a compact form of lignite that is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Iron Age.
- Sub-bituminous coal - whose properties range from those of lignite to those of bituminous coal and are used primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation.
- Bituminous coal - a dense coal, usually black, sometimes dark brown, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material, used primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation, with substantial quantities also used for heat and power applications in manufacturing and to make coke.
- Anthracite - the highest rank, used primarily for residential and commercial space heating.

Uses

Anthracite]

Coal as fuel

:See also Clean coal Coal is primarily used as a solid fuel to produce heat through combustion. World coal consumption is about 5,800 million short tons (5.3 petagrams) annually, of which about 75% is used for electricity production. The region including China and India uses about 1,700 million short tons (1.5 Pg) annually, forecast to exceed 3,000 million short tons (2.7 Pg) in 2025. The USA consumes about 1,100 million short tons (1.0 Pg) of coal each year, using 90% of it for generation of electricity. Coal is the fastest growing energy source in the world, with coal use increasing by 25% for the three-year period ending in December 2004 (BP Statistical Energy Review, June 2005). When coal is used in electricity generation, it is generally pulverized and then burned. The heat produced is used to create steam, which is then used to spin turbines which turn generators and create electricity. Approximately 40% of the Earth's current electricity production is powered by coal, and the total known deposits recoverable by current technologies are sufficient for 300 years' use at current rates (see World Coal Reserves, below). A promising, more energy efficient way of using coal for electricity production would be via solid-oxide fuel cells or molten-carbonate fuel cells (or any oxygen ion transport based fuel cells that do not discriminate between fuels, as long as they consume oxygen), which would be able to get 60%-85% combined efficiency (direct electricity + waste heat steam turbine), compared to 30-40% currently possible with only steam turbines. Currently these fuel cell technologies can only process gaseous fuels, and they are also sensitive to sulfur poisoning, issues which would first have to be worked out before large scale commercial success is possible with coal. As far as gaseous fuels go, one idea is pulverized coal in a gas carrier (nitrogen), especially if the resulting carbon dioxide is sequestered, and has to be separated anyway from the carrier. A better idea is coal gasification with water, then the water recycled.

Gasification

High prices of oil and natural gas are leading to increased interest in "BTU Conversion" technologies such as coal gasification, methanation, liquefacation, and solidification. In the past, coal was converted to make coal gas, which was piped to customers to burn for illumination, heating, and cooking. At present, the safer natural gas is used instead. South Africa still uses gasification of coal for much of its petrochemical needs. Gasification is also a possibility for future energy use, as it generally burns hotter and cleaner than conventional coal, can spin a more efficient gas turbine rather than a steam turbine, and makes capturing carbon dioxide for later sequestration much much easier.

Liquefaction

Coal can also be converted into liquid fuels like gasoline or diesel by several different processes. The Fischer-Tropsch process of indirect synthesis of liquid hydrocarbons was used in Nazi Germany, and for many years by Sasol in South Africa - in both cases, because those regimes were politically isolated and unable to purchase crude oil on the open market. Coal would be gasified to make syngas (a balanced purified mixture of CO and H₂ gas) and the syngas condensed using Fischer-Tropsch catalysts to make light hydrocarbons which are further processed into gasoline and diesel. Syngas can also be converted to methanol: which can be used as a fuel, fuel additive, or further processed into gasoline via the Mobil M-gas process. A direct liquefaction process Bergius process (liquefaction by hydrogenation) is also available but has not been used outside Germany, where such processes were operated both during World War I and World War II. SASOL in South Africa has experimented with direct hydrogenation. Several other direct liquefaction processes have been developed, among these being the SRC-I and SRC-II (Solvent Refined Coal) processes developed by Gulf Oil and implemented as pilot plants in the United States in the 1960's and 1970's. Yet another process to manufacture liquid hydrocarbons from coal is low temperature carbonization (LTC). Coal is coked at temperatures between 450 and 700 °C compared to 800 to 1000 °C for metalurgical coke. These temperatures optimize the production of coal tars richer in lighter hydrocarbons than normal coal tar. The coal tar is then further processed into fuels. The process was developed by Lewis Karrick, an oil shale technologist at the U.S. Bureau of Mines in the 1920s. All of these liquid fuel production methods release carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the conversion process. Carbon dioxide sequestration is proposed to avoid releasing it into the atmosphere. As CO₂ is one of the process streams, sequestration is easier than from flue gases produced in combustion of coal with air, where CO₂ is diluted by nitrogen and other gases. Coal liquefaction is one of the backstop technologies that limit escalation of oil prices. Estimates of the cost of producing liquid fuels from coal suggest that domestic U.S. production of fuel from coal becomes cost-competitive with oil priced at around 35 USD per barrel , (break-even cost), which is well above historical averages - but is now viable due to the spike in oil prices in 2004-2005. . Among commercially mature technologies, advantage for indirect coal liquefaction over direct coal liquefaction are reported by Williams and Larson (2003). Estimates are reported for sites in China where break-even cost for coal liquefaction may be in the range between 25 to 35 USD/barrel of oil.

Coking and use of coke

Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal from which the volatile constituents are driven off by baking in an oven without oxygen at temperatures as high as 1,000 °C (2,000 °F) so that the fixed carbon and residual ash are fused together. Coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. Coke from coal is grey, hard, and porous and has a heating value of 24.8 million Btu/ton (29.6 MJ/kg). Byproducts of this conversion of coal to coke include coal-tar, ammonia, light oils, and "coal-gas". Petroleum coke is the solid residue obtained in oil refining, which resembles coke but contains too many impurities to be useful in metallurgical applications.

Harmful effects of coal burning

Combustion of coal, like any other compound containing carbon, produces carbon dioxide (CO₂), along with varying amounts of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) depending on where it was mined. Sulfur dioxide reacts with water to form sulfurous acid. If sulfur dioxide is discharged into the atmosphere, it reacts with water vapor and is eventually returned to the Earth as acid rain. Emissions from coal-fired power plants represent the largest source of artificial carbon dioxide emissions, according to most climate scientists a primary cause of global warming. Many other pollutants are present in coal power station emissions. Some studies claim that coal power plant emissions are responsible for tens of thousands of premature deaths annually in the United States alone. Modern power plants utilize a variety of techniques to limit the harmfulness of their waste products and improve the efficiency of burning, though these techniques are not widely implemented in some countries, as they add to the capital cost of the power plant. To eliminate CO₂ emissions from coal plants, carbon sequestration has been proposed but is not yet in large-scale use. Coal also contains many trace elements, including arsenic and mercury, which are dangerous if released into the environment. Coal also contains low levels of uranium, thorium, and other naturally-occurring radioactive isotopes whose release into the environment may lead to radioactive contamination. While these substances are trace impurities, if a great deal of coal is burned, significant amounts of these substances are released. If coal liquefaction or gasification is used to make petrochemicals, a great deal of carbon dioxide is produced in the process. If a carbon tax was introduced and sufficient CO₂ was not captured, the economics of such processes would be significantly less attractive. However, if sequestration or some other process were used to dispose of this by-product, fuels produced from this process would be less polluting. Some process do not have a much greater total impact on carbon dioxide levels than ones refined from petroleum. Others may be less polluting still. Research in this field is ongoing.

Coal fires

There are hundreds of coal fires burning around the world. Those burning underground can be difficult to locate and many can not be extinguished. Fires can cause the ground above to subside, combustion gases are dangerous to life, and breaking out to the surface can initiate surface wildfires. Coal seams can be set on fire by spontaneous combustion or contact with a mine fire or surface fire. A grass fire in a coal area can set dozens of coal seams on fire. Coal fires in China burn 120 million tons of coal a year, emitting 360 million metric tons of carbon dioxide. This amounts to 2-3% of the annual worldwide production of CO₂ from fossil fuels, or as much as emitted from all of the cars and light trucks in the United States. In the United States , a trash fire was lit in the borough landfill located in an abandoned Anthracite strip mine pit in the portion of the Coal Region called Centralia, Pennsylvania from 1962. It burns underground today, 40 years later. The reddish siltstone rock that caps many ridges and buttes in the Powder River Basin (Wyoming), and in western North Dakota is called porcelanite, which also may resemble the coal burning waste "clinker" or volcanic "scoria." Clinker is rock that has been fused by the natural burning of coal. In the case of the Powder River Basin approximately 27 to 54 billion metric tons of coal burned within the past three million years. Wild coal fires in the area were reported by the Lewis and Clark expedition as well as explorers and settlers in the area. The Australian Burning Mountain was originally believed to be a volcano, but the smoke and ash comes from a coal fire which may have been burning for 5,000 years.

World coal reserves

It has been estimated that, as of 1996, there is around one exagram (1 × 10¹⁵ kg) of total coal reserves economically accessible using current mining technology, approximately half of it being hard coal. The energy value of all the world's coal is well over 100,000 quadrillion Btu (100 zettajoules). There probably is enough coal to last for 300 years. However, this estimate assumes no rise in population, and no increased use of coal to attempt to compensate for the depletion of natural gas and petroleum. A recent (2003) study by scientist Gregson Vaux, which takes those factors into account, estimates that coal could peak in the United States as early as 2046, on average. "Peak" doesn't mean coal will disappear, but defines the time after which no matter what efforts are expended coal production will begin to decline in quantity and energy content. The disappearance of coal will occur much later, around the year 2267, assuming all other factors do not change, which they naturally will. Gregson Vaux The United States Department of Energy uses estimates of coal reserves in the region of 1,081,279 million short tons, which is about 4,786 BBOE (billion barrels of oil equivalent) . The amount of coal burned during 2001 was calculated as 2.337 GTOE (gigatonnes of oil equivalent), which is about 46 MBOED (million barrels of oil equivalent per day) . At that rate those reserves will last 285 years. As a comparison natural gas provided 51 MBOED, and oil 76 MBD (million barrels per day) during 2001.

External links

- [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5174391/ MSNBC report on coal pollution health effects in the United States]
- [http://www.uic.com.au/nip83.htm Clean coal technologies]
- [http://www.ucsusa.org/CoalvsWind/brief.coal.html Use of coal gas in fuel cells]
- [http://www.jcoal.or.jp/overview_en/gijutsu.html Advanced methods of using coal] (Japanese Coal Energy Center)

References

- , also [http://www.ieiglobal.org/ESDVol7No4/dclversussicl.pdf] # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # #
- Category:Sedimentary rocks Category:Rocks ja:石炭

Cumberland Mountains

Cumberland Mountains is a region in the southeastern section of the Appalachian Mountains. It is located in western Virginia, eastern edges of Kentucky, and mid-eastern Tennessee. Its largest peak is Black Mountain which is located in Harlan County, Kentucky.

Bluegrass region

.]] The Bluegrass region is a region of the United States. The Bluegrass region, centered on Lexington, is generally considered to include central and northern Kentucky with a small area extending into southern Ohio. The region gets its name from Bluegrass, the common name for grass of the genus Poa, which is a favored lawn and pasture grass in the eastern United States from Tennessee northward. The Bluegrass region is characterized by underlying fossiliferous limestone, dolostone, and shale of the Ordovician geological age. Hills are generally rolling, and the soil is highly fertile for growing pasture. Because of this, the Bluegrass is well known for its horse farms. However, the area is becoming more developed, particularly around Lexington, and farms are disappearing to development, which has led to its being listed on the World Monuments Watch's 100 most endangered sites. [http://wmf.org/html/programs/resources/sitepages/united_states_bluegrass_cultural_landscape_kentucky.html ] The Kentucky Bluegrass is bounded on the east by the Cumberland Plateau, with the Pottsville Escarpment forming the boundary. On the south and west, it borders the Pennyroyal Plateau, (also called the Pennyrile), with Muldraugh Hill, another escarpment, forming the boundary. Much of the region is drained by the Kentucky River and its tributaries. The river cuts a deep canyon through the region, preserving meanders that indicate that the river was once a mature low valley that was suddenly uplifted. Particularly near the Kentucky River, the region exhibits karst topography, with sinkholes, caves, and disappearing streams which drain underground to the river. The area gave its name to Bluegrass music, which is popular throughout Appalachia and the South. Category:100 most endangered sites Category:Geography of Kentucky

United States Army Corps of Engineers

The United States Army Corps of Engineers, or USACE, is made up of some 34,600 civilian and 650 military men and women. The Corps' mission is to provide engineering services to the United States, including:
- Planning, designing, building and operating dams and other civil engineering projects
- Designing and managing the construction of military facilities for the Army and Air Force
- Providing design and construction management support for other Defense and federal agencies The Corps' history began in 1775 when the Continental Congress authorized the first Chief Engineer whose first task was to build fortifications near Boston at Bunker Hill. The first Corps were mostly composed of French subjects, who had been hired by George Washington from the service of Louis XVI. In 1802 a corps of engineers was stationed at West Point and constituted the nation's first military academy. The Corps' authority over river works in the United States began with its fortification of New Orleans after the War of 1812. The United States Military Academy was under the direction of the Corps of Engineers until 1866. Another notable project of this era was the 555 ft 5 1/8 in (169 m) tall Washington Monument, completed under the direction and command of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Lincoln Casey in 1888. In the Twentieth Century the Corps oversaw major hydroelectric projects as well as the Manhattan Project, which developed the nuclear weapons used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The Chief of Engineers has separate and distinct command and staff responsibilities. As a staff officer at the Pentagon, the Chief advises the Army on engineering matters and serves as the Army's topographer and the proponent for real estate and other related engineering programs. As commander of the US Army Corps of Engineers, the Chief of Engineers leads a major Army command that is the world's largest public engineering, design and construction management agency. This office defines policy and guidance and plans direction for the organizations within the Corps. The current Chief of Engineers is LTG Carl Strock. The US Army Corps of Engineers Headquarters is made up of an Executive Office and 17 Staff Principals. The Headquarters, located in Washington, DC, creates policy and plans future direction of all the other Corps organizations. The Corps is organized geographically into nine divisions and 45 subordinate districts throughout the US, Asia and Europe. The districts oversee project offices throughout the world. Divisions and districts are defined by watershed boundaries for civil works projects, and by political boundaries for military projects. The eight U.S. divisions are:
- Great Lakes and Ohio River Division (LRD)
- Mississippi Valley Division (MVD)
- North Atlantic Division (NAD)
- Northwestern Division (NWD)
- Pacific Ocean Division (POD)
- South Atlantic Division (SAD)
- South Pacific Division (SPD)
- Southwestern Division (SWD) Since 11 September 2001, the Corps has responded with the creation of expeditionary elements in Iraq (the Gulf Region Division or GRD) and Afghanistan (the Afghanistan Engineer District or AED). One of the major responsibilities of the Corps of Engineers is administering the wetlands permitting program under Section 404 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972. (AKA "The Clean Water Act"). This Act authorized the Secretary of the Army to issue permits for the discharge of dredged and fill material. Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 (codified in Chapter 33, Section 403 of the United States Code) gave the Corps authority over navigable waters of the United States. As navigable waters are defined as "navigable waters of the United States are those waters that are subject to the ebb and flow of the tide and/or are presently being used, or have been used in the past, or may be susceptible for use to transport interstate or foreign commerce", the Corps has broad authority to enforce this. There are three types of permits issued by the Corps: Nationwide, regional General, and individual. 80% of the permits issued are nationwide permits, which include several general types of activities, as published in the Federal Register. To get a nationwide permit, an applicant need only send a letter to the regional Corps office notifying them of your intent. Regional general permits are specific to each Corps division office. Individual permits are required for projects greater than 0.5 acres (2,000 m²) in size. The Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC) is the US Army Corps of Engineers research and development command. ERDC consists of eight unique laboratories. Research support includes:
- Mapping and terrain analysis
- Infrastructure design, construction, operations and maintenance
- Structural engineering
- Cold regions and ice engineering
- Coastal and hydraulic engineering
- Environmental quality
- Geotechnical engineering
- High performance computing and information technology There are several other major organizations within the Corps of Engineers:
- Huntsville, US Army Engineering and Support Center (CEHNC) - provides engineering and technical services, program and project management, construction management, and innovative contracting initiatives, for programs that are national or broad in scope or not normally provided by other Corps’ elements
- Transatlantic Programs Center (CETAC) - supports US government programs and policies overseas
- Finance Center, USACE (CEFC) - supports the operating finance and accounting functions throughout the US Army Corps of Engineers
- Humphreys Engineer Center Support Activity (CEHEC) - provides administrative and operational support for HQUSACE and Corps Field Offices
- Marine Design Center (CEMDC) - provides total project management including planning, engineering, and shipbuilding contract management in support of Corps, Army, and national water resource projects in peacetime, and augments the military construction capacity in time of national emergency or mobilization
- Institute for Water Resources (IWR) - supports the Civil Works Directorate and other USACE offices by developing and applying new planning evaluation methods, polices and data in anticipation of changing water resources management conditions.
- 249th Engineer Battalion - generates and distributes prime electrical power in support of fighting wars, disaster relief, stability and support operations as well as provides advice and technical assistance in all aspects of electrical power and distribution systems. It also maintains Army power generation and distribution war reserves.

External links

- [http://www.usace.army.mil/ United States Army Corps of Engineers]
- [http://texashistory.unt.edu/browse/collection/ACE/ Historic photos of Corps of Engineers lock and dam projects throughout Texas in 1910-20s from the Portal to Texas History] Corps of Engineers
-

Lexington, Kentucky

Lexington, Kentucky is the "Horse Capital of the World," located in the heart of the Bluegrass. It is the second largest city in Kentucky and has the second largest metropolitan area (after Louisville). As of 2004, the population estimates given by the U.S. Census Bureau was 266,358. Its population, territory and government are coextensive with that of Fayette County. Lexington is home to the Kentucky Horse Park, Keeneland race course, a JIF peanut butter plant which produces more peanut butter than any other factory in the world, Transylvania University and the University of Kentucky. UK's basketball program is immensely popular in the city; for example, the area code (859) spells out UKY. The University of Kentucky Wildcats basketball team has won more games than any other team in college basketball history.

History

Lexington was founded in June of 1775, 17 years before Kentucky became a state. A party of frontiersmen, led by William McConnell, camped on a branch of Elkhorn Creek at the location known today as McConnell Springs. Upon hearing of the colonists' victory at Lexington, Massachusetts on April 19, 1775, they named their campsite Lexington to commemorate the first battle of the American Revolutionary War. Due to the danger of Indian attacks, permanent settlement was delayed for four years. In 1779, Colonel Robert Patterson and 25 companions came from Fort Harrod and erected a blockhouse. Cabins and a stockade were soon built, making the fort a place of importance. The town of Lexington was established on May 6, 1782, by an act of the Virginia General Assembly. By 1820, it was one of the largest and wealthiest towns west of the Allegheny Mountains. So cultured was its lifestyle, Lexington gained the nickname "Athens of the West." One early prominent citizen, John Wesley Hunt, became the first millionaire west of the Alleghenies.

Law and government

In 1974, the governments of the city of Lexington and Fayette County, Kentucky combined to create the current Lexington-Fayette Urban County Government. Lexington has an elected mayor and city council-style of government.

Mayor

Lexington's mayor is Teresa Isaac, who has served in the post since 2002.

Urban County Council

The Urban County Council is a fifteen-member legislative group. Twelve of the members represent specific districts and serve two-year terms; three are elected city-wide as at-large council members and serve four-year terms. The at-large member with the highest number of votes in the general election automatically becomes the Vice Mayor who, in the absence of the Mayor, is the presiding officer of the Council. The current council members are:
- Mike Scanlon: Vice Mayor
- Chuck Eliinger II: At-Large
- David B. Stevens, MD: At-Large
- George Brown, Jr: 1st District
- Jacques Wigginton: 2nd District
- Dick DeCamp: 3rd District
- Linda Gorton: 4th District
- Bill Farmer, Jr: 5th District
- Kevin O. Stinnett: 6th District
- Bill Cegelka: 7th District
- George Myers: 8th District
- Jay McChord: 9th District
- Sandy Shafer: 10th District
- Richard Moloney: 11th District
- Ed Lane: 12th District

Geography and climate

Lexington-Fayette Urban County GovernmentWithin a day's drive of 75% of the population of the United States, Lexington is strategically located at the intersection of Interstates 64 and 75. Lexington is accessible by air with approximately 100 direct and nonstop flights from Blue Grass Airport. Fayette County consists of 283 square miles (733 km²) of gently rolling plateau in the center of the inner Bluegrass Region. The area is noted for its beauty, fertile soil, excellent pastureland and horse and stock farms. Poa Pratensis (bluegrass) thrives on the limestone beneath the soil's surface, playing a major role in the area's scenic beauty and in the development of champion horses. Numerous small creeks rise and flow into the Kentucky River.

Climate

The mean average temperature in Lexington is 54.9 °F (13 °C). Annual precipitation is 45.68 inches (1.2 m). Lexington and the Bluegrass have four distinct seasons that include cool plateau breezes, moderate nights in the summer, and no prolonged periods of heat, cold, rain, wind, or snow. Lexington does have the dubious distinction of being recognized as the #1 worst city for spring allergies by the Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America [http://www.aafa.org/]. Louisville came in at #4.

Economy

Traditional products of the area include horses, tobacco and handcrafts, but an increasing diversity of products and services contributes to a healthy economy. Major employers in the Lexington area include:
- Ashland, Inc.
- Amazon.com, Inc.
- Clark Material Handling Company
- Fazoli's
- General Electric Company
- GTE Products Corporation
- Johnson Controls
- Lexmark International
- Link-Belt Construction Equipment Company
- Proctor & Gamble
- Quebecor World
- Starbucks Coffee
- Square D Company
- Tempur-Pedic
- Toyota Motor Manufacturing, U.S.A., Inc.
- Trane
- Valvoline
- United Parcel Service
- University of Kentucky Kentucky state sales tax is 6 percent . Groceries are exempt. Hotel tax is 6 percent.

Demographics

The estimated 2000 population of Lexington-Fayette was 260,512. The estimated 2000 population of the metropolitan statistical area (MSA), comprised of Bourbon, Clark, Fayette, Jessamine, Madison, Scott, and Woodford Counties, is 424,778. In 2005 a Combined Statistical Area (CSA) was established for "Lexington-Frankfort-Richmond" for which Lexington is the centerpiece. [http://www.census.gov/population/estimates/metro-city/List6.txt] As of the census ² of 2000, there are 260,512 people, 108,288 households, and 62,915 families residing in the city. The population density is 353.5/km² (915.6/mi²). There are 116,167 housing units at an average density of 157.6/km² (408.3/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is:
81.04% White
13.48% African American
0.19% Native American
2.46% Asian
0.03% Pacific Islander
1.21% from other races
1.58% from two or more races
3.29% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 108,288 households out of which:
27.3% have children under the age of 18 living with them
43.5% are married couples living together
11.5% have a female householder with no husband present
41.9% are non-families
31.7% of all households are made up of individuals
7.5% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older
The average household size is 2.29 and the average family size is 2.90. The age distribution is 21.3% under the age of 18, 14.6% from 18 to 24, 33.2% from 25 to 44, 20.9% from 45 to 64, and 10.0% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 33 years. For every 100 females there are 96.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 94.3 males. The median income for a household in the city is $39,813, and the median income for a family is $58,677. Males have a median income of $36,166 versus $26,964 for females. The per capita income for the city is $23,109. 12.9% of the population and 8.2% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 14.3% of those under the age of 18 and 8.6% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. There are over 230 churches and synagogues in Lexington, representing 38 denominations.

Media

Newspapers

- Lexington Herald-Leader, daily morning newspaper
- ACE Weekly - weekly alternative newspaper
- [http://www.kykernel.com/home/ KY Kernel] - UK's campus newspaper

Television

- WLEX, NBC affiliate, - NTSC channel 18
- WKYT, CBS affiliate, - NTSC channel 27
- WTVQ, ABC affiliate, - NTSC channel 36
- WKLE, PBS and KET member station, - NTSC channel 46
- WDKY, FOX affiliate, - NTSC channel 56
- WBLU, independent, - NTSC channel 62
- UKYT, UPN affiliate, - Cable only; CH.13.5

Radio

- WVLK, (News/talk) - 590 AM
- WLAP, (News/talk) - 630 AM
- WLXG, (Sports) - 1300 AM
- WRFL, (Alternative) - 88.1 FM
- WUKY, (Classical/jazz) - 91.3 FM
- WBVX, (70s/80s Hits) - 92.1 FM "B92"
- WLXX, (Country) - 92.9 FM "The Bear"
- WMXL, (Mixed music/X-mas music from Nov.1-Dec.25) - 94.5 FM "Mix 94.5"
- WVRB, (Christian Contemporary) - 95.3 FM "Air1"
- WGKS, (Soft Rock/X-mas music from Nov.1-Dec.25) - 96.9 FM "KISS-FM"
- WBUL, (Country) - 98.1 FM "The Bull"
- WKQQ, (Rock) - 100.1 FM
- WLRO, (Classic Rock) - 101.5 FM "Arrow 101.5"
- WLTO, (Top 40/Hip Hop) - 102.5 FM "Hot 102"
- WXZZ, (Rock) - 103.3 FM "Z 103"
- WLKT, (Top 40/Mixed) - 104.5 FM "The Cat"
- WMKJ, (60s/70s Hits) - 105.5 FM "Magic 105"
- WCDA, (Top 40) - 106.3 FM "CD 1063"
- WBTL, (Urban/Hip Hop) - 107.9 FM "The Beat"

Education

Area colleges and universities

- Asbury College (in Wilmore)
- Asbury Theological Seminary (in Wilmore)
- Berea College (in Berea)
- Bluegrass Community and Technical College
- Centre College (in Danville)
- Eastern Kentucky University (in Richmond)
- Georgetown College (in Georgetown)
- Kentucky State University (in Frankfort)
- Lexington Theological Seminary
- National College of Business and Technology
- Midway College (in Midway)
- Sullivan University
- Transylvania University
- University of Kentucky

Public high schools

- [http://www.bshs.fcps.net Bryan Station High School]
- [http://www.henryclay.fcps.net Henry Clay High School]
- [http://www.lafayette.fcps.net Lafayette High School]
- Paul Laurence Dunbar High School
- [http://www.tatescreek.fcps.net Tates Creek High School]

Private high schools

- [http://www.lexingtoncatholic.com Lexington Catholic High School]
- [http://www.lexingtonchristian.org Lexington Christian Academy]
- [http://www.sayreschool.org Sayre School]
- [http://www.tcalex.org Trinity Christian Academy]
- [http://www.bluegrassbaptist.com Blue Grass Baptist School]

Sports teams

- Lexington Legends, Class A minor league affiliate of the Houston Astros. Since it's creation in 2001, Lexington has produced three major leaguers, the first being John Buck (Catcher) who plays for the Kansas City Royals, followed by Kirk Saarloos (Starting Pitcher) who is with the Oakland Athletics and Mike Gallo (Relief Pitcher), who is currently with the Astros. The Legends belong to the SAL (South Atlantic League), have one league title (2001) and 4 playoff appearances since 2001.
- Lexington Men O'War, minor league hockey (now defunct as of 2003)
- Lexington Horsemen, indoor football (United Indoor Football)
- University of Kentucky, a multitude of sports, however the most famous one is the men's basketball team.

Notable natives

Famous residents of Lexington have included:
- John Hunt Morgan
- Thomas Hunt Morgan
- Henry Clay
- Jefferson Davis
- John Breckinridge
- John Cabell Breckinridge
- Belle Brezing
- Mary Todd Lincoln
- Charles Chilton Moore
- Adolph Rupp (Basketball Coach)
- Jim Varney (Actor/Comedian)
- Ralph Eugene Meatyard (Photographer)
- Guy Davenport (Author)
- Walter Tevis (Author) (Mockingbird, The Hustler, The Color of Money)
- Harry Dean Stanton (Actor)
- Richard Hell (Punk-Rock Godfather)
- Kevin Richardson (Musician)
- Brian Littrell (Musician)

Points of Interest

- Aviation Museum of Kentucky
- Ashland: The Henry Clay Estate
- The Headley-Whitney Museum
- The Hunt-Morgan House
- Keeneland Race Course & Sales Complex
- Kentucky Horse Park
- Mary Todd Lincoln House
- The Red Mile Harness Track
- Southern Lights (Nov.18 - Dec.31)
- UK Basketball Museum
- Waveland State Historic Site
- Lexington Cemetery
- University of Kentucky/Lexington-Fayette Urban County Government Arboretum
- Rupp Arena

Sister cities

Lexington has four sister cities:
- Deauville, France since 1957
- County Kildare, Ireland since 1984
- Shizunai, Japan since 1988
- Newmarket, England since 2003

External links

- [http://www.lfucg.com/ Official city web page]
- [http://www.fayette.k12.ky.us/ Official web page of Fayette Co. Public Schools] Category:Lexington, Kentucky Category:Cities in Kentucky Category:Fayette County, Kentucky

Limestone

, Tennessee]] Limestone is a chemical sedimentary rock composed largely of the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate: CaCO₃). Limestones often contain variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or flint, as well as amounts of clay, silt and sand as disseminations, nodules, or layers within the rock unit. The primary source of this calcite is most commonly marine organisms. These organisms secrete shells that settle out of the water column and are deposited on ocean floors as pelagic ooze (see lysocline for information on calcite dissolution). Secondary calcite may also be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters (groundwater that precipitates the material in caves). This produces speleothems such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form is composed of oolites (oolitic limestone) and can be recognised by its granular appearance. Limestone makes up about 10 percent of the total volume of all sedimentary rocks. oolites Pure limestones are white or almost white. Because of impurities, such as clay, sand, organic remains, iron oxide and other materials, many limestones exhibit different colors, especially on weathered surfaces. Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock. Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly where there are waterfalls and around hot or cold springs. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the water leaves a solution that is supersaturated with chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls. Coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells. During regional metamorphism limestone recrystallizes into marble. Limestone is a parent material of Mollisol soil group.

Limestone landscape

Limestone is partially soluble, especially in acid, and therefore forms many erosion landforms. These include limestone pavements, pot holes, caves and gorges. Such erosion landscapes are known as karsts. Limestone is less resistant than most igneous rocks, but more resistant than most other sedimentary rocks. Limestone is therefore usually associated with hills and downland and occurs in regions with other sedimentary rocks, typically clays. clay Bands of limestone emerge from the Earth's surface in often spectacular rocky outcrops and islands. Examples include the Burren in Co. Clare, Ireland; the Verdon Gorge in France; Malham Cove in North Yorkshire, England; and the Ha Long Bay National Park in [[Vietnam{commonscat|Limestone

Geology

Geology (from Greek γη- (ge-, "the earth") and λογος (logos, "word", "reason")) is the science and study of the Earth, its composition, structure, physical properties, history, and the processes that shape it. It is one of the Earth sciences. Geologists have helped establish the age of the Earth at about 4.5 billion (4.5x10⁹) years, and have determined that the Earth's lithosphere, which includes the crust, is fragmented into tectonic plates that move over a rheic upper mantle (asthenosphere) via processes that are collectively referred to as plate tectonics. Geologists help locate and manage the earth's natural resources, such as petroleum and coal, as well as metals such as iron, copper, and uranium. Additional economic interests include gemstones and many minerals such as asbestos, perlite, mica, phosphates, zeolites, clay, pumice, quartz, and silica, as well as elements such as sulfur, chlorine, and helium. Astrogeology refers to the application of geologic principles to other bodies of the solar system. However, specialised terms such as selenology (studies of the Moon), areology (of Mars), etc., are also in use. The word "geology" was first used by Jean-André Deluc in the year 1778 and introduced as a fixed term by Horace-Bénédict de Saussure in the year 1779. An older meaning of the word was first used by Richard de Bury. He used it to distinguish between earthly and theological jurisprudence.

History

In China, the polymath Shen Kua (1031 - 1095) formulated a hypothesis for the process of land formation: based on his observation of fossil shells in a geological stratum in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he inferred that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt. The work on rocks Peri lithon by Theophrastus, a student of Aristotle, remained authoritative for millennia. However, its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the Scientific Revolution. It was translated into Latin and the other languages of Europe such as French. Georg Bauer (Georg Agricola), a physician, summarised the knowledge of mining and metallurgy in 1556. Georg Agricola (1494-1555) wrote the first systematic treatise about mining and smelting works, De re metallica libri XII, with an appendix Buch von den Lebewesen unter Tage (book of the creatures beneath the earth). He covered subjects like wind energy, hydrodynamic power, melting cookers, transport of ores, extraction of soda, sulfur and alum, and administrative issues. The book was published in 1556. By the 1700s Jean-Etienne Guettard and Nicolas Desmarest hiked central France and recorded their observations on geological maps; Guettard recorded the first observation of the volcanic origins of this part of France. James Hutton recorded his Theory of the Earth in the 1788 Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, later called uniformitarianism. William Smith (1769-1839) drew some of the first geological maps and began the process of ordering rock strata (layers) by examining the fossils contained in them. James Hutton is often viewed as the first modern geologist. In 1785 he presented a paper entitled Theory of the Earth to the Royal Society of Edinburgh. In his paper, he explained his theory that the Earth must be much older than had previously been supposed in order to allow enough time for mountains to be eroded and for sediment to form new rocks at the bottom of the sea, which in turn were raised up to become dry land. Followers of Hutton were known as Plutonists because they believed that some rocks were formed by vulcanism which is the deposition of lava from volcanoes, as opposed to the Neptunists, who believed that all rocks had settled out of a large ocean whose level gradually dropped over time. In 1811 Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart published their explanation of the antiquity of the Earth, inspired by Cuvier's discovery of fossil elephant bones in Paris. To prove this, they formulated the principle of stratigraphic succession of the layers of the earth. They were independently anticipated by William Smith's stratigraphic studies on England and Scotland. Sir Charles Lyell first published his famous book, Principles of Geology, in 1830 and continued to publish new revisions until he died in 1875. He successfully promoted the doctrine of uniformitarianism. This theory states that slow geological processes have occurred throughout the Earth's history and are still occurring today. In contrast, catastrophism is the theory that Earth's features formed in single, catastrophic events and remained unchanged thereafter. Though Hutton believed in uniformitarianism, the idea was not widely accepted at the time. catastrophism illustrated on relief globe of the Field Museum ]] By 1827 Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology reiterated Hutton's uniformitarianism, which influenced the thought of Charles Darwin. 19th Century geology revolved around the question of the Earth's exact age. Estimates varied from a few 100,000 to billions of years. The most significant advance in 20th century geology has been the development of the theory of plate tectonics in the 1960s. Plate tectonic theory arose out of two separate geological observations: seafloor spreading and continental drift. The theory revolutionised the Earth sciences. The theory of continental drift was proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912 and by Arthur Holmes, but wasn't b