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Kenya

Kenya

The Republic of Kenya, or Kenya (), is a country in East Africa. It borders Ethiopia on the north, Somalia on the east, Tanzania on the south, Uganda on the west, and Sudan on the northwest, with the Indian Ocean on the southeast.

History

Main article: History of Kenya Fossils found in East Africa suggest that protohumans roamed the area more than 20 million years ago. Recent finds near Kenya's Lake Turkana indicate that hominids such as Homo habilis and Homo erectus lived in Kenya from 2.6 million years ago.

Colonial history

The colonial history of Kenya dates from the establishment of a German protectorate over the Sultan of Zanzibar's coastal possessions in 1885, followed by the arrival of the Imperial British East Africa Company in 1888. Incipient imperial rivalry was forestalled when Germany handed its coastal holdings to Britain in 1890. This followed the building of the Kenya-Uganda railway passing through the country. Although this was also resisted by some tribes, notably the Nandi led by Orkoiyot Koitalel arap Samoei for ten years between 1895 to 1905, these did not stop the British building the railway. It is believed that the Nandi were the first tribe to be put in a native reserve to stop them from disrupting the building of the railway. During the early part of the 20th century, the interior central highlands were settled by British and other European farmers, who became wealthy farming coffee. By the 1930's, approximately 30,000 settlers lived in the area and were offered undue political powers because of their effects on the economy. The area was already home to over a million members of the Kǐkǔyǔ tribe, most of whom had no land claims in European terms (but the land belonged to the ethnic group), and lived as itinerant farmers. To protect their interests, the settlers banned the growing of coffee, introduced a hut tax, and the landless were granted less and less land in exchange for their labour. A massive exodus to the cities ensued as their ability to provide a living from the land dwindled. From October 1952 to December 1959, Kenya was under a state of emergency arising from the Mau Mau rebellion against British rule. The governor requested and obtained British and African troops, including the King's African Rifles. In January 1953, Major General Hinde was appointed as director of counter-insurgency operations. The situation did not improve for lack of intelligence, so General Sir George Erskine was appointed commander-in-chief of the colony's armed forces in May 1953, with the personal backing of Winston Churchill. The capture of Warǔhiǔ Itote (General China) on 15 January 1954 and the subsequent interrogation led to a better understanding of the Mau Mau command structure. Operation Anvil opened on 24 April 1954 after weeks of planning by the army with the approval of the War Council. The operation effectively placed Nairobi under military siege, and the occupants were screened and the Mau Mau supporters moved to detention camps. May 1953 also saw the Home Guard officially recognized as a branch of the Security Forces. The Home Guard formed the core of the government's anti-Mau Mau strategy as it was composed of loyalist Africans, not foreign forces like the British Army and King's African Rifles. By the end of the emergency the Home Guard had killed no fewer than 4,686 Mau Mau, amounting to 42% of the total insurgents. The capture of Dedan Kimathi on 21 October 1956 in Nyeri signified the ultimate defeat of the Mau Mau and essentially ended the military offensive.

Post-colonial history

The first direct elections for Africans to the Legislative Council took place in 1957. Despite British hopes of handing power to "moderate" African rivals, it was the Kenya African National Union (KANU) of Jomo Kenyatta, that formed a government shortly before Kenya became independent on 12th December 1963. A year later, Kenyatta became Kenya's first president. At Kenyatta's death in 1978, Daniel arap Moi became President. Daniel arap Moi retained the Presidency, being unopposed in elections held in 1979, 1983 (snap elections) and 1988, all of which were held under the single party constitution. The 1983 elections were held an year early, and were a direct result of an abortive military coup attempt on 01/08/1982. The abortive coup was masterminded by a lowly ranked Airforce serviceman, Senior Private Hezekiah Ochuka and was staged mainly by enlisted men in the Airforce. The attempt was quickly suppressed by Loyalist forces led by the Army, the General Service Unit (GSU) — paramilitary wing of the police — and later the regular police, but not without civillian casualties. This event led to the disbanding of the entire Airforce and a large number of it's former members were either dismissed or court-martialled. The election held in 1988 saw the advent of the infamous mlolongo (queueing) system where voters were supposed to line up behind their favourite candidates instead of secret ballot. This was seen as the climax of a very undiplomatic regime and it led to widespread agitation for constitutional reform. Several contentious clauses, including the one allowing only one political party were changed in the following years. In democratic but flawed multiparty elections in 1992 and 1997, Daniel arap Moi won re-election. In 2002, Moi was constitutionally barred from running, and Mwai Kǐbakǐ, running for the opposition coalition "National Rainbow Coalition" — NARC, was elected President. The elections, judged free and fair by local and international observers, marked a turning point in Kenya's democratic evolution.

Political Structure

Main article: Politics of Kenya Politics of Kenya Kenya is a republic; the President of Kenya is both the chief of state and the head of government. Kenya has a unicameral National Assembly consisting of 210 members elected to a term of up to five years from single-member constituencies, plus 12 members nominated by political parties on a proportional representation basis. The president appoints the vice president and cabinet members from among those elected to the National Assembly. The attorney general and the speaker are ex officio members of the Assembly. The judiciary is headed by a High Court, consisting of a chief justice and High Court judges, and judges of Kenya's Court of Appeal (no associate judges), all appointed by the president. Kenya has had a multi-party system since 1991 via constitutional amendment, with politicians frequently "crossing the floor" or setting up new political parties and coalitions to achieve their political aims. In December 2002, Kenya held democratic and open elections and elected Mwai Kǐbakǐ as president from the National Alliance Party of Kenya (NAK) as president. The NAK and the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) formed the NARC coalition that currently governs Kenya. The coalition consists of some of the brightest minds in Kenya such as Dr. Kilemi Mwiria, who received his doctorate in Education from Stanford University. He was also the former Secretary General of Universities Academic Staff Union (UASU), Kenya's first lecturers' union. Kenya is in the process of rewriting its post-colonial constitution and its subsequent amendments that gave the president nearly unlimited powers and immunity from the law accounting for many of Kenya's current problems with corruption. Constitutional reform is being delayed by disagreement amongst the coalition members. The right-leaning NAK favours a centralized Presidential system, while the left leaning LDP -- led by Raila Odinga& Kalonzo Musyoka -- favor a parliamentary system with Prime Minister. After a long-lasting public debate, the people of Kenya rejected the government-supported draft constitution with a 57-43 majority in the historical November 21st referendum.Research by independent observer groups indicated that the majority of voters were oblivious of the proposed constitution's content owing largely to the tribal voting lines that leaders propagated and partly to a failed civic education program. The president never actively involved himself in the referendum process and instead insisted on letting Kenyans make an independent decision free from political influence. The defeat however created a political vacuum, as Kibaki responded to calls from the Orange Democratic Movement (supporters of the NO vote) for his resignation, by dissolving his cabinet. The president reconstituted his cabinet in a televised broadcast on 7th December. His new line up excluded members who had opposed the constitution in the referendum but retained some allies from the official opposition party KANU and loyalists, notably absent was former Transport minister Chris Murungaru who has been accused of corruption in the past. The reshuffle has drawn mixed reactions from different quarters with a number of nominees rejecting their appointments citing party policy and the opinion of constituents.

Administrative Structure

Raila Odinga Local administration is divided among eight provinces each headed by a presidentially appointed Provincial Commissioner. The provinces (Mkoa) are subdivided into districts (Wilaya) which are then subdivided into divisions (Tarafa). The divison is then subdivided into location (Mtaa) and then sub location (Kijiji). The Nairobi Area
- has special status and is not included in any district or province. The government supervises administration of districts and provinces, which are:
- Central
- Coast
- Eastern
- Nairobi Area
-
- North Eastern
- Nyanza
- Rift Valley
- Western Western

Geography

Kenya covers an area of 582,650 km². From the coast on the Indian Ocean the Low plains rise to central highlands. The highlands are bisected by Great Rift Valley; fertile plateau in west. The Kenyan Highlands comprise one of the most successful agricultural production regions in Africa. The highlands are the site of the highest point in Kenya: Mount Kenya, which reaches 5,199 m and is also the site of glaciers. Climate varies from tropical along the coast to arid in interior. arid arid

Economy

Main article: Economy of Kenya Kenya's main economic strengths include tourism and agriculture. The economy is only now beginning to show some growth after years of stagnation. Some argue that this slow economic growth is because of poor management and uneven commitment to reform; others insist that it is due to falling commodity prices and poor access to Western markets. In 1993, the government of Kenya implemented a program of economic liberalization and reform that included the removal of import licensing, price controls, and foreign exchange controls. With the support of the World Bank, IMF, and other donors, the reforms led to a brief turnaround in economic performance following a period of negative growth in the early 1990s. One of the unintended consequence of freeing foreign exchange control was that it allowed a gold-and-diamond export scam in which the Kenyan government lost over 600 million US dollars. This resulted in a weak currency which hindered economic improvement. Kenya's GDP grew 5% in 1995 and 4% in 1996, and inflation remained under control. Growth slowed in 1997–1999 however. Political violence—namely the bombing of the U.S. Embassy by Al Qaeda in 1998—damaged the tourist industry, and Kenya's Enhanced Structural Adjustment Program lapsed. A new economic team was put in place in 1999 to revitalize the reform effort, strengthen the civil service, and curb corruption, but wary donors continue to question the government's commitment to western establishment ideas of sound economic policy. Considered by some to be long-term barriers to development are: electricity shortages, the government's continued and allegedly inefficient dominance of key sectors, corruption, the foreign debt burden, unstable international commodity prices, poor communication infrastructure and the effects of HIV/AIDS, which is having its effect on the most productive group of the population. The effects of HIV/AIDS has largely offset the previous high population growth which was caused by a high birth rate and reduced infant mortality due to better health care. Chief among Kenya's exports are: flowers (horticulture), fruits and Vegetables, tea, and coffee. Another key foreign exchange earner is tourism. tourism

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Kenya Kenya is a country of great ethnic diversity. Tension between the various groups accounts for many of Kenya's problems. During the early 1990s, clashes killed thousands and left tens of thousands homeless. Ethnically split opposition groups allowed the regime of Daniel arap Moi, in power from 1978 until 2002, to be re-elected for four terms, with the election in 1997 being marred by violence and fraud. Ethnic groups: Kĩkũyũ 22%, Luhya 14%, Luo 13%, Kalenjin 15%, Kamba 11%, Kisii 6%, Ameru 6%, other African 12%, non-African (Asian, European, and Arab) 1% Religious affiliation: Various Protestant 38%, Roman Catholic 28%, Muslim 6%, Traditional Religions 22%. Others include Hinduism, Jainism & the Bahá'í Faith. See also: List of cities in Kenya, Maasai. Maasai

Culture

Main article: Culture of Kenya
- List of cities in Kenya
- List of Kenyans
- List of writers from Kenya
- Music of Kenya
- National parks (Kenya)

Sports

Kenya is active in several sports, among them football (soccer), cricket, boxing and many others. But the country is chiefly known for its dominance in middle-distance and long-distance athletics. Kenya has regularly produced Olympic and Commonwealth Games champions at various distances, especially the 800 m, the 1,500 m, the 3,000 m steeplechase, the 5000 m and the 10,000 m races. Kenyan athletes continue to dominate the world of distance running, although competition from Morocco and Ethiopia has somewhat reduced this trend. The Marathon world record holder, Paul Tergat, and the current women's Boston Marathon champion, Catherine Ndereba, are the among the best-known and most respected athletes in Kenya. A retired Olympic and Commonwealth Games champion, Kipchoge Keino, is Kenya's most famous sportsman. Lately, there has been controversy in Kenyan athletics circles, with the defection of a number of Kenyan athletes to represent other countries, chiefly Bahrain and Qatar. The Kenyan Ministry of Sports has tried to stop the defections, but they have continued anyway, with Bernard Lagat the latest, choosing to represent the USA.

External links

Government
- [http://www.communication.go.ke/ Government Spokeperson]Office of Government Spokesperson of the Republic of Kenya.
- [http://www.kenya.go.ke/ Government of Kenya] Official site
- [http://www.statehousekenya.go.ke/ State House Kenya] Official site State House, Kenya.
- [http://www.magicalkenya.com/ Kenya Tourism Board (Magical Kenya)] Official travel and tourism guide.
- [http://www.centralbank.go.ke/ Central Bank of Kenya] Currency exchange rates official site
- [http://www.investmentkenya.com/ Kenya Investment Authority] Provides information on investing.
- [http://www.kenya-airways.com/ Kenya Airways] Main Kenyan airline.
- [http://www.kenyaairports.com/ Kenya Airports Authority] Information on Kenyan Airports
- [http://www.kpa.co.ke/ Kenya Ports Authority] Information on Kenyan sea ports News
- [http://www.kbc.co.ke/ Kenya Broadcasting Corporation] State run media organization
- [http://www.nationmedia.com/ Daily Nation Online] Local independent newspaper
- [http://www.eastandard.net/ The Standard Online] Local independent newspaper
- [http://www.kenya-news.com Kenya News] The Top headlines from the major Kenyan newspapers. Overviews
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1024563.stm BBC - Country profile: Kenya]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ke.html CIA World Factbook - Kenya]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/ke/ US State Department - Kenya] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports Directories
- [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Kenya.html Columbia University Libraries - Kenya] directory category of the WWW-VL
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Kenya/ Open Directory Project - Kenya] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/kenya.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Kenya] directory category
- Category:African Union member states Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations Category:Peace and Security Council zh-min-nan:Kenya ko:케냐 ms:Kenya ja:ケニア simple:Kenya th:ประเทศเคนยา

East Africa
East Africa often refers to Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, but depending on geography or geopolitics, may also include:
- Burundi and Rwanda (sometimes considered part of Central Africa)
- Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia (sometimes considered The Horn of Africa or North East Africa)
- Mozambique, Malawi and Madagascar (usually considered part of Southern Africa)
- Sudan (usually considered North East Africa, and sometimes North Africa) The East African Community (EAC), an intergovernmental organisation and trading bloc, consists of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.
Geography
Some parts of East Africa have been renowned for their concentrations of wild animals, such as the "big five" of elephant, giraffe, lion, zebra and rhinoceros, though populations have been declining under increased stress in recent times, particularly the rhino and elephant. The geography of East Africa is often stunning and scenic. Shaped by global forces that have created the Great Rift Valley, East Africa is the site of Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya, the two tallest peaks in Africa. The unique geography and apparent suitability for farming made East Africa a target for European exploration and exploitation in the nineteenth century. Today, tourism is an important part of the economies of Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda.
Politics
Until recently most governments were illiberal and corrupt, and several countries were riven with political coups and ethnic violence. Since the end of colonialism, the region has endured:
- Ethiopian Civil War (Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front against the Derg)
- Ogaden War
- Second Sudanese Civil War
- Somali Civil War
- Burundi Civil War
- Lord's Resistance Army insurgency in Uganda
- 1998 American embassy bombings in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam
- Eritrean-Ethiopian War Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda have enjoyed relatively stable government. The Awdal region of Somalia too has seen relative prosperity.
See also

- Horn of Africa
- EASSY Category:Eastern Africa ko:동아프리카 ja:東アフリカ

Somalia

Somalia (Somali: Soomaaliya; Arabic: الصومال, As-Sumal), formerly known as the Somali Democratic Republic, is a coastal nation in East Africa. Continentally, it is entirely surrounded by Ethiopia and Djibouti on the north and mid-west, and Kenya on its south-west; with the Gulf of Aden on its east. It currently exists solely in a de jure capacity. Somalia has no recognized central government authority, no national currency, nor any other feature associated with an established nation state. De facto authority resides in the hands of the governments for the unrecognized entities of Somaliland, Puntland, and other rival warlords.

History

Main article: History of Somalia Independence of Somaliland from Britain was proclaimed on June 26, 1960, and on July 1, 1960, unification of the British and ex-Italian Somali protectorates took place. The government formed with Abdullahi Isse, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar was appointed President and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister. Later, during 1967, Mohammed Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister in Aden Abdullahi Osman (nicknamed Aden Adde)'s government. Egal was later chosen as President of a self-declared Somaliland. He died in a hospital in Pretoria on May 3, 2002. In late 1969, a military government assumed power following the assassination of Shermarke who chosen for and served as President during 1967-1969. Mohamed Siad Barre, a General in the armed forces who was an ally to and helped protect Aden Abullahi Osman's government, became the President in 1969 following a coup d'état. The revolutionary army leaders, headed by Barre, established large-scale public works programmes. They also successfully implemented an urban and rural literacy campaign, in which they helped to dramatically increase the literacy rate from a mere 5% to 55% by the mid-1980s. 1980s Somali National Movemonent (SNM) overthrow the Siyaad Barre Government in 1989. Intermittent civil war has been a fact of life in Somalia since 1977. In 1991, the northern portion of the country declared its independence as Somaliland; although de facto independent and relatively stable compared to the tumultuous south, it has not been recognized by any foreign government. In 1990, the military government was forced out by Mohammed Farah Aidid who was officer from the Banadir region and the leader of United Somali Congress (USC) United Somali Congress Beginning in 1993, a two-year UN humanitarian effort (primarily in the south) was able to alleviate famine conditions. The UN withdrew in Operation United Shield by March 3 1995, having suffered significant casualties, and order has not yet been restored. Yet another secession from Somalia took place in the northeastern region. The self-proclaimed state took the name Puntland after declaring "temporary" independence in 1998, with the intention that it would participate in any Somali reconciliation to form a new central government. A third secession occurred in 1998 with the declaration of the state of Jubaland. The territory of Jubaland is now encompassed by the state of Southwestern Somalia and its status is unclear. A fourth self-proclaimed entity led by the Rahanweyn Resistance Army (RRA), was set up in 1999, along the lines of the heat or desert Puntland. This "temporary" secession was reasserted in 2002, leading to de facto autonomy of Southwestern Somalia. The RRA had originally set up an autonomous administration over the Bay and Bakool regions of south and central Somalia in 1999. Somalia was one of the many countries devastated by the tsunami which struck the Indian Ocean coast following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, destroying entire villages and killing an estimated 300 people.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Somalia Somalia has had no effective national government in 15 years. In the northwest, there is the breakaway republic of Somaliland. In the rest of the country there are various warlords, cf. Puntland and Southwestern Somalia. In 2000, the international community recognised the Transitional National Government, originally headed by Abdulkassim Salat Hassan, as the government for the entire country. Currently however it controls only part of the capital, Mogadishu. On October 10, 2004 Somali MPs elected warlord Abdullahi Yusuf, previously president of Puntland, to be the next president. Because of the chaotic situation in Mogadishu, the election was held in a sports centre in Nairobi, Kenya. Yusuf was elected transitional President by Somalia's transitional parliament. He won 189 of the 275 votes from members of parliament. The session of Parliament was also held in neighbouring Kenya. His government is recognized by most western nations as the country's legitimate rulers, though his actual authority is extremely questionable. Many other small political organizations exist, some clan-based, others seeking a Somalia free from clan-based politics (such as the United Somali Front). Many of them have come into existence since the new president was chosen. See also List of notable Somali leaders.

Population

List of notable Somali leaders Somalia has a population of around 8,591,000. However, estimates are very difficult because of the continuing situation. The last census was in 1975. Most outside analysts use this estimate but Somalia is one of the fastest growing countries in Africa and the world. Some estimates range between 6 to 15 million. Because of the war, Somalia has a large diaspora. Ethnic Somalis have lived for centuries in large areas of what is now Ethiopia and Kenya. They are also a majority in Djibouti, where they share area with the Afars. There are over a million Somalis (including the minorities) outside Africa. Somalia now has among one of the largest diaspora communites of the whole continent. All of these factors and the mostly nomadic nature of the Somalis has made proper estimates very difficult.

Provinces

Main article: Regions of Somalia Somalia is divided into 18 regions (singular gobolka, plural gobollada):
- Awdal
- Bakool
- Banaadir
- Bari
- Bay
- Galguduud
- Gedo
- Hiiraan
- Jubbada Dhexe
- Jubbada Hoose
- Mudug
- Nugaal
- Sanaag
- Shabeellaha Dhexe
- Shabeellaha Hoose
- Sool
- Togdheer
- Woqooyi Galbeed

Geography

Woqooyi Galbeed Main article: Geography of Somalia Somalia is located on the east coast of Africa on and north of the Equator between the Gulf of Aden on the north and Indian Ocean on the east. Together with Ethiopia and Djibouti it is often referred to as the Horn of Africa. It borders Djibouti on the northwest, Ethiopia on the west, and Kenya on southwest. Somalia comprises Italy's former Trust Territory of Somalia and the former British Protectorate of Somaliland (now seeking recognition as an independent state). The coastline extends 2,720 kilometres (1,700 mi) -- the longest coastline in Africa. The northern part of the country is hilly, and in many places the altitude ranges between 900 and 2,100 metres (3,000 ft.-7,000 ft.) above sea level. The central and southern areas are flat, with an average altitude of less than 180 metres (600 ft.). The Juba and the Shebelle Rivers rise in Ethiopia and flow south across the country towards the Indian Ocean. The Shebelle, however, does not reach the sea except during seasons of high rain. Major climatic factors are a year-round hot climate, seasonal monsoon winds, and irregular rainfall with recurring droughts. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 30°C to 40°C (85° F-105°F), except at higher elevations and along the east coast. Mean daily minimums usually vary from about 15°C to 30°C (60°F-85°F). The southwest monsoon, a sea breeze, makes the period from about May to October the mildest season at Mogadishu. The December-February period of the northeast monsoon is also relatively mild, although prevailing climatic conditions in Mogadishu are rarely pleasant. The "tangambili" periods that intervene between the two monsoons (October-November and March-May) are hot and humid.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Somalia Economy of Somalia Somalia has a market economy. It has long been one of the world's poorest and least developed countries and has relatively few natural resources. Though one of the poorest countries in the world in 1991 before the civil war, poverty was even further aggravated by the hostilities. Though Somali remains one of the poorest countries in the world, when extreme poverty was measured in 1998 (percentage of individuals living on less than PPP$1 a day) it fared better than West Africa and neighboring countries. Despite the absence of a state the private sector has flourished. Agriculture is the most important sector, with livestock accounting for about 40% of GDP and about 65% of export earnings. Nomads and semi-nomads, who are dependent upon livestock for their livelihood, make up a large portion of the population. After livestock, bananas are the principal export; sugar, sorghum, maize, and fish are products for the domestic market. The small industrial sector, based on the processing of agricultural products, accounts for 10% of GDP. Journalist Kevin Sites, after a recent trip to Somalia, reported: "Somalia, though brutally poor, is a kind of libertarian's dream. Free enterprise flourishes, and vigorous commercial competition is the only form of regulation. Somalia has some of the best telecommunications in Africa, with a handful of companies ready to wire home or office and provide crystal-clear service, including international long distance, for about $10 a month." However, despite modest gains, Somalia continues to have one of the highest child mortality rates in the world, with 10% of children dying at birth and 25% of those surviving birth dying before age five. Medecins Sans Frontieres has further stated that the level of daily violence in the lack of legitimate security structures is "catastrophic." Infrastructure, such as roads are as numerous as those in neighboring countries but of much lower quality. A World Bank report states that the private sector has found it too hard to build roads due to high transaction costs and the fact that those who pay road fees are not the only ones using the road (see free rider problem), presenting a problem with recuperation of investment. The telecommunications is private and highly developed, offering wireless service and internet cafés. Competing phone companies have agreed on interconnection standards, which were brokered by the United Nations funded Somali Telecom Association. Electricity is furnished by entrepreneurs, who have purchased generators and divided cities into manageable sectors ([http://www.somalianarchy.com/viewtopic.php?t=16 photo]). In 1989, before the collapse of the government, the national airline had only one airplane. Now the there are approximately 15 airlines, over 60 aircraft, 6 international destinations, and more domestic routes. The private sector also supplies drinking water. However, a statistic from 2000 indicated that only 21% of the population had access to safe drinking water at that time. With the collapse of the central government, the educations system is now private. A World Bank study reports "modest gains in education." As last measured in 2001, primary school enrollment, which stood at 17%, was nearly at pre-war levels, and secondary school enrollment had been increasing since 1998. However, "adult literacy is estimated to have declined from the already low level of 24% in 1989 to 17.1% in 2001." [http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/03/25/000112742_20040325090551/Rendered/PDF/282760Somalia0Country0reengagement0note.pdf] A more recent 2003 study repored that the literacy rate had risen to 19%. [http://rru.worldbank.org/Documents/PapersLinks/280-nenova-harford.pdf] In comparison, literacy is at 49% in wealthier West Africa and 35% among its neighbours. Higher education ended completely in the civil war of 1991, but Mogadishu University reopened in 1998 and its first class graduated in 2001. Other universities have opened in other cities. In addition to customer fees, much of the funding for the education system comes from international Islamic charities such as Al-Islah.[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35382.htm] The main problem affecting economic growth is the lack of stability. An example of this is that in Mogadishu, some businessmen would prefer to pay taxes to a government to maintain security rather than to pay warlords for protection from bandits. Remittance services has become a large industry in Somalia. Successful people from the world-wide diaspora who fled because of the war contribute to the economy around $2 billion annually. Wireless communications has also become a giant economic force in Somalia. Because of the war, nobody really knows the size of the economy or how much it is growing. References: [http://rru.worldbank.org/Documents/PapersLinks/280-nenova-harford.pdf Anarchy and Invention: How Does Somalia's Private Sector Cope without Government?]

Demographics and languages

Main article: Demographics of Somalia As early as the seventh century, indigenous Cushitic peoples began to mingle with Arab and Persian traders who had settled along the coast. Interaction over the centuries led to the emergence of a Somali culture bound by common traditions, a single language, and the Islamic faith. Today, about 60% of all Somalis are nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralists who raise cattle, camels, sheep, and goats. About 25% of the population are settled farmers who live mainly in the fertile agricultural region between the Juba and Shebelle rivers in southern Somalia. The remainder of the population (15%-20%) is urban. Sizable ethnic groups in the country include Bantu agricultural workers, several thousand Arabs and some hundreds of Indians and Pakistanis. Apart from the Brava people who speak a language similar to Swahili, nearly all inhabitants speak the Somali language. A population of Italian descent, which dated back to Somalia's colonial era, began to emigrate following independence and by the outbreak of war most Italian Somalis had left the country. The language remained unwritten until October 1973, when the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) proclaimed it the nation's official language and decreed an orthography using Latin letters. Somali is now the language of instruction in schools, which are few. Arabic, English, and Italian also are used extensively.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Somalia
- Islam in Somalia
- List of writers from Somalia
- Music of Somalia
- Female genital mutilation

Telecommunications

Somalia's public telecommunications system was almost completely destroyed or dismantled; however, private wireless companies exist in most major cities and actually provide better services than in neighbouring countries, despite (or perhaps due to) Somalia's lack of government. Somalia has the cheapest cellular calling rates in Africa, with some companies charging less than a cent a minute. Some of the factors that have created this situation are lack of a government-granted monopoly and taxation, and the neutrality of telecommunication firms vis-a-vis the warlords [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4020259.stm]. Companies providing telecommunication services are:
- Galkom
- Global Internet Company
- Hormuud
- Telcom
- Nationlink
- Netco
- STG

External links

News

- [http://allafrica.com/somalia/ AllAfrica.com - Somalia] news headline links
- [http://www.banadir.com/ Banadir] news headline links
- [http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/41/ IFEX: Somalia]

Overviews

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1072592.stm BBC News Country Profile - Somalia]
- [http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/africa/2004/somalia/default.stm BBC News In Depth - Somalia: Emerging from Ruins?]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/so.html CIA World Factbook - Somalia]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/so/ US State Department - Somalia] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports

Directories

- [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Somalia.html Columbia University Libraries - Somalia] directory category of the WWW-VL
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Somalia/ Open Directory Project - Somalia] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/somalia.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Somalia] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Somalia/ Yahoo! - Somalia] directory category

Tourism

Other

- [http://rru.worldbank.org/PapersLinks/Open.aspx?id=3762 Anarchy and Invention: How Does Somalia's Private Sector Cope Without Government? (PDF version)] [http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:Y6b4hmt1RicJ:rru.worldbank.org/PapersLinks/ HTML version] A World Bank study
- [http://www.liberalia.com/htm/mvn_stateless_somalis.htm From nation-state to stateless nation: The Somali Experience]
- [http://www.mogadishuuniversity.com Mogadishu University] One of Somalia's largest universities describes itself as a "non-profit, non-sectarian and non-governmental institution of higher education."
- [http://www.somalianarchy.com SomaliAnarchy - "Defending and Celebrating Somalis' Freedom and Prosperity"]
- [http://www.radiodaljir.com/ Somalia Online] "giving the nomads their piece of the net!"
- [http://www.petermaass.com/core.cfm?p=1&mag=51&magtype=1 Ayn Rand Comes to Somalia] by Peter Maass for Atlantic Monthly Category:Arab League Category:African Union member states
- zh-min-nan:Somalia ko:소말리아 ms:Somalia ja:ソマリア simple:Somalia th:ประเทศโซมาเลีย

Tanzania

The United Republic of Tanzania (Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania in Swahili), or Tanzania, is a country on the east coast of east Africa. It is bordered by Kenya and Uganda on the north, Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the west, and Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique on the south. To the east it borders the Indian Ocean. The country is named after Lake Tanganyika, which forms its western border, and Zanzibar, off its east coast. The country has been a member of the Commonwealth since reaching independence (1961). In 1964, Tanganyika united with the Zanzibar islands, forming the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, later renamed to the United Republic of Tanzania. In 1996, Tanzania's capital was officially moved from Dar es Salaam to Dodoma, although many government offices still remain in the old capital.

History

Main article: History of Tanzania A German colony from the 1880s until 1919, the area subsequently became a British trust territory from 1919 to 1961. Julius Nyerere became Minister of British-administered Tanganyika in 1960, and continued as Prime Minister when Tanganyika became independent in 1961. Tanganyika and the neighbouring Zanzibar — which had become independent in 1963 — merged to form the nation of Tanzania on 26 April 1964. Nyerere introduced African socialism, or Ujamaa, which emphasized justice and equality, but proved economically disastrous, leading to food shortages as collective farms failed. In 1979, Tanzania declared war on Uganda after Uganda invaded and tried to annex Tanzanian territory in the north of the country. Tanzania not only expelled Ugandan forces, but also invaded Uganda itself, forcing the ousting of Idi Amin. Nyerere handed over power to Ali Hassan Mwinyi in 1985, but retained control of the ruling party, Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM), as Chairman until 1990, when he handed that responsibility to Mwinyi. In October 1995, one-party rule came to an end when Tanzania held its first ever multi-party election. However, CCM comfortably won the elections and its candidate Benjamin Mkapa was subsequently sworn in as the new president of the United Republic of Tanzania on 23 November 1995. One of the deadly 1998 U.S. embassy bombings occurred in Dar es Salaam; the other was in Nairobi, Kenya. In 2004, the undersea earthquake on the other side of the Indian ocean caused tidal surges along Tanzania's coastline in which 11 people were killed. An oil tanker also temporarily ran aground in the Dar es Salaam harbor, damaging an oil pipeline. oil pipeline]]

Politics

Main article: Politics of Tanzania Tanzania's president and National Assembly members are elected concurrently by direct popular vote for 5-year terms. The president appoints a prime minister who serves as the government's leader in the National Assembly. The president selects his cabinet from among National Assembly members. The Constitution also empowers him to nominate 10 non-elected members of Parliament, who also are eligible to become cabinet members. Elections for president and all National Assembly seats will be held in October 2005. The unicameral National Assembly elected in 2000 has 295 members. These 295 members include the Attorney General, five members elected from the Zanzibar House of Representatives to participate in the Parliament, the special women's seats which are made up of 20% of the seats a particular party has in the House, 181 constituents seats of members of Parliament from the mainland, and 50 seats from Zanzibar. Also in the list are 48 appointed for women and the seats for the 10 nominated members of Parliament. At present, the ruling CCM holds about 93% of the seats in the Assembly. Laws passed by the National Assembly are valid for Zanzibar only in specifically designated union matters. Zanzibar's House of Representatives has jurisdiction over all non-union matters. There are currently 76 members in the House of Representatives in Zanzibar, including 50 elected by the people, 10 appointed by the president of Zanzibar, 5 ex officio members, and an attorney general appointed by the president. In May 2002, the government increased the number of special seats allocated to women from 10 to 15, which will increase the number of House of Representatives members to 81. Ostensibly, Zanzibar's House of Representatives can make laws for Zanzibar without the approval of the union government as long as it does not involve union-designated matters. The terms of office for Zanzibar's president and House of Representatives also are 5 years. The semiautonomous relationship between Zanzibar and the union is a relatively unique system of government. Tanzania has a five-level judiciary combining the jurisdictions of tribal, Islamic, and British common law. Appeal is from the primary courts through the district courts, resident magistrate courts, to the high courts, and Court of Appeals. Judges are appointed by the Chief Justice, except those for the Court of Appeals and the High Court who are appointed by the president. The Zanzibari court system parallels the legal system of the union, and all cases tried in Zanzibari courts, except for those involving constitutional issues and Islamic law, can be appealed to the Court of Appeals of the union. A commercial court was established in September 1999 as a division of the High Court. For administrative purposes, Tanzania is divided into 26 regions--21 on the mainland, 3 on Unguja, and 2 on Pemba (Unguja and Pemba make Zanzibar). Ninety-nine district councils have been created to further increase local authority. These districts are also now referred to as local government authorities. Currently there are 114 councils operating in 99 districts, 22 are urban and 92 are rural. The 22 urban units are classified further as city (Dar es Salaam and Mwanza), municipal (Arusha, Dodoma, Iringa, Kilimanjaro, Mbeya, Morogoro, Shinyanga, Tabora, and Tanga), and town councils (the remaining 11 communities).

Geography

Mwanza Mwanza] Mwanza Main article: Geography of Tanzania Tanzania is mountainous in the north-east, where Mount Kilimanjaro, Africa's highest peak, is situated. To the north and west are the Great Lakes of Lake Victoria (Africa's largest lake) and Lake Tanganyika. Central Tanzania comprises a large plateau, with plains and arable land. The eastern shore is hot and humid, with the island of Zanzibar lying just offshore. Tanzania contains many large and ecologically significant wildlife parks, including the famous Serengeti National Park in the north.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Tanzania Tanzania is one of the poorest countries in the world. The economy is heavily dependent on agriculture, which accounts for half of GDP, provides 85% of exports, and employs 90% of the work force. Topography and climatic conditions, however, limit cultivated crops to only 4% of the land area. Industry is mainly limited to processing agricultural products and light consumer goods. The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and bilateral donors have provided funds to rehabilitate Tanzania's deteriorated economic infrastructure. Tanzania has vast amount of natural resources like gold deposits and beautiful national parks that remain underdeveloped. Growth in 1991-99 has featured a pickup in industrial production and a substantial increase in output of minerals, led by gold. Natural gas exploration in the Rufiji Delta looks promising and production has already started [http://www.gasandoil.com/goc/company/cna52112.htm]. Recent banking reforms have helped increase private sector growth and investment. Short-term economic progress also depends on curbing corruption and cutting on unnecessary public spending [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3719712.stm].

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Tanzania Population distribution in Tanzania is extremely uneven. Density varies from 1 person per square kilometer (3/mi²) in arid regions to 51 per square kilometer (133/mi²) in the mainland's well-watered highlands to 134 per square kilometer (347/mi²) on Zanzibar. More than 80% of the population is rural. Dar es Salaam is the capital and largest city; Dodoma, located in the center of Tanzania, has been designated the new capital and the Parliament sits there, although action to move the capital has stalled. The African population consists of more than 120 ethnic groups, of which the Sukuma, Haya, Nyakyusa, Nyamwezi, and Chaga have more than 1 million members. The majority of Tanzanians, including such large tribes as the Sukuma and the Nyamwezi, are of Bantu stock. Groups of Nilotic or related origin include the nomadic Masai and the Luo, both of which are found in greater numbers in neighboring Kenya. Two small groups speak languages of the Khoisan family peculiar to the Bushman and Hottentot peoples. Cushitic-speaking peoples, originally from the Ethiopian highlands, reside in a few areas of Tanzania. Although much of Zanzibar's African population came from the mainland, one group known as Shirazis claims its origins to be the supposed island's early Persian settlers. Non-Africans residing on the mainland and Zanzibar account for 1% of the total population. The Asian community, including Hindus, Sikhs, Shi'a and Sunni Muslims, and Goans, has declined by 50% in the past decade to 50,000 on the mainland and 4,000 on Zanzibar. An estimated 70,000 Arabs and 10,000 Europeans reside in Tanzania. Each ethnic group has its own language, but the national language is Kiswahili, a Bantu-based tongue with strong Arabic borrowings.

Regions

Chaga Main article: Regions of Tanzania For further information see Tanzania
- [http://www.vdiest.nl/Africa/tanzania.htm] Tanzania is divided into 26 regions: Arusha, Dar es Salaam, Dodoma, Iringa, Kagera, Kigoma, Kilimanjaro, Lindi, Manyara, Mara, Mbeya, Morogoro, Mtwara, Mwanza, Pemba North, Pemba South, Pwani, Rukwa, Ruvuma, Shinyanga, Singida, Tabora, Tanga, Zanzibar Central/South, Zanzibar North, Zanzibar Urban/West

Culture

Zanzibar Urban/West Zanzibar Urban/West Main article: Culture of Tanzania
- Music of Tanzania
- List of writers from Tanzania Taarab Music[http://www.mwambao.com/tarab.htm] is a fusion of Swahili tunes sung in rhythmic poetic style spiced with Arabic or, at times, Indian melodies. It is an extremely lively art form springing from a classical culture, still immensely popular with women, drawing all the time from old and new sources. Taarab forms a major part of the social life of the Swahili people along the coastal areas; especially Zanzibar, Tanga and even further in Mombasa and Malindi along the Kenya coast. Wherever the Swahili speaking people travelled. Tarabu culture moved with them. It has penetrated to as far as Uganda. Rwanda and Burundi in the interior of East Africa, where taarab groups compete in popularity with other western-music inspired groups. In the Persian Gulf, Dubai and Muscat,perhaps because of significant number of Waswahili from Tanzania, play host to many groups of Taraab who receive frequent invitations. These days a taarab revolution [http://www.swahilicoast.com/taarab_music_of_zanzibar.htm] is taking place and much heated debate continues about the music which has been changed drastically by the East African Melody phenomenon. Melody, as they are affectionately known by their mostly women fans, play modern taarab, which, for the first time, is 'taarab to dance to' and features direct lyrics, by- passing the unwritten laws of lyrical subtlety of the older groups such as Egyptian Musical Club and Al-Wattan Musical Club where meaning to their songs where only alluded to and never directly inferred. Today taarab songs are explicit sometimes even graphic in sexual connotation. Much of the music, today, of groups like Melody and Muungano is composed and played on keyboards, increasing portability, hence the group is much smaller in number than 'real taarab' orchestras and therefore more readily available to tour and play shows throughout the region and beyond. Tanzanian music has lost much of its identity since the heydays of the likes of Mbaraka Minshehe (who, perhaps, was the most popular and original musician of his time), this is partly attributed to the influx of musicians from the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire), who were entering the country as refugees and made residence in the country. But in recent years, mainly from the mid-nineties, a new breed of young Tanzanian musicians has emerged and are coming up with popular tunes which are Tanzanian in composition. Bands like Twanga Pepeta have managed to curve a new tune distinct from imported Zairean tunes and are competing with Zairean bands in popularity and audience acceptance. The Tanzanian artistes have devised a new style going by the name of "Bongo Flava", which is blend of all sorts of melodies, beats, rhythms and sounds. The trend among the Tanzanian music consumers has started changing towards favouring products from their local artists who sing in Swahili, the national language. The mushrooming of FM music stations and cheap production studios has been a major boost to the music industry in the country. Contemporary artists like Juma Nature, Lady Jaydee, Mr. Nice, Mr. II, Cool James and many others command a huge audience of followers in the country and neighbouring countries. More information about Tanzanian music and events can be found on the various portals that have sprung up recently. Tanzania has an enormously high growth-rate for internet technologies, estimated at up to 500% per year. Because costs for computers are still quite high many users share connections at internet cafes or at work. [http://www.naomba.com naomba.com business directory], [http://www.tanzaniadirectory.info Movie and Sports information], [http://www.tanzaniayangu.com Arusha locality information] all are part of an increasing number of websites dedicated to the region.

Communications

Telecommunication services in Tanzania have in the past often been very unreliable. The mobile telephone services are usually available only in urban areas, although there are currently efforts to provide nationwide mobile phone coverage. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4036503.stm] Mobile Phone Companies
- Celtel
- Mobitel
- Tanzania Telecommunications Company
- Vodacom
- Zantel Internet Services Providers(ISPs) Internet services have been available since 1996 however there is no current fiber connectivity available to the Internet backbone, thus the connectivity is over Satellite network to the rest of the world, even to the neighbouring countries. It is expected that EASSY fiber project will bring in Internet connectivity to Tanzania at lower latency and lower cost. Some of the Internet Service Providers are;
- University Computing Centre[http://www.ucc.co.tz]
- Africa Online Tanzania[http://www.africaonline.co.tz ]
- Raha[http://www.raha.com]
- Cats-Net[http://www.cats-net.com]
- TTCL[http://www.ttcl.co.tz]
- Kicheko[http://www.kicheko.com]
- Arusha Node Marie[http://www.habari.co.tz]
- ZanLink[http://www.zanlink.com] The complete list of the ISPs can be accessed from Tanzania Communication Regulatory Authority(TCRA) website[http://www.tcra.go.tz/Market%20info/isp.htm] Data Operators
- SatCom Networks Africa Limited
- DATEL[http://www.datelnet.com]
- TTCL[http://www.ttcl.co.tz]
- SimbaNet[http://www.simbanet.net]
- Afsat Communications[http://www.afsat.com] The complete list of Data operators can be accessed from Tanzania Communication Regulatory Authority(TCRA) website[http://www.tcra.go.tz/Market%20info/data.htm] In 2005, mainland Tanzania (i.e. not Zanzibar) modified its licensing system for electronic communications, modelling it on the approach successfully pioneered in Malaysia in the late 1990s where traditional 'vertical' licences (right to operate a telecoms OR broadcasting network, and right to provide services on that network) are replaced by 'horizontal' licences (right to operate a telecoms AND broadcasting network, but a separate licence required to provide services on that network). This reform was the first of its kind on the African continent actually put into practice, and allows investors to concentrate on their area of expertise (i.e. network operation or service provision) across a maximum number of previously separate sectors (i.e. telecommunications, broadcasting, Internet). This reform should, amongst other things, facilitate the arrival of telephony services over cable television networks, television services over telecommunications networks, and Internet services over all types of networks. In short, Tanzania is the first African country to adapt its regulatory environment to the phenomenon of convergence.

Miscellaneous topics

- Communications in Tanzania From the CIA World Factbook 2000. Not Wikified.
- Foreign relations of Tanzania From the CIA World Factbook 2000. Not Wikified.
- List of Tanzanian companies
- List of Famous Tanzanians
- Military of Tanzania From the CIA World Factbook 2000. Not Wikified.
- [http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/36/345.html Privatizing Tanzania telecommunication company]
- Stamps and postal history of Tanzania
- Transportation in Tanzania From the CIA World Factbook 2000. Not Wikified.

External links

Government

- [http://www.tanzania.go.tz/ The United Republic of Tanzania] official site
- [http://www.parliament.go.tz/ Parliament of Tanzania] official site

Higher Learning Institutions

- [http://www.udsm.ac.tz/ UDSM]The University Of Dar-Es-Salaam.
- [http://www.suanet.ac.tz/ SUA]The Sokoine University Of Agriculture.
- [http://www.hkmu.ac.tz/ HKMU]The Hubert Kairuki Memorial University.

News

- [http://allafrica.com/tanzania/ AllAfrica.com - Tanzania] news headline links
- [http://www.theexpress.com/ The Express Online] weekly newspaper
- [http://www.ippmedia.com/ IPP Media]
- [http://www.tanzania-news.com/ Tanzania News] The Top headlines from the major Tanzanian newspapers.

Business

- [http://www.cti-tz.com/members2.htm Confederation of Tanzanian Industries]

Overviews

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1072330.stm BBC News Country Profile - Tanzania]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/tz.html CIA World Factbook - Tanzania]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/tz/ US State Department - Tanzania] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports

Directories

- [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Tanzania.html Columbia University Libraries - Tanzania] directory category of the WWW-VL
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Tanzania/ Open Directory Project - Tanzania] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/tanzan.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Tanzania] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Tanzania/ Yahoo! - Tanzania] directory category

Tourism

-
- [http://www.discovertanzania.org/tanzania.asp Tanzania] Climate, medical and visa information

Other

- [http://www.globalpolitician.com/articles.asp?ID=256 GlobalPolitician - "Tanzania: An Example Of What Third World Should Not Do"] December 22, 2004 editorial
- [http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/04/14/opinion/edpower.html IHT - "Now, some good news from Africa"] April 15, 2005 editorial Category:African Union member states Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations Category:Geographic portmanteaus zh-min-nan:Tanzania ko:탄자니아 ms:Tanzania ja:タンザニア

Sudan

:For the region of the same name, see Sudan (region); for the orange-red dye see Sudan I. The Republic of the Sudan, or Republic of Sudan (in recent years the definite article has increasingly been dropped in common usage) is the largest country by area in Africa, situated in Northeast Africa. The capital is Khartoum. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, Kenya and Uganda to the southeast, Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, and Libya to the northwest. Libya
History
Main article: History of Sudan Three Kushite and Meroetic kingdoms called northern Sudan their home in ancient times, this region was also known as the Nubian Kingdom and these civilizations flourished mainly along the Nile River from the first to the sixth cataracts. These kingdoms were influenced by, and in turn influenced Pharaonic Egypt. In fact, the borders of the ancient Egyptian and Sudanese kingdoms fluxated greatly and what is now the upper third of present day Northern Sudan was during ancient times indistinguishable from Upper Egypt. Pharaonic Egypt Although Christianity had been introduced into Sudan in the third or fourth century, around 640 AD, Islam came to Sudan. A merchant class of Arabs established themselves as economically dominant in feudal Sudan. Important kingdoms in the next 1,200 years include Makuria and the Kingdom of Sennar. In 1820, Sudan came under Egyptian rule when Mehemet Ali, the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, sent armies under his son Ismail Pasha and Mahommed Bey to conquer eastern Sudan. Religious leader Muhammad ibn Abdalla, the self-proclaimed Mahdi (Messiah), attempted to unify the tribes of western and central Sudan in the 1880s. He led a nationalist revolt against Egyptian rule culminating in the fall of Khartoum in 1885, in which the British General Gordon was killed, the inspiration for Rudyard Kipling's poem Fuzzy Wuzzy, a tribe in the region of Port Sudan. The Mahdist state survived until being overwhelmed by an Anglo-Egyptian force under Lord Kitchener in 1898. Great Britain ran Sudan as two essentially separate colonies, the south and the north, until 1956. 1956 The year before independence in 1956, Southern Sudanese embarked upon a civil war. During the British rule, laws had been put in place making it illegal for anyone living above the 10th parallel to go further south and anyone above the 8th parallel further north. The British law set the country up for this envitable conflict with this law. The law was enacted to prevent the spread of malaria and other tropic diseases that had ravaged British troops. Furthermore, while the British built roads, schools and set up a government in the predominately Arab north, the British left the South to Missionaries to "tame the savages" creating what historians generally agree was a grave injustice in the country. This sparked 17 years of civil war from 1955 to 1972. In 1972, the Addis Ababa Agreement led to a cessation of the north-south civil war and a degree of self-rule. This led to a ten-year hiatus in the civil war. In September 1983, then President, Gaafar Nimeiry, created a Federated Sudan which included 3 federal states in Southern Sudan. It was the introduction of Sharia law and the dissolution of the 3 federal states in the South that led to the reinvigoration of the civil war. After shortages of fuel and bread, a growing insurgency in the south, drought and famine, in 1984-5 another military coup led by Gen. Suwar al-Dahab restored a civilian government. However the civil war intensified in lethality and the economy continued to deteriorate. In 1989 General Omar el-Bashir became president and chief of state, prime minister and chief of the armed forces. In 1991, Osama Bin Laden moved to Sudan. His stated objective was to use his money, power and expertise in the construction field to help Sudan. Bin Laden was responsible for building the road from Khartoum northward to the town of Shendi. He was attracted to Sudan because it claimed to be a purely Islamic state. He is purported to have lost a sizable amount of money on business ventures in Sudan; some estimates place his losses in excess of $100 million USD [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/who/bio2.html]. In place of payment on his road venture, the Government of Sudan, strapped for cash, paid him with a defunct tanning factory, which was confiscated when in 1996 he was forcebly expelled at the request of the United States and relocated to Afghanistan. Afghanistan The ongoing civil war has displaced more than 4 million southerners. Some fled into southern cities, such as Juba; others trekked as far north as Khartoum and even into Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Egypt, and other neighboring countries. These people were unable to grow food or earn money to feed themselves, and malnutrition and starvation became widespread. The lack of investment in the south resulted as well in what international humanitarian organizations call a "lost generation" who lack educational opportunities, access to basic health care services, and little prospects for productive employment in the small and weak economies of the south or the north. In early 2003 a new rebellion began in the western province of Darfur, during which time the government committed terrible atrocities. In February 2004, the government declared victory over the rebellion but the rebels reported that they remained in control of rural areas and others reports indicated that widespread fighting was continuing. Peace talks between the southern rebels and the government made substantial progress in 2003 and early 2004, although skirmishes in parts of the south were reportedly continuing. The peace was consolidated with the official signing by both sides of the Naivasha treaty on 9 January 2005, pursuant to which the south will be granted autonomy for six years, to be followed by a referendum on independence. It created a position for a co-vice president position and allowed the north and south to split oil 50/50, but also left both the North's and South's armies in place. John Garang, the south's elected co-vice president died in a helicopter crash three weeks after being sworn in. It is hoped that the treaty will finally mark the end of a decades-long war that has claimed millions of lives. Now politically, there is a "verbal" peace between the north and the south; however, intertribal wars still exists in the western region of Darfur.
Politics
Main article: Politics of Sudan Sudan has an authoritarian government in which all effective political power is in the hands of President Omar Hassan al-Bashir. Bashir and his party have controlled the government since he led the military coup on 30 June 1989. From 1983 to 1997, the country was divided into five regions in the north and three in the south, each headed by a military governor. After the April 6, 1985 military coup, regional assemblies were suspended. The RCC was abolished in 1996, and the ruling National Islamic Front changed its name to the National Congress Party. After 1997, the structure of regional administration was replaced by the creation of 26 states. The executives, cabinets, and senior-level state officials are appointed by the president, and their limited budgets are determined by and dispensed from Khartoum. The states, as a result, remain economically dependent upon the central government. Khartoum state, comprising the capital and outlying districts, is administered by a governor. In December 1999, a power struggle climaxed between President al-Bashir and then-speaker of parliament Hassan al-Turabi, who was the NIF founder and an Islamist ideologue. Al-Turabi was stripped of his posts in the ruling party and the government, parliament was disbanded, the constitution was suspended, and a state of national emergency was declared by presidential decree. Parliament resumed in February 2001 after the December 2000 presidential and parliamentary elections, but the national emergency laws remain in effect. Al-Turabi was arrested in February 2001, and charged with being a threat to national security and the constitutional order for signing a memorandum of understanding with the SPLA. Since then his outspoken style has had him in prison or under house-arrest, his most recent stint beginning in March of 2004 and ending in June of 2005. During that time he was under house-arrest for his role in a failed coup attempt in September of 2003, an allegation he has denied. According to some reports, the president had no choice but to release him, given that a coalition of National Democratic Union (NDA) members headquartered in both Cairo and Eriteria, composed of the political parites known as the SPLM/A, Umma Party, Mirghani Party, and Turabi's own National People's Congress, were calling for his release at a time when an interim government was preparing to take over in accordance with the Naivasha agreement and the Machokos Accord. See Presidents of Sudan
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Sudan Sudan has had a troubled relationship with many of its neighbors and much of the international community due to what is viewed as its aggressively Islamic stance. For much of the 1990s, Uganda, Kenya and Ethiopia formed an ad-hoc alliance called the "Front Line States" with support from the United States to check the influence of the National Islamic Front government. During this period, Sudan supported anti-Uganda rebel groups such as the Lord's Resistance Army in retaliation for Ugandan support of the Sudan People's Liberation Army. Beginning from the mid-1990s Sudan gradually began to moderate its positions as a result of increased US pressure following the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings and the new development of oil fields previously in rebel hands. Sudan also has a territorial dispute with Egypt over the Hala'ib Triangle. Since 2003, the foreign relations of Sudan have centered on the support for ending the Second Sudanese Civil War and condemnation of government support for militias in the Darfur conflict.
States
Darfur conflict Main article: States of Sudan Sudan has 26 states or wilayat: Al Jazirah, Al Qadarif, Bahr al Jabal, Blue Nile, East Equatoria, Junqali, Kassala, Khartoum, Lakes, North Bahr al Ghazal, North Darfur, North Kurdufan, Northern, Red Sea, River Nile, Sennar, South Darfur, South Kurdufan, Unity, Upper Nile, Warab, West Bahr al Ghazal, West Darfur, West Equatoria, West Kurdufan, and White Nile.
Autonomy, Separation, Conflicts
Southern Sudan is an autonomous region intermediate between the states and the national government. Darfur is a region of three western states affected by the current Darfur conflict. There is also an insurgency in the east led by the Eastern Front.
Geography
Eastern Front Eastern Front Main article: Geography of Sudan Sudan is situated in Northern Africa, bordering the Red Sea, between Egypt and Eritrea. It is dominated by the River Nile and its tributaries. With an area of 2,505,810 km², it is the largest country in the continent. The terrain is generally flat plains, though there are mountains in the east and west. The climate is tropical in the south; arid desert conditions in the north, with a rainy season from April to October. Soil erosion and desertification are environmental hazards. See List of cities in Sudan
Economy
Main article: Economy of Sudan Sudan has turned around a struggling economy with sound economic policies and infrastructure investments, but it still faces formidable economic problems, starting from its low level of per capita output. From 1997 to date, Sudan has been implementing IMF macroeconomic reforms. In 1999, Sudan began exporting crude oil and in the last quarter of 1999 recorded its first trade surplus, which, along with monetary policy, has stabilized the exchange rate. Increased oil production, revived light industry, and expanded export processing zones helped sustain GDP growth at 6.1% in 2003. Agriculture production remains Sudan's most important sector, employing 80% of the work force and contributing 39% of GDP, but most farms remain rain-fed and susceptible to drought. Chronic instability - including the long-standing civil war between the Muslim north and the Christian/animist south, adverse weather, and weak world agricultural prices - ensure that much of the population will remain at or below the poverty line for years. See Communications in Sudan, Transportation in Sudan
Demographics
Transportation in Sudan Main article: Demographics of Sudan, Social order of Sudan In Sudan’s 1993 census, the population was calculated at 26 million. No comprehensive census has been carried out since that time due to the continuation of the civil war. Current estimates from the Central Intelligence Agency factbook as of 2004 estimate the population to be about 39 million. The population of metropolitan Khartoum (including Khartoum, Omdurman, and Khartoum North) is growing rapidly and ranges from 6-7 million, including around 2 million displaced persons from the southern war zone as well as western and eastern drought-affected areas. Sudan has two distinct major cultures--Arabicized Black Africans (but also some non-black Egyptian Arabs) and non-Arab Black Africans--with hundreds of ethnic and tribal divisions and language groups, which makes effective collaboration among them a major problem. The northern states cover most of the Sudan and include most of the urban centers. Most of the 22 million Sudanese who live in this region are Arabic-speaking Muslims, though the majority also use a traditional non-Arabic mother tongue--e.g., Nubian, Beja, Fur, Nuban, Ingessana, etc. Among these are several distinct tribal groups: the Kababish of northern Kordofan, a camel-raising people; the Ga’alin (الجعلين), Rubatab (الرباطاب), Manasir (المناصير) and Shaiqiyah (الشايقيّة) of settled tribes along the rivers; the seminomadic Baggara of Kurdufan and Darfur; the Hamitic Beja in the Red Sea area and Nubians of the northern Nile areas, some of whom have been resettled on the Atbara River; and the Negroid Nuba of southern Kurdufan and Fur in the western reaches of the country. The southern region has a population of around 6 million and a predominantly rural, subsistence economy. This region has been negatively affected by war for all but 10 years since independence in 1956, resulting in serious neglect, lack of infrastructure development, and major destruction and displacement. More than 2 million people have died, and more than 4 million are internally displaced or have become refugees as a result of the civil war and war-related impacts. Here the Sudanese practice mainly indigenous traditional beliefs, although Christian missionaries have converted some. The south also contains many tribal groups and many more languages are used than in the north. The Dinka--whose population is estimated at more than 1 million--is the largest of the many black African tribes of the Sudan. Along with the Shilluk and the Nuer, they are among the Nilotic tribes. The Azande, Bor, and Jo Luo are “Sudanic” tribes in the west, and the Acholi and Lotuhu live in the extreme south, extending into Uganda.
People of Sudan

- Ja'alein peoples 50% "Arabic Tribes"
- Ababda
- Azande
- Baggara peoples
- Beja tribe
- Dinka tribe
- Fur People
- Manasir tribe
- Masalit
- Nuba peoples
- Nuer tribe
- Zaghawa (more, with rough locations)
- Acholi east
- Ayuak south central
- Barit Juba City
- Didiga east
- Kakua southwest
- Latuga east
- Madi east
- Shililuk east
- Toposa east
- many more
Culture
Main article: Culture of Sudan
- Music of Sudan
- List of writers from Sudan
- Islam in Sudan
- Clothing in Sudan Largest Christian denominations are the Roman Catholic Church, the Episcopal Church of the Sudan, the Presbyterian Church in the Sudan and the Coptic Orthodox Church.
Education
:Main article: Education in Sudan Institutions of higher education in the Sudan include:
- Academy of Medical Sciences
- Ahfad University for Women
- Bayan Science and Technology College
- University of Gezira
- University of Khartoum
- Mycetoma Research Center
See also

- Cities in Sudan, list of
- Education in Sudan
- Darfur Conflict
- Social order of Sudan
- Human rights issues in Sudan
- Janjaweed
- Kush
- Lost Boys of Sudan (Docu-film)
- Merowe Dam Project
- Military of Sudan
- Nubia
- Prime Ministers of Sudan
- Not the Sudan nuclear test by the US
- Sudan 1 Food Additive
- United Nations Mission In Sudan
- Patron saint: Josephine Bakhita
Miscellaneous topics

External links

Government

- [http://www.sudan.gov.sd/english.htm Sudan Government] official site
- [http://www.sudan-parliament.org/ Majlis Watani] official Parliament site
News

- [http://allafrica.com/sudan/ AllAfrica.com - Sudan] news headline links
- [http://www.guardian.co.uk/sudan/0,14658,1235601,00.html Guardian Unlimited - Special Report: Sudan]
- [http://www.suna-sd.net/Index_EN.htm Sudan News Agency (SUNA)] and [http://www.sunasms.com SunaSMS] government sites
- [http://news.yahoo.com/fc/world/sudan Yahoo! News Full Coverage - Sudan] news headline links
- [http://www.sudantribune.com/sommaire.php3 Sudan Tribune] France-based (in English)
Overviews

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/820864.stm BBC News Country Profile - Sudan]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/su.html CIA World Factbook - Sudan]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/su/ US State Department - Sudan] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
Directories

- [http://www.al-bab.com/arab/countries/sudan.htm Arab Gateway - Sudan] directory category
- [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Sudan.html Columbia University - Sudan] directory category of the WWW-VL
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Sudan/ Open Directory Project - Sudan] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/sudan.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Sudan] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Sudan/ Yahoo! - Sudan] directory category
Tourism

-
Other

- [http://www.sudan.net/ Sudan.net] portal
- [http://www.sudaneseonline.com/ Sudaneseonline.com] portal
- [http://www.sudani.com/ Sudani.com Portal]
- [http://www.iabolish.com/today/features/sudan/overview1.htm Slavery in Sudan] Category:Arab League Category:African Union member states Category:Middle Eastern countries Category:Peace and Security Council zh-min-nan:Sudan ko:수단 ms:Sudan ja:スーダン simple:Sudan th:ประเทศซูดาน

Indian Ocean

:This article is about the water body. For the Indian fusion music band, see Indian Ocean (band). The Indian Ocean is the third-largest body of water in the world, covering about 20% of the Earth's water surface. It is bounded on the north by southern Asia (the Indian subcontinent); on the west by the Arabian Peninsula and Africa; on the east by the Malay Peninsula, the Sunda Islands, and Australia; and on the south by the Southern Ocean. It is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by the 20°east meridian south of Africa, and from the Pacific by the 147°east meridian. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30°north latitude in the Persian Gulf. This ocean is nearly 10,000 km (6,200 mi) wide at the southern tips of Africa and Australia; its area is 73,556,000 km² (28,400,000 mi²), including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. The ocean's volume is estimated to be 292,131,000 km³ (70,086,000 mi³). Small islands dot the continental rims. Island nations within the ocean are Madagascar (formerly Malagasy Republic), the world's fourth largest island; Comoros; Seychelles; Maldives; Mauritius; and Sri Lanka. Indonesia borders it. The ocean's importance as a transit route between Asia and Africa has made it a scene of conflict. Because of its size, however, no one nation had successfully dominated until the early 1800s when Britain controlled much of the surrounding land. right

Environment

The African, Indian, and Antarctic crustal plates converge in the Indian Ocean. Their junctures are marked by branches of the Mid-Oceanic Ridge forming an inverted Y, with the stem running south from the edge of the continental shelf near Mumbai, India. The eastern, western, and southern basins thus formed are subdivided into smaller basins by ridges. The ocean's continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 km (125 mi) in width. An exception is found off Australia's western coast, where the shelf width exceeds 1,000 km (600 mi). The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m (12,760 ft). Its deepest point, in the Java Trench, is estimated to be 7,450 m (24,442 ft). North of 50° south latitude, 86% of the main basin is covered by pelagic sediments, of which more than one-half is globigerina ooze. The remaining 14% is layered with terrige