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Lincoln Cathedral

Lincoln Cathedral

Lincoln Cathedral is a historic cathedral in Lincoln in England, and seat of the Diocese of Lincoln in the Church of England. It is highly regarded by architectural scholars; the eminent Victorian writer John Ruskin declared, "I have always held... that the cathedral of Lincoln is out and out the most precious piece of architecture in the British Isles and roughly speaking worth any two other cathedrals we have."

Construction

William the Conqueror ordered the first cathedral to be built in Lincoln, in 1072. Before that, St. Mary's church in Lincoln was a mother church but not a cathedral and the seat of the diocese was at Dorchester Abbey in Dorchester-on-Thames, Oxfordshire. Lincoln was more central to a diocese that stretched from the Thames to the Humber. Bishop Remigius built the first Lincoln Cathedral on the present site, finishing it in 1092 and then dying two days before it was to be consecrated on May 9 of that year. About fifty years later, most of that building was destroyed in a fire. Bishop Alexander rebuilt and expanded the cathedral, but it was destroyed by an earthquake about forty years later, in 1185, while there was no bishop. The central tower rises to 83 m (271 feet) and remains the tallest cathedral tower in Europe today without a spire. There was a lead-encased wooden spire that rose 160 m (525 feet), that collapsed in 1549 due to weather; it was the first building to ever exceed the height of the Great Pyramid of Giza, thereby becoming the world's tallest structure, and remaining that for more than two centuries, until the collapse of the spire.

History

world's tallest structure King Henry II of England approved the election of Hugh of Avalon, a Carthusian monk and later canonized a saint, as Bishop of Lincoln in 1186, and St. Hugh died in 1200, before his plan for the rebuilding was completed. The western end of the cathedral was always where it is now, but the eastern end (east of the original, now "great" transept) was moved eastward each time the cathedral was enlarged: The eastern wall of the Norman building (1073) was in the middle of what is now St. Hugh's Choir. The eastern end of the Early English building (1186) was in what is now the Angel Choir behind the High Altar. The existing structure was finished by about 1280, but repairs and remodeling have continued, and there have been repeated problems with the spires (removed in 1807) and towers, which were sometimes thought to be in danger of collapsing, this was despite attempts to shore up the towers by digging underneath them to increase support, an early attempt of what is a common engineering project today on such building as the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Among the persons interred in Lincoln Cathedral are:
- St. Hugh of Avalon, in the Angel Choir
- Richard Fleming, (died 1431), Bishop of Lincoln, in the first cadaver tomb ever, in a chantry on the north wall. His moldering corpse is realistically depicted below his effigy.
- Katherine Swynford and her daughter Joan Beaufort, in a chantry on the south side of the sanctuary Lincoln Cathedral and its bishops have also had a leading role in the history of England. Most importantly is the Magna Carta which was signed by the Bishop of Lincoln amongst others, and what is one of only two copies resides in the cathedral's library although it is lent out to American museums to raise funds, a problem the diocese has suffered ever since the reformation. With more monasteries than everywhere else in England put together in Lincolnshire alone and a vast number in other lands controlled by the diocese the reformation cut off the main source of income to the Cathedral leaving the massive structure under the care of an organisation that can barely support it.

The Lincoln Imp

One of the stone gargoyles within the Cathedral is the Lincoln Imp, of which there are several variations of the legend surrounding the figure. The general gist of the story is that the Imp was sent by Satan to cause mayhem in the cathedral, but was challenged and ordered to stop by an Angel, in the Angel Choir. The Imp laughed, sat on a stone pillar and threw rocks at the Angel, so the Angel turned the Imp to stone, and he is there today, sitting on the same stone pillar in the Angel Choir.

Today

Angel Over £1 million a year is spent on keeping the cathedral in shape; the most recent project completed has been the restoration of the West Front in 2000. About 10 years ago it was discovered that the Flying Buttresses on the east end were no longer connected to the adjoining stonework, and hasty repairs had to be made. The problems arise because the building techniques used were groundbreaking at the time, and the builders were inventing them as they proceeded. It was not unknown for newly built parts to collapse shortly afterwards, as they learned the techniques and methods needed to build in this style. Up to this point, there were only Norman churches, which were short, dark, and with thick walls and small windows. The introduction of Gothic style made churches bright and spacious, and requried a new set of techniques to be developed. Worryingly though, parts of the ceiling of the nave have started to fall, requiring green netting to be slung under it to catch any pieces as the only alternative to shutting the cathedral. The outside has fared little better as tourists have had to dodge pieces of falling masonry creating the need for urgent repairs of some decayed stonework. The central window in the quire, is in danger of falling out and the supporting stonework around it held up only by connecting metal struts fixed diagonally to the ground. A similar fate is threatened for the Dean's Eye window in the north transept, dating from 1220, still with much of its original mediaeval glass depicting the Last Judgement, but patched over the years with a metal frame to stop it also falling out. Despite these problems, Lincoln Cathedral remains much loved and is visited by over 250,000 tourists a year. The peak of its season is the Lincoln Christmas Market, accompanied by a massive annual production of Handel's "Messiah". In August 2005, the cathedral was used for filming of the movie of The Da Vinci Code[http://www.heureka.clara.net/books/davinci-code.htm] starring Tom Hanks, Sir Ian McKellen, Jean Reno, Audrey Tatou and Alfred Molina. Filming took place mainly within the cloisters of the cathedral, and remained a closed set. The Cathedral took on the role of Westminster Abbey, as the Abbey had refused to permit filming.

See also


- List of tallest churches

External links


- [http://www.lincolncathedral.com/ Lincoln Cathedral Official Website]
- [http://www.heureka.clara.net/lincolnshire/lincoln-cathedral.htm Lincoln Cathedral]
- [http://www.skyscrapernews.com/buildings.php?id=384 Large collection of pictures and info on Lincoln Cathedral]
- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Great_Britain/England/Lincolnshire/Lincoln/churches/cathedral/home.html Thayer's site; includes one whole book on the church]
- [http://www.eccentrix.com/members/lincoln/ The Association of the Friends of Lincoln Cathedral] Category:Lincoln, England Category:Buildings and structures in Lincolnshire Category:Visitor attractions in Lincolnshire Category:Cathedrals in the United Kingdom Category:Anglican cathedrals Category:Grade I listed buildings

Lincoln, Lincolnshire

Lincoln (pronounced "Ling-k'n") is a cathedral city and county town of Lincolnshire, England, a bridging point over the River Witham, with a population, at the 2001 Census of 85,963 for the city proper. The population for the whole built-up area ("Lincoln Urban Area") was 104,221, up 6.4% from the 1991 figure of 97,996. Its twin town is Neustadt, Germany.

History

Lindum Colonia

Neustadt Under the Romans, Lincoln was a flourishing colony named Colonia Domitiana Lindensium, founded under Domitian, and was at the northern end of the Fosse Way Roman road. The stone Newport Arch, which was the northern gateway to the Roman city, is the only Roman arch in England through which traffic still passes. Only foundations and fragments of the other three Roman gateways remain. The Romans also dug the Fosseway Canal (Fossdyke), linking the rivers Witham and Trent, and also dug an inland quay at the Brayford Pool ('bray ford' means 'the place to cross the swamp'). This allowed boats to get freely all the way to Lincoln and beyond, and the city became a flourishing inland port. During this period it was populated mainly by the local populace and retired legionnaires. After the legions left in 410, the drainage ditches and waterways fell into decline, and by the close of the 5th century the city was virtually deserted.

Medieval Lincoln

After the first destructive Viking raids the city once again rose to some importance. In Viking times Lincoln was a trading centre important enough to issue coins from its own mint. After the establishment of Dane Law in 886, Lincoln became one of The Five Boroughs in the East Midlands. Over the next few centuries, Lincoln once again rose to prominence. In 1068, two years after the Norman Conquest, William I ordered a castle to be built on the site of the former Roman settlement. castle]] :Main article: Lincoln Cathedral. The first Lincoln Cathedral, within its close or walled precinct facing the castle was commenced when the see was removed from Dorchester and completed in 1092; it was rebuilt after a fire but was destroyed by an unusual earthquake in 1185. The rebuilt Lincoln Minster, enlarged to the east at each rebuilding, was on magnificent scale, its crossing tower crowned by a spire 160 m (525 feet) high, the highest in Europe. :Main article:Bishop of Lincoln. The bishops of Lincoln were among the magnates of medieval England: Lincolnshire, the largest diocese, had more monasteries than the rest of England put together, and the diocese was supported by large estates outside the county. When the Magna Carta was drawn up in 1215, one of the witnesses was Hugh of Wells, Bishop of Lincoln. A copy is now preserved in Lincoln Castle. Among the most famous bishops of Lincoln were Robert Bloet, the magnificent justiciar to Henry I; Hugh of Avalon, the cathedral builder canonized as Saint Hugh of Lincoln; Robert Grosseteste, the 13th century intellectual; Henry Cardinal Beaufort, a politician deeply involved in the Wars of the Roses; Philip Repyngdon, chaplain to Henry IV of England and defender of Wycliffe; Thomas Cardinal Wolsey. The administrative centre was the Bishop's Palace, the third element in the central complex. When it was built in the late 12th century, the Bishops' Palace was one of the most important buildings in England. Built by the canonized bishop Hugh of Lincoln, the palace's East Hall range over a vaulted undercroft is the earliest surviving example of a roofed domestic hall. The chapel range and entrance tower were built by Bishop William of Alnwick, who modernised the palace in the 1430s. Both Henry VIII and James I were guests of bishops here; the palace was sacked by royalist troops during the Civil War in 1648. By 1150, Lincoln was amongst the wealthiest towns in Britain. The basis of the economy was cloth and wool, exported to Flanders; Lincoln weavers had set up a guild in 1130 to produce Lincoln Cloth, especially the fine dyed "scarlet" and "green" the reputation of which was later enhanced by Robin Hood wearing "Lincoln Green". In the Guildhall that surmounts a city gate, the ancient Council Chamber contains Lincoln's civic insignia, probably the finest collection of civic regalia outside London. Outside the precincts of cathedral and castle, the old quarter clustered outside the Bailgate, and down Steep Hill to the High Bridge, which bears half-timbered housing, the upper storey jettied out over the river, as London Bridge once had. There are three ancient churches: St. Mary le Wigford and St. Peter at Gowts are both 11th century in origin and St Mary Magdalene, built in the late 13th century, is an unusual English dedication to the saint whose cult was coming greatly into vogue on the Continent at that time. Lincoln was home to one of the five most important Jewish communities in England, well established before it was officially noted in 1154. In 1190, anti-semitic riots that started in Lynn, Norfolk, spread to Lincoln; the Jewish community took refuge with royal officials, but their habitations were plundered. The so-called "House of Aaron" has a two-storey street frontage that is essentially 12th century and a nearby "Jew's House" likewise bears witness to the Jewish population. In 1255, the affair called “The Libel of Lincoln” in which prominent Jews of Lincoln, accused of the ritual murder of a Christian boy ("Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln" in medieval folklore) were sent to the Tower of London and 18 were executed. The Jews were expelled en masse in 1290. During the 14th century, the city's fortunes began to decline. The lower city was prone to flooding, becoming increasingly isolated, and plagues were common. In 1409, the city was made a county corporate. The dissolution of the monasteries further exacerbated Lincoln's problems, and between 1642 and 1651, during the English Civil War, Lincoln was on the frontier between the Royalist and Parliamentary forces. Military control of the city therefore changed hands numerous times. Many buildings were badly damaged. Lincoln now had no major industry, no easy access to the sea and was poorly placed. As a consequence of this, while the rest of the country was beginning to prosper in the beginning of the 1700s, Lincoln suffered immensely, travellers often commenting on the state of what had essentially become a "one street" town. The Reformation cut off the main source of diocasan income and dried up the network of patronage controlled by the bishop. When the great spire rotted and collapsed in 1549 and was not replaced, it was a sign of Lincoln's decline; however, the comparative poverty of post-medieval Lincoln preserved structures that would have been lost in more prosperous contexts.

The Georgian Age

By the Georgian era, Lincoln's fortunes began to pick up, thanks in part to the Agrarian Revolution. The re-opening of the Foss Dyke allowed things like coal to be brought to the city.

The Industrial Revolution

Coupled with the arrival of the railway links, Lincoln boomed again during the industrial Revolution, and several world-famous companies arose, such as Ruston's, Smith-Clayton's, Proctor's, and William Foster's. Lincoln began to excel in heavy engineering, building diesel engine trains, steam shovels, and all manner of heavy machinery.

The 20th Century

Lincoln was hit by a major typhoid epidemic between November 1904 and August 1905, caused by polluted drinking water from Hartsholme Lake and the River Witham. Over 1000 people contracted the disease and fatalities totalled 113. Westgate Water Tower was constructed to provide new water supplies to the city. In the world wars Lincoln naturally switched to war production. The first tanks were designed and built in Lincoln by William Foster & Co. Ltd during the First World War and population growth provided more workers for even greater expansion. During the Second World War, Lincoln produced a vast array of war goods, from tanks, aircraft, munitions, and military vehicles. Ruston and Hornsby produced diesel engines for ships and locomotives, then by teaming up with former colleagues of Frank Whittle and Power Jets Ltd, in the early 1950s, R & H (which became RGT) started to produce gas turbine engines for land-based & sea-based energy production. They were taken over by GEC in the late 1960s (diesel engine production was transferred to a division of GEC in Newton-le-Willows), merged with Alstom of France in the late 1980s, then in 2003 were bought out by Siemens AG of Germany, now being called Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery. In the post-war years after 1945, new suburbs were built, but unfortunately industry declined towards the end of the 20th Century.

Economy

Lincoln's economy is based mainly on public administration, commerce and arable farming.

Communications

farming The loss of an all-day direct train service to and from London in the late 1980s, when the King's Cross to Doncaster route was electrified, deterred inward movement by new employers. The local newspaper is the Lincolnshire Echo, and the local radio stations are Radio Lincolnshire on 94.9FM and its commercial rival Lincs FM on 102.2 FM.

Education

In the 1990s, Lincoln Art College and Riseholme Agricultural College became part of De Montfort University in Leicester. Thanks to the dogged support and also vision of local commerce, the University of Humberside opened a Lincoln campus next to Brayford Pool in 1996, changing the name to University of Lincolnshire and Humberside. This has attracted additional students to the city, giving it a refreshing youthful appearance, and possibly a more outward-looking viewpoint. The Lincoln campus took priority over the Hull campus (which is now a much-reduced branch of the main university), and as such the name changed in 2002 to the University of Lincoln, taking over the Art College and Riseholme College.

Tourism

The city is a tourist centre, but is never overwhelmed by tourists; those who come do so to visit the numerous historic buildings, including of course, the Cathedral and the Castle. The Collection, of which the Usher Gallery is now a part, is an important attraction; as is the Museum of Lincolnshire Life. Tranquil destinations close by include Whisby Nature Reserve and Hartsholme Park, whilst noisier entertainment can be found at Waddington airfield, Scampton airfield, base of the RAF's "Red Arrows" jet aerobatic team, the County Showground or the Cadwell Park motor racing circuit near Louth.

Sport

Football (soccer) team Lincoln City F.C. are based in the city.

See also


- Lincoln Cathedral
- Saint Hugh of Lincoln
- Lincoln Imp
- Lincoln Castle
- George Boole
- Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln
- Lincoln City F.C.

External References


- [http://www.oldengine.org/members/ruston/front.htm History of Ruston & Hornsby.]
- [http://www.bbc.co.uk/england/radiolincolnshire Radio Lincolnshire 94.9FM]
- [http://www.lincsfm.co.uk Lincs FM 102.2]
- [http://www.lincoln.ac.uk University of Lincoln.]
- [http://www.britannia.com/tours/lincs/swlinc23.html Britannia.com]
- [http://www.trytel.com/~tristan/towns/florilegium/government/gvpoli06.html Florilegium urbanum]: provision for electing city officers, ca 1300, and Francis Hill's discussion
- [http://www.jewishgen.org/jcr-uk/pre-1290/1290communities/east1290.htm#lincoln1290 Jewish communities in Eastern England]: Lincoln

Further reading


- Francis Hill, 1948. Medieval Lincoln (Cambridge: University Press) Category:Local government in Lincolnshire Category:Cities in England Category:English county towns Category:Shire districts ko:링컨 (링컨셔 주)

Diocese of Lincoln

The Diocese of Lincoln forms part of the Province of Canterbury in England. It traces its roots in an unbroken line to the Diocese of Lindine founded in 678. Nowadays it is much diminished in size since it was the largest diocese in Europe. Many changes have been made to its boundaries since William the Conqueror established it in 1072. The diocese is divided into 23 Deaneries:
- Aveland & Ness with Stamford
- Beltisloe, Bolingbroke
- Calcewaithe & Candleshoe, Christianity, Corringham
- Elloe East, Elloe West
- Graffoe, Grantham, Grimsby & Cleethorpes
- Haverstoe, Holland East, Holland West, Horncastle
- Isle of Axeholme
- Lafford, Lawres, Louthesk, Loveden
- Manlake
- West Wold
- Yarborough

Source

:Diocesan website

See also


- Bishop of Lincoln
- Catholic diocese of Lincoln
- Lincoln Cathedral

External links


- [http://www.Lincoln.anglican.org Diocesan website] Lincoln Category:Lincolnshire

Victorian era

) gave her name to the historic era]] The Victorian era of Great Britain is considered the height of the British industrial revolution and the apex of the British Empire. It is often defined as the years from 1837 to 1901, when Queen Victoria reigned, though many historians believe that the passage of the Reform Act 1832 marks the true inception of a new cultural era. The Victorian era was preceded by the Regency era and came before the Edwardian period.

Politics

The period is ostensibly characterized as a long period of peace and economic, colonial, and industrial consolidation, temporarily disrupted by the Crimean War, although Britain was at war every year during this period. Towards the end of the century, the policies of New Imperialism led to increasing colonial conflicts and eventually the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of gradual political reform and the widening of the franchise. In the early part of the era the House of Commons was dominated by the two parties, the Whigs and the Tories. From the late 1850s onwards the Whigs became the Liberals. Many prominent statesmen led one or other of the parties, including Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, William Ewart Gladstone, Benjamin Disraeli and Lord Salisbury. The unsolved problems relating to Ireland played a great part in politics in the later Victorian era, particularly in view of Gladstone's determination to achieve a political settlement. In January 1858, the Prime Minister, Lord Palmerston, responded to the Orsini plot against French emperor Napoleon III, the bombs for which were purchased in Birmingham, by attempting to make such acts a felony, but the resulting uproar forced him to resign. In July 1866, an angry crowd in London, protesting Russell's resignation as prime minister, was barred from Hyde Park by the police; it tore down iron railings and trampled the flower beds. Disturbances like this convinced Derby and Disraeli of the need for further parliamentary reform. During 1875 Britain purchased Egypt's shares in the Suez Canal as the African nation was forced to raise money to pay off its debts. In 1882 Egypt became a protectorate of Great Britain after British troops occupied land surrounding the Suez Canal in order to secure the vital trade route, and the passage to India. In 1884 the Fabian Society was founded in London by a group of middle-class intellectuals, including Quaker Edward Pease, 17, Havelock Ellis, 25, and Edith Nesbit, 26, to promote socialism. George Bernard Shaw and H.G. Wells would be among many famous names to later join this society. On Sunday, November 13, 1887, tens of thousands of people, many of them socialists or unemployed, gathered in Trafalgar Square to demonstrate against the government. Metropolitan Police Commissioner Sir Charles Warren ordered armed soldiers and 2,000 police constables to respond. Rioting broke out, hundreds were injured and two people died. This event was referred to as Bloody Sunday.

Events

In 1851 the Great Exhibition (the first World's Fair) was held in The Crystal Palace, with great success and international attention. In 1888, the serial killer known as Jack the Ripper murdered and mutilated prostitutes on the streets of London, leading to world-wide press coverage and hysteria. Newspapers used the deaths to bring greater focus on the plight of the unemployed and to attack police and political leaders. The killer was never caught, and the affair contributed to Sir Charles Warren's resignation.

Science, technology and engineering

prostitutes]] The impetus of the industrial revolution had already occurred, but it was during this period that the full effects of industrialisation made themselves felt, leading to the mass society of the 20th century. The revolution led to the rise of railways across the country and massive leaps forward in engineering, most famously by Isambard Kingdom Brunel. During the Victorian era, science grew into the discipline it is today. In addition to the increasing professionalism of university science, many Victorian gentlemen devoted their time to the study of natural history. Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published in 1859 and had a tremendous effect on the popular mindset. In January 1863, Prime Minister Gladstone opened the first section of the London Underground. In 1882, incandescent electric lights were introduced to London streets, although it took many long years before they were installed everywhere.

The fallen woman

In the writings of Henry Mayhew, Charles Booth and others, prostitution began to be seen as a social problem, rather than just a fact of urban life. It also began to be seen as a feminist issue in the work of Josephine Butler, who attacked the long-established double standard of sexual morality. Prostitutes were often presented as victims in sentimental literature such Thomas Hood's poem "The Bridge of Sighs" and Dickens' novel Oliver Twist. The emphasis on the purity of women found in such works as John Ruskin's Sesame and Lilllies led to the portrayal of the prostititute as soiled and corrupted, who needed to be cleansed. This emphasis on purity was allied to the stress on the homemaking role of women, who helped to create a space free from the pollution and corruption of the city. In this respect the prostitute came to have symbolic significance as the embodiment of the violation of that divide. The double standard remained in force. Divorce legislation introduced in 1857 allowed for a man to divorce his wife for adultery, but a woman could only divorce if adultery was accompanied by cruelty. The anonymity of the city led to a large increase in prostitution and unsanctioned sexual relationships. Dickens and other writers associated prostitution with the mechanisation and industrialisation of modern life, portraying prostitutes as human commodities consumed and thrown away like refuse when they were used up. Moral reform movements attempted to close down brothels, something that has sometimes been argued to have been a factor in the concentration of street-prostitution in Whitechapel by the late 1880s.

See also


- Victorian architecture
- Victorian fashion
- Victorian morality
- Victorian literature
- History of British society
- Women in the Victorian era

Sources and further reading


- Altick, Richard Daniel. Victorian People and Ideas: A Companion for the Modern Reader of Victorian Literature. W.W. Norton & Company: 1974. ISBN 039309376X.
- Burton, Antoinette (editor). Politics and Empire in Victorian Britain: A Reader. Palgrave Macmillan: 2001. ISBN 0312293356.
- Flanders, Judith. Inside the Victorian Home: A Portrait of Domestic Life in Victorian England. W.W. Norton & Company: 2004. ISBN 0393052095.
- Mitchell, Sally. Daily Life in Victorian England. Greenwood Press: 1996. ISBN 0313294674.
- Wilson, A. N. The Victorians. Arrow Books: 2002. ISBN 0099451867

External links and references


- [http://www.victorianweb.org/ The Victorian Web]
- [http://www.victorianlondon.org/ The Victorian Dictionary]
- [http://www.victorian-music.com Victorian Music 1835-1903] Category:Victorian era ja:ヴィクトリア朝

William I of England

William I (c. 1028 – 9 September 1087), was King of England from 1066 to 1087, and as Guillaume II was Duke of Normandy from 1035 to 1087. Known alternatively as William of Normandy (Fr. Guillaume de Normandie), William the Conqueror (Fr. Guillaume le Conquérant) and William the Bastard (Fr. Guillaume le Bâtard), he was the illegitimate and only son of Robert the Magnificent, Duke of Normandy, and Herleva, the daughter of Fulbert, a tanner. Born in Falaise, Normandy, now in France, William succeeded to the throne of England by right of conquest by winning the Battle of Hastings in 1066 and suppressing subsequent English revolts, in what has become known as the Norman Conquest. No authentic portrait of William has been found. He was described as a big burly man, strong in every sense of the word, balding in front, and of regal dignity.

Early life history

William was born the grandnephew of Queen Emma, wife of King Ethelred the Unready and later of King Canute. William succeeded to his father's Duchy of Normandy at the young age of 7 in 1035 and was known as Duke William I of Normandy (Fr. Guillaume II, duc de Normandie). He lost three guardians to plots to usurp his place. Count Alan of Brittany was a later guardian. King Henry I of France knighted him at the age of 15. By the time he turned 19 he was himself successfully dealing with threats of rebellion and invasion. With the assistance of King Henry, William finally secured control of Normandy by defeating the rebel Norman barons at Caen in the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes in 1047. He married his cousin Matilda of Flanders, against the wishes of the pope in 1053 at the Cathedral of Notre Dame at Eu, Eu, Normandy (now in Seine-Maritime). He was 26, she was 22. Their marriage produced four sons and six daughters (see list below). His half-brothers Odo of Bayeux and Robert, Count of Mortain played significant roles in his life. He also had a sister, Adelaide of Normandy.

Conquest of England

Upon the death of William's cousin King Edward the Confessor of England (January 1066), William claimed the throne of England, asserting that the childless and purportedly celibate Edward had named him his heir during a visit by William (probably in 1052) and that Harold Godwinson, England's foremost magnate, had reportedly pledged his support while shipwrecked in Normandy (c. 1064). Harold made this pledge while in captivity and was reportedly tricked into swearing on a saint's bones that he would give the throne to William. Even if this story is true, however, Harold made the promise under duress and so may have felt free to break it. The assembly of England's leading notables known as the Witenagemot approved Harold Godwinson’s coronation which took place on January 5, 1066 making him King Harold II of England. In order to pursue his own claim, William obtained the Pope's support for his cause. He assembled a Norman invasion fleet of around 600 ships and an army of 7000 men. He landed at Pevensey in Sussex on September 28, 1066 and assembled a prefabricated wooden castle near Hastings as a base. This was a direct provocation to Harold Godwinson as this area of Sussex was Harold's own personal estate, and William began immediately to lay waste to the land. It may have prompted Harold to respond immediately and in haste rather than await reinforcements in London. King Harold Godwinson was in the north of England and had just defeated another rival, King Hardrada of Norway supported by his own brother Tostig. He marched an army of similar size to William's 250 miles in 9 days to challenge him at the crucial battle of Senlac, which later became known as the Battle of Hastings. This took place on October 14, 1066. According to some accounts, perhaps based on an interpretation of the Bayeux Tapestry commemorating the Norman victory, Harold was allegedly killed by an arrow through the eye, and the English forces fled giving William victory. This was the defining moment of what is now known as the Norman Conquest. The remaining Anglo-Saxon noblemen surrendered to William at Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire and he was acclaimed King of England there. William was then crowned on December 25 1066 in Westminster Abbey. Although the south of England submitted quickly to Norman rule, resistance continued, especially in the North for six more years until 1072. Harold's illegitimate sons attempted an invasion of the south-west peninsula. Uprisings occurred in the Welsh Marches and at Stafford. Separate attempts at invasion by the Danes and the Scots also occured. William's defeat of these led to what became known as The Harrying of the North (Sometimes called Harrowing) in which Northumbria was laid waste as revenge and to deny his enemies its resources. The last serious resistance came with the Revolt of the Earls in 1075. It is estimated that one fifth of the people of England were killed during these years by war, massacre, and starvation.

William's reign

William initiated many major changes. In 1085, in order to ascertain the extent of his new dominionans and maximize taxation, William commissioned the compilation of the Domesday Book, a survey of England's productive capacity similar to a modern census. He also ordered many castles, keeps, and mots, among them the Tower of London, to be built across England to ensure that the rebellions by the English people or his own followers would not succeed. His conquest also led to Norman replacing English as the language of the ruling classes, for nearly 300 years. English William is said to have deported some of the Anglo-Saxon landed classes into slavery through Bristol. Many of the latter ended up in Umayyad Spain and Moorish lands. Ownerships of nearly all land, and titles to religious and public offices in England were given to Normans. Many surviving Anglo-Saxon nobles emmigrated to other European kingdoms.

Death, burial, and succession

He died at the age of 60, at the Convent of St Gervais, near Rouen, France, on September 9, 1087 from abdominal injuries received from his saddle pommel when he fell off a horse at the Siege of Mantes. William was buried in the St. Peter's Church in Caen, Normandy. In a most unregal postmortem, his corpulent body would not fit in the stone sarcophagus, and burst after some unsuccessful prodding by the assembled bishops, filling the chapel with a foul smell and dispersing the mourners. [http://historyhouse.com/in_history/william/] William was succeeded in 1087 as King of England by his younger son William Rufus and as Duke of Normandy by his elder son Robert Curthose. This led to the Rebellion of 1088. His youngest son Henry also became King of England later, after William II died without a child to succeed him.

Children of William and Matilda

Some doubt exists over how many daughters there were. This list includes some entries which are obscure. #Robert Curthose (c. 1054–1134), Duke of Normandy, married Sybil of Conversano, daughter of Geoffrey of Conversano #Adeliza (or Alice) (c. 1055–?), reportedly betrothed to Harold II of England (Her existence is in some doubt.) #Cecilia (or Cecily) (c. 1056–1126), Abbess of Holy Trinity, Caen # William Rufus (1056–1100), King of England #Richard (1057-c. 1081), killed by a stag in New Forest #Adela (c. 1062–1138), married Stephen, Count of Blois #Agatha (c. 1064–c. 1080), betrothed to (1) Harold of Wessex, (2) Alfonso VI of Castile #Constance (c. 1066–1090), married Alan IV Fergent, Duke of Brittany; poisoned, possibly by her own servants #Matilda (very obscure, her existence is in some doubt) #Henry Beauclerc (1068–1135), King of England, married (1) Edith of Scotland, daughter of Malcolm III, King of Scotland, (2) Adeliza of Louvain

Honours

William I was ranked #68 on Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential figures in history.

Further reading


- David Bates, William the Conqueror (1989) ISBN 0752419803
- David Howarth, "1066 The Year of the Conquest" ISBN 0140058505
- Anne Savage, "The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles" ISBN1-85833-478-0, pub.CLB, 1997

External links


- [http://www.badley.info/history/William-I-the-Conqueror-England.biog.html William the Conqueror Chronology World History Database]
- [http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page18.asp History of William I's life and reign.] Official web site of the British Monarchy
- [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/1066 William the Conqueror.] by E. A. Freeman (1823-1892). Ebook published via Gutenberg Project. Category:1027 births Category:1087 deaths Category:Heirs to the English & British thrones Category:English monarchs Category:Dukes of Normandy Category:Unusual explosions ja:ウィリアム1世 (イングランド王) simple:William I of England

1072

Events


- William I of England invades Scotland, and also receives the submission of Hereward the Wake.
- Osbern FitzOsbern becomes Bishop of Exeter.
- January 10 - Normans conquer Palermo in Sicily.

Births

Deaths


- March 16 - Adalbert of Hamburg, German archbishop
- December 15 - Alp Arslan, Turkish sultan in Persia (b. 1029)
- Stigand, Archbishop of Canterbury Category:1072 ko:1072년

Cathedral

---- A cathedral is a Christian church building, specifically of a denomination with an episcopal hierarchy (such as the Roman Catholic Church or the Lutheran or Anglican churches), which serves as the central church of a bishopric. As cathedrals are often particularly impressive edifices, the term is sometimes also used loosely as a designation for any large important church. Some pre-Reformation cathedrals in Scotland now within the Church of Scotland still retain the term cathedral, despite the Church's Presbyterian polity which does not have bishops. The term is not officially used in Eastern Orthodoxy, the church of a bishop being known as "the great church", though 'cathedral' is commonly used in English translations.

Designation

The word cathedral is derived from the Greek noun (cathedra) which translates as seat and refers to the presence of the bishop's (or archbishop's) chair or throne. In this sense therefore, the word cathedral, though grammatically used as a noun, is originally the adjective in the phrase cathedral church, from the Latin ecclesia cathedralis. The seat marks the place set aside in the prominent church of the diocese for the head of that diocese and is therefore a major symbol of authority. Although a cathedral may be amongst the grandest of churches in the diocese (and country), especially in the medieval and Renaissance times, this has never been a requirement and (especially in modern times, where functionality rather than grandeur is the foremost consideration) a cathedral church may be modest in structure. Certainly the early Celtic and Saxon cathedrals tended to be of diminutive size, and where they continued in use would have undergone expansion through the development of the bishopric. Cathedrals have either been founded and built as such, or were originally parish or monastic churches that were elevated to cathedral status. Missionary activity, ecclesiastical power and, more recently, demographic considerations have determined the creation or reorganisation of sees. One of the earliest instances of the term ecclesia cathedralis is said to occur in the acts of the council of Tarragona in 516. Another name for a cathedral church is ecclesia mater, indicating that it is the mother church from which other congregations have been established. As the one important church, it was also known as ecclesia major. As the chief house of God, it is called the Domus Dei in Latin, where the words domus (home) and dominus (lord) share a common origin. From this Latin root come the German word for a cathedral, Dom (a Domherr being a German canon), as well as the Italian Duomo. In Spanish it is customary to refer to la seo (the see). At Strasbourg and many places in Germany, and in many imposing churches of England, the cathedral is called a Minster (German: Münster), from Latin monasterium, because some cathedrals were served by canons living in community. The other kind of great church in Western Europe is the abbey.

History and organization

It was early decreed that the cathedra of a bishop was not to be placed in the church of a village, but only in that of a city. This was not difficult on the continent of Europe, where towns were numerous and cities were the natural centres from which Christianity was diffused among the surrounding districts. In the British Isles, however, towns were few, and, instead of exercising jurisdiction over definite areas, many of the bishops were bishops of tribes or peoples, as the bishops of the south Saxons, the West Saxons, the Somersætas, etc. The cathedra of such a bishop was often migratory. In 1075 a council was held in London, under the presidency of Archbishop Lanfranc, which, reciting the decrees of the council of Sardica held in 347 and that of Laodicea held in 360 on this matter, ordered the bishop of the south Saxons to remove his see from Selsey to Chichester; the Wiltshire and Dorset bishop to remove his cathedra from Sherborne to Old Sarum, and the Mercian bishop, whose cathedral was then at Lichfield, to transfer it to Chester. Traces of the tribal and migratory system may still be noted in the designations of the Irish see of Meath (where the result has been that there is now no cathedral church) and Ossory, the cathedral church of which is at Kilkenny. Some of the Scottish sees were also migratory. By the canon law the bishop is regarded as the pastor of the cathedral church, the parochia of which is his diocese. In view of this, canon lawyers sometimes speak of the cathedral church as the one church of the diocese, and all others are deemed chapels in their relation to it. Occasionally two churches share the distinction of containing the bishop's cathedra. In such case they are said to be co-cathedrals. Cathedral churches may have different degrees of dignity: # the simple cathedral church of a diocesan bishop, # the metropolitical church to which the other diocesan cathedral churches of a province are suffragan, # the primatial church under which are ranged metropolitical churches and their provinces, # patriarchal churches to which primatial, metropolitical, and simple cathedral churches alike owe allegiance. The title of "primate" was occasionally conferred on metropolitans of sees of great dignity or importance, such as Canterbury, York, Rouen, whose cathedral churches remained simply metropolitical. Lyon, where the cathedral church is still known as La Primatiale, and Lund in Sweden, may be cited as instances of churches which were really primatial. Lyon had the archbishops of Sens and Paris and their provincial dioceses subject to it until the French Revolution, and Lund had the archbishop of Uppsala and his province subject to it. As with the title of primate, so also that of "patriarch" has been conferred on sees such as Venice and Lisbon, the cathedral churches of which are patriarchal in name alone. The Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano, the cathedral church of Rome, alone in Western Europe possesses a patriarchal character among Roman Catholics, since the Pope is the Patriarch of the West. The removal of a bishop's cathedra from a church deprives that church of its cathedral dignity, although often the name clings in common speech, as for example at Antwerp, which was deprived of its bishop at the French Revolution. The history of the body of clergy attached to the cathedral church is obscure, and as in each case local considerations affected its development, all that can be attempted is to give a general outline of the main features which were more or less common to all. Originally the bishop and cathedral clergy formed a kind of religious community, which, in no true sense a monastery, was nevertheless often called a monasterium. The word did not have the restricted meaning which it afterwards acquired. Hence the apparent anomaly that churches like York Minster and Lincoln Cathedral, which never had any monks attached to them, have inherited the name of minster or monastery. In these early communities the clergy often lived apart in their own dwellings, and were not infrequently married. In the 8th century, however, Chrodegang, bishop of Metz (743-766), compiled a code of rules for the clergy of the cathedral churches, which, though widely accepted in Germany and other parts of the continent, gained little acceptance in England. According to Chrodegang's rule, the cathedral clergy were to live under a common roof, occupy a common dormitory and submit to the authority of a special officer. The rule of Chrodegang was, in fact, a modification of the Benedictine rule. Gisa, a native of Lorraine, who was bishop of Wells from 1061 to 1088, introduced it into England, and imposed its observance on the clergy of his cathedral church, but it was not followed for long there, or elsewhere in England. During the 10th and 11th centuries, the cathedral clergy became more definitely organized, and were divided into two classes. One was that of a monastic establishment of some recognized order of monks, often the Benedictines, while the other class was that of a college of clergy, bound by no vows except those of their ordination, but governed by a code of statutes or canons. Hence the name of canon. In this way arose the distinction between the monastic and secular cathedral churches. 11th centuries is Finland's most famous church]] In Germany, as in England, many of the cathedral churches were monastic. In Denmark all seem to have been Benedictine at first, except Børglum, which was Praemonstratensian till the Reformation. The others were changed to churches of secular canons. In Sweden, Uppsala was originally Benedictine, but was secularized about 1250, and it was ordered that each of the cathedral churches of Sweden should have a chapter of at least fifteen secular canons. In France monastic chapters were very common, but nearly all the monastic cathedral churches there had been changed to churches of secular canons before the 17th century. One of the latest to be so changed was that of Seez, in Normandy, which was Augustinian till 1547, when Pope Paul III dispensed the members from their vows, and constituted them a chapter of secular canons. The chapter of Senez was monastic till 1647, and others perhaps even later, but the majority were secularized about the time of the Reformation. In the case of monastic cathedral churches there were Dignitaries, the internal government was that of the order to which the chapter belonged, and all the members kept perpetual residence. The reverse of this was the case with the secular chapters; the dignities of provost, dean, precentor, chancellor, treasurer, etc., soon came into being, for the regulation and good Order of the church and its services, while the non-residence of the canons, rather than their perpetual residence, became the rule, and led to their duties being performed by a body of "vicars", who officiated for them at the services of the church. Abroad, the earliest head of a secular church seems to have been the provost (praepositus, Probst, etc.), who was charged, not only with the internal regulation of the church, and oversight of the members of the chapter and control of the services, but was also the steward or seneschal of the lands and possessions of the church. The latter often mainly engaged his attention, to the neglect of his domestic and ecclesiastical duties, and complaints were soon raised that the provost was too much mixed in worldly affairs, and was too frequently absent from his spiritual duties. This led, in many cases, to the institution of a new officer called the "dean", who had charge of that portion of the provost's duties which related to the internal discipline of the chapter and the services of the church. In some cases the office of provost was abolished, but in others it was continued: the provost, who was occasionally archdeacon as well, remaining head of the chapter. This arrangement was most commonly followed in Germany. In England the provost was almost unknown. Bishop Gisa introduced a provost as head of the chapter of Wells, but the office was afterwards subordinated to the other dignities, and the provost became simply the steward of certain of the prebendal lands. The provost of the collegiate church of Beverley was the most notable instance of such an officer in England, but at Beverley he was an external officer with authority in the government of the church, no stall in the choir and no vote in chapter. The provost of Eton, introduced by Henry VI of England, occupied a position most nearly approaching that of a foreign cathedral provost. In Germany and in Scandinavia, and in a few of the cathedral churches in the south of France, the provost was the ordinary head of the cathedral chapter, but the office was not common elsewhere. As regards France, of one hundred and thirty-six cathedral churches existing at the Revolution, thirty-eight only, and those either on the borders of Germany or in the extreme south, had a provost as the head of the chapter. In others the provost existed as a subordinate officer. There were two provosts at Autun, and Lyons and Chartres had four each, all as subordinate officers. Scandinavia, Germany, the tallest church in the world]] The normal constitution of the chapter of a secular cathedral church comprised four dignitaries (there might be more), in addition to the canons. The dean (decanus) seems to have derived his designation from the Benedictine dean who had ten monks under his charge. The dean, as already noted, came into existence to supply the place of the provost in the internal management of the church and chapter. In England the dean was the head of all the secular cathedral churches, and was originally elected by the chapter and confirmed in office by the bishop. He is president of the chapter, and in church has charge of the due performance of the services, taking specified portions of them by statute on the principal festivals. He sits in the chief stall in the choir, which is usually the first on the right hand on entering the choir at the west. Next to the dean (as a rule) is the precentor (primicerius, cantor, etc.), whose special duty is that of regulating the musical portion of the services. He presides in the dean's absence, and occupies the corresponding stall on the left side, although there are exceptions to this rule, where, as at St Paul's, the archdeacon of the cathedral city ranks second and occupies what is usually the precentor's stall. The third dignitary is the chancellor (scholasticus, écoldtre, capiscol, magistral, etc.), who must not be confounded with the chancellor of the diocese. The chancellor of the cathedral church is charged with the oversight of its schools, ought to read divinity lectures, and superintend the lections in the choir and correct slovenly readers. He is often the secretary and librarian of the chapter. In the absence of the dean and precentor he is president of the chapter. The easternmost stall, on the dean's side of the choir, is usually assigned to him. The fourth dignitary is the treasurer (custos, sacrisla, cheficier). He is guardian of the fabric, and of all the furniture and ornaments of the church, and his duty was to provide bread and wine for the Eucharist, and candles and incense, and he regulated such matters as the ringing of the bells. The treasurer's stall is opposite to that of the chancellor. These four dignitaries, occupying the four corner stalls in the choir, are called in many of the statutes the quatuor majores personae of the church. In many cathedral churches there were additional dignitaries, as the praelector, subdean, vice-chancellor, succentor-canonicorum, and others, who came into existence to supply the places of the other absent dignitaries, for non-residence was the fatal blot of the secular churches, and in this they contrasted very badly with the monastic churches, where all the members were in continuous residence. Besides the dignitaries there were the ordinary canons, each of whom, as a rule, held a separate prebend or endowment, besides receiving his share of the common funds of the church. For the most part the canons also speedily became non-resident, and this led to the distinction of residentiary and non-residentiary canons, till in most churches the number of resident canons became definitely limited in number, and the non-residentiary canons, who no longer shared in the common funds, became generally known as prebendaries only, although by their non-residence they did not forfeit their position as canons, and retained their votes in chapter like the others. This system of non-residence led also to the institution of vicars choral, each canon having his own vicar, who sat in his stall in his absence, and when the canon was present, in the stall immediately below, on the second form. The vicars had no place or vote in chapter, and, though irremovable except for offences, were the servants of their absent canons whose stalls they occupied, and whose duties they performed. Abroad they were often called demi-prebendaries, and they formed the bachcrur of the French churches. As time went on the vicars were themselves often incorporated as a kind of lesser chapter, or college, under the supervision of the dean and chapter. There was no distinction between the monastic cathedral chapters and those of the secular canons, in their relation to the bishop or diocese. In both cases the chapter was the bishop's consilium which he was bound to consult on all important matters and without doing so he could not act. Thus, a judicial decision of a bishop needed the confirmation of the chapter before it could be enforced. He could not change the service books, or "use" of the church or diocese, without capitular consent, and there are many episcopal acts, such as the appointment of a diocesan chancellor, or vicar general, which still need confirmation by the chapter, but the older theory of the chapter as the bishop's council in ruling the diocese has become a thing of the past, not in England only, but on the continent also. In its corporate capacity the chapter takes charge sede vacante of a diocese. In England, however (except as regards Salisbury and Durham), this custom has never obtained, the two archbishops having, from time immemorial, taken charge of the vacant dioceses in their respective provinces. When, however, either of the sees of Canterbury or York is vacant the chapters of those churches take charge, not only of the diocese, but of the province as well, and incidentally, therefore, of any of the dioceses of the province which may be vacant at the same time. All the English monastic cathedral chapters were dissolved by Henry VIII, and, except Bath and Coventry, were refounded by him as churches of secular chapters, with a dean as the head, and a certain number of canons ranging from twelve at Canterbury and Durham to four at Carlisle, and with certain subordinate officers as minor canons, gospellers, epistolers, etc. The precentorship in these churches of the "New Foundation", as they are called, is not, as in the secular churches of the "Old Foundation", a dignity, but is merely an office held by one of the minor canons.

See also


- List of cathedrals
- List of tallest church towers
- Cathedral architecture
- Three-spired Cathedrals
- Cathedral diagram
- Basilica
- Duomo
- Minster

External links


- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03438a.htm Cathedral] - Catholic Encyclopedia
- [http://www.sacred-destinations.com/sacred-sites/cathedrals.htm Cathedrals of the World] - Sacred Destinations
- [http://perrin.olivier.free.fr/Cathedrale%20Evry/index.html Gallery of photographs on the Cathedral Evry]
- ja:大聖堂 simple:Cathedral

Consecration

Consecration is the solemn dedication to a special purpose or service, usually religious. For example, a church building or an altar may be consecrated to the purpose of religious worship, or a chalice may be consecrated to the purpose of containing the Eucharistic elements (bread or wine). A person may be consecrated to a specific role within a religious hierarchy, or a person may consecrate his or her life to a religion; see devotion.

In Christianity

In regard to the Eucharist, the term consecration refers to those words by which bread and wine are blessed. There seem to be two main positions taken in regard to the words used. In the east, the consecration is generally understood to be the Epiclesis by which the priest invokes the Holy Spirit. In the west, the consecration is understood to be the Words of Institution by which a priest is said to act "in the person of Christ" (in persona Christi) as "another Christ" (alter Christus). Those who take the vows of religion are said to be living a consecrated life. The ordination of a bishop is called consecration, for a bishop is said to be living the life of perfection. In the Latter Day Saint tradition, consecration involved the giving of member's worldly possessions to the church in a type of voluntary religious communism, which was practiced off and on during the 18th Century, but is now extremely rare among Latter Day Saint denominations. See Law of Consecration.

Other religions

Hinduism, Buddhism, and Wicca all use the term.

External links


- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04276a.htm Roman Catholic view at New Advent "Catholic Encyclopedia] Category:Christian liturgy, rites, and worship services Category:Buddhism Category:Hindu Worship

Earthquake

: An earthquake is a sudden and sometimes catastrophic movement of a part of the Earth's surface. Earthquakes result from the dynamic release of elastic strain energy that radiates seismic waves. Earthquakes typically result from the movement of faults, planar zones of deformation within the Earth's upper crust. The word earthquake is also widely used to indicate the source region itself. The Earth's lithosphere is a patch work of plates in slow but constant motion (see plate tectonics). Earthquakes occur where the stress resulting from the differential motion of these plates exceeds the strength of the crust. The highest stress (and possible weakest zones) are most often found at the boundaries of the tectonic plates and hence these locations are where the majority of earthquakes occur. Events located at plate boundaries are called interplate earthquakes; the less frequent events that occur in the interior of the lithospheric plates are called intraplate earthquakes (see New Madrid Seismic Zone). Earthquakes also occur in volcanic regions and as the result of a number of anthropogenic sources, such as reservoir induced seismicity, mining and the removal or injection of fluids into the crust. Seismic waves including some strong enough to be felt by humans can also be caused by explosions (chemical or nuclear), landslides, and collapse of old mine shafts, though these sources are not strictly earthquakes.

Characteristics

Large numbers of earthquakes occur on a daily basis on Earth, but the majority of them are detected only by seismometers and cause no damage ([http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/general/magnitude_intensity.html magnitude] 5). Most earthquakes occur in narrow regions around plate boundaries down to depths of a few tens of kilometres where the crust is rigid enough to support the elastic strain. Where the crust is thicker and colder they will occur at greater depths and the opposite in areas that are hot. At subduction zones where plates descend into the mantle earthquakes have been recorded to a depth of 600 km. Large earthquakes can cause serious destruction and massive loss of life through a variety of agents of damage, including fault rupture, vibratory ground motion (i.e., shaking), inundation (e.g., tsunami, seiche, dam failure), various kinds of permanent ground failure (e.g. liquefaction, landslide), and fire or a release of hazardous materials. In a particular earthquake, any of these agents of damage can dominate, and historically each has caused major damage and great loss of life, but for most of the earthquakes shaking is the dominant and most widespread cause of damage. There are four types of seismic waves that are all generated simultaneously and can be felt on the ground. S-waves (secondary or shear waves) and the two types of surfaces waves (Love waves and Rayleigh waves) are responsible for the shaking hazard. Rayleigh waves Rayleigh waves Most large earthquakes are accompanied by other, smaller ones, that can occur either before or after the principal quake — these are known as foreshocks or aftershocks, respectively. While almost all earthquakes have aftershocks, foreshocks are far less common occurring in only about 10% of events. The power of an earthquake is distributed over a significant area, but in the case of large earthquakes, it can spread over the entire planet. Ground motions caused by very distant earthquakes are called teleseisms. The Rayleigh waves from the Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of 2004 caused ground motion of over 1 cm even at the seismometers that were located the greatest distance from it. Using such ground motion records from around the world it is possible to identify a point from which the earthquake's seismic waves appear to originate. That point is called its "focus" or "hypocenter" and usually proves to be the point at which the fault slip was initiated. The location on the surface directly above the hypocenter is known as the "epicenter". The total size of the fault that slips, the rupture zone, can be as large as 1000 km, for the biggest earthquakes. Just as a large loudspeaker can produce a greater volume of sound than a smaller one, large faults are capable of higher magnitude earthquakes than smaller faults are. Earthquakes, especially those that occur beneath oceans or seas (also called seaquake) and have large vertical displacements, can give rise to tsunamis, either as a direct result of the deformation of the sea bed due to the earthquake, or as a result of submarine landslips or "slides" indirectly triggered by it.

Earthquake Size

The first method of quantifying earthquakes was intensity scales. In the United States the Mercalli (or Modified Mercalli, MM) scale, is commonly used while Japan (shindo) and the EU (European Macroseismic Scale) each have their own scales. These assign a numeric value (different for each scale) to a location based on the size of the shaking experienced there. The values 6 (normally denoted ‘’VI’’) in the MM scale for example is: Everyone feels movement. People have trouble walking. Objects fall from shelves. Pictures fall off walls. Furniture moves. Plaster in walls might crack. Trees and bushes shake. Damage is slight in poorly built buildings. No structural damage. The problem with these scales is the measurement is subjective, often based on the worst damage in an area and influenced by local effects like site conditions that make it a poor measure for the relative size of different events in different places. For some tasks related to engineering and local planning it is still useful for the very same reasons and thus still collected. If you feel an earthquake in the US you can report the effects to the USGS here: [http://pasadena.wr.usgs.gov/shake/ Did you feel it?] The first attempt to qualitatively define one value to describe the size of earthquakes was the magnitude scale (the name being taking from similar formed scales used on the brightness of stars). In the 1930s, a California seismologist named Charles F. Richter devised a simple numerical scale (which he called the magnitude) to describe the relative sizes of earthquakes in Southern California. This is known as the “Richter scale”, “Richter Magnitude” or “Local Magnitude” (ML). It is obtained by measuring the maximum amplitude of a recording on a Wood-Anderson torsion seismometer (or one calibrated to it) at a distance of 600km from the earthquake. Other more recent Magnitude measurements include: body wave magnitude (mb), surface wave magnitude (Ms) and duration magnitude (MD). Each of these is scaled to gives values similar to the values given by the Richter scale. However as each is also based on the measurement of one part of the seismogram they do not measure the overall power of the source and can suffer from saturation at higher magnitude values (larger events fail to produce higher magnitude values).These scales are also empirical and as such there is no physical meaning to the values. They are still useful however as they can be rapidly calculated, there are catalogues of them dating back many years and are they are familiar to the public. Seismologists now favor a measure called the seismic moment, related to the concept of moment in physics, to measure the size of a seismic source. The seismic moment is calculated from seismograms but can also by obtained from geologic estimates of the size of the fault rupture and the displacement. The values of moments for different earthquakes ranges over several order of magnitude. As a result the moment magnitude (MW) scale was introduced by Hiroo Kanamori, which is comparable to the other magnitude scales but will not saturate at higher values. seismogram on February 28 2001.]] 2001 of the shaking of the Nisqually earthquake on February 28 2001.]]

Causes

Most earthquakes are powered by the release of the elastic strain that accumulate over time, typically, at the boundaries of the plates that make up the Earth's lithosphere via a process called Elastic-rebound theory. The Earth is made up of tectonic plates driven by the heat in the Earth's core. these plates collide against each other all the time but sometimes the gaps between them are stressed. Eventually, the plates make way and all that energy is sent out in the form of seismic waves. Deep focus earthquakes, at depths of 100's km, are possibly generated as subducted lithospheric material catastrophically undergoes a phase transition since at the pressures and temperatures present at such depth elastic strain cannot be supported. Some earthquakes are also caused by the movement of magma in volcanoes, and such quakes can be an early warning of volcanic eruptions. A rare few earthquakes have been associated with the build-up of large masses of water behind dams, such as the Kariba Dam in Zambia, Africa, and with the injection or extraction of fluids into the Earth's crust (e.g. at certain geothermal power plants and at the Rocky Mountain Arsenal). Such earthquakes occur because the strength of the Earth's crust can be modified by fluid pressure. Earthquakes have also been known to be caused by the removal of natural gas from subsurface deposits, for instance in the northern Netherlands. Finally, ground shaking can also result from the detonation of explosives. Thus scientists have been able to monitor, using the tools of seismology, nuclear weapons tests performed by governments that were not disclosing information about these tests along normal channels. Earthquakes such as these, that are caused by human activity, are referred to by the term induced seismicity. Another type of movement of the Earth is observed by terrestrial spectroscopy. These oscillations of the earth are either due to the deformation of the Earth by tide caused by the Moon or the Sun, or other phenomena.

Preparation for earthquakes


- Emergency preparedness
- Household seismic safety
- Seismic retrofit
- Earthquake prediction

Specific fault articles


- Alpine Fault
- Calaveras Fault
- Hayward Fault Zone
- North Anatolian Fault Zone
- New Madrid Fault Zone
- San Andreas Fault

Specific earthquake articles


- Shaanxi Earthquake (1556). Deadliest known earthquake in history, estimated to have killed 830,000 in China.
- Cascadia Earthquake (1700).
- Kamchatka earthquakes (1737 and 1952).
- Lisbon earthquake (1755).
- New Madrid Earthquake (1811).
- Fort Tejon Earthquake (1857).
- Charleston earthquake (1886). Largest earthquake in the Southeast and killed 100.
- San Francisco Earthquake (1906).
- Great Kantō earthquake (1923). On the Japanese island of Honshu, killing over 140,000 in Tokyo and environs.
- Kamchatka earthquakes (1952 and 1737).
- Great Chilean Earthquake (1960). Biggest earthquake ever recorded, 9.5 on Moment magnitude scale.
- Good Friday Earthquake (1964) Alaskan earthquake.
- Ancash earthquake (1970). Caused a landslide that buried the town of Yungay, Peru; killed over 40,000 people.
- Sylmar earthquake (1971). Caused great and unexpected destruction of freeway bridges and flyways in the San Fernando Valley, leading to the first major seismic retrofits of these types of structures, but not at a sufficient pace to avoid the next California freeway collapse in 1989.
- Tangshan earthquake (1976). The most destructive earthquake of modern times. The official death toll was 255,000, but many experts believe that two or three times that number died.
- Great Mexican Earthquake (1985). 8.1 on the Ritcher Scale, killed over 6,500 people (though it is believed as many as 30,000 may have died, due to missing people never reappearing.)
- Whittier Narrows earthquake (1987).
- Armenian earthquake (1988). Killed over 25,000.
- Loma Prieta earthquake (1989). Severely affecting Santa Cruz, San Francisco and Oakland in California. Revealed necessity of accelerated seismic retrofit of road and bridge structures.
- Northridge, California earthquake (1994). Damage showed seismic resistance deficiencies in modern low-rise apartment construction.
- Great Hanshin earthquake (1995). Killed over 6,400 people in and around Kobe, Japan.
- İzmit earthquake (1999) Killed over 17,000 in northwestern Turkey.
- Düzce earthquake (1999)
- Chi-Chi earthquake (1999).
- Nisqually Earthquake (2001).
- Gujarat Earthquake (2001).
- Dudley Earthquake (2002).
- Bam Earthquake (2003).
- Parkfield, California earthquake (2004). Not large (6.0), but the most anticipated and intensely instrumented earthquake ever recorded and likely to offer insights into predicting future earthquakes elsewhere on similar slip-strike fault structures.
- Chuetsu Earthquake (2004).
- Indian Ocean Earthquake (2004). One of the largest earthquakes ever recorded at 9.0. Epicenter off the coast of the Indonesian island Sumatra. Triggered a tsunami which caused nearly 300,000 deaths spanning several countries.
- Sumatran Earthquake (2005).
- Fukuoka earthquake (2005).
- Kashmir earthquake (2005). Killed over 79,000 people. Many more at risk from the Kashmiri winter.
- Lake Tanganyika earthquake (2005). See also List of earthquakes

See also


- Earthquake insurance
- Earthquake lights
- Elastic-rebound theory
- Catastrophe modeling
- Geophysics
- Interplate earthquake
- Intraplate earthquake
- Megathrust earthquake
- List of earthquakes
- Plate tectonics
- List of tectonic plates
- Seismic wave
- Seismology
- Tsunami
- The VAN method to predict earthquakes

External links


- [http://www.eqnet.org/ EQNET: Earthquake Information Network]
- [http://neic.usgs.gov/ The U.S. National Earthquake Information Center]
- [http://earthquake.usgs.gov/faq/ USGS Earthquake FAQs]
- [http://www.ssn.unam.mx/ Mexican Sismological Service] Reports earthquakes in Mexico. Updated regularly.
- [http://wapi.isu.edu/envgeo/EG5_earthqks/eg_mod5.htm Environmental Geology - GEOL 406/506 (Earthquakes)]
- [http://www.quakes.bgs.ac.uk/hazard/ems1.htm The European Macroseismic Scale]
- [http://simscience.org/crackling/Advanced/Earthquakes/GutenbergRichter.html Gutenberg-Richter] power law of earthquake frequency against magnitude
- [http://www.guardian.co.uk/flash/0,5860,1121610,00.html Interactive guide: Earthquakes] an educational presentation on why earthquakes happen by Guardian Unlimited
- [http://www.geowall.org Geowall]- an educational 3d presentation system for looking at and understanding earthquake data
- [http://www.sciencecourseware.com/VirtualEarthquake/ Virtual Earthquake] educational site explaining how epicenters are located and magnitude is determined
- [http://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/earthquake/ PBS NewsHour - Predicting Earthquakes]
- [http://www.lamit.ro/earthquake-early-warning-system.htm Earthquake Warning System] Personal Earthquake warning system. Highly advanced detector, featuring sos signals and carrying strip.
- [http://www.data.scec.org/ Southern California Earthquake Data Center]
- [http://www.emsc-csem.org/ European-Mediterranean Seismological Centre (EMSC)]
- [http://www.gfz-potsdam.de/geofon/seismon/globmon.html Global Seismic Monitor at GFZ Potsdam]
- [http://earthquake.usgs.gov/bytopic/eqmonitoring/history/part09.php USGS Earthquake Monitoring History]
- [http://tsunami.geo.ed.ac.uk/local-bin/quakes/mapscript/demo_run.pl Global Earthquake Report – chart updated with each new earthquake or aftershock]
- [http://hraun.vedur.is/ja/englishweb/index.html Earthquakes in Iceland during the last 48 hours], updated automatically once every 2 minutes.
- [http://www.data.scec.org/recenteqs/Quakes/quakes0.html Recent earthquakes in California and Nevada ]
- [http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eqlists/10maps_world.html USGS – Largest earthquakes in the world since 1900]
- [http://www.armageddononline.org/earthquake.php The Destruction of Earthquakes - and a List of the Worst ever recorded]
- [http://www.losangelesearthquakes.com Los Angeles Earthquakes plotted on a Google map]
- [http://rev.seis.sc.edu Seismograms for recent earthquakes via REV, the Rapid Earthquake Viewer]
- [http://www.iris.edu Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS)], earthquake database and software
- [http://www.iris.edu/seismon/ IRIS Seismic Monitor], world map of recent earthquakes
- [http://www.iris.edu/seismo/ SeismoArchives], Seismogram Archives of Significant Earthquakes of the World Category:Seismology Category:Geological hazards ko:지진 ms:Gempa bumi ja:地震 simple:Earthquake th:แผ่นดินไหว

1185

Events


- April 25 - Genpei War - Naval battle of Dan-no-ura leads to Minamoto victory in Japan
- Templars settle in London and begin the building of New Temple Church
- End of the Heian Period and beginning of the Kamakura period in Japan.
- Founding of Katedralskolan in Lund, Sweden. The school is the oldest in northern Europe, and one of the oldest in Europe.
- Peter and Asen led a revolt of the Vlachs and Bulgars against the Byzantine Empire, eventually establishing the Second Bulgarian Kingdom.
- August 15 - The cave city of Vardzia was consecrated by Queen Tamar of Georgia

Births


- April 23 - King Afonso II of Portugal (died 1223)
- Inge II of Norway (died 1217)
- Gertrude of Meran, queen of Andrew II of Hungary (died 1213)

Deaths


- April 25 - Emperor Antoku of Japan (born 1178)
- June 16 - Richeza of Poland, daughter of Wladislaus II the Exile of Poland
- July 18 - Stefan, first Archbishop of Uppsala
- July 25 - King Afonso I of Portugal (born 1109)
- September 12 - Andronicus I Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor
- November 25 - Pope Lucius III
- December 6 - King Afonso I of Portugal (b. 1109)
- Baldwin IV of Jerusalem (born 1161)
- Taira no Munemori, Japanese soldier (born 1147)
- Taira no Noritsune, Japanese soldier (born 1160)
- Taira no Shigehira, Japanese soldier (born 1158)
- Taira no Tomomori, Japanese soldier (born 1152)
- Ibn Tufail, Arab philosopher, physician, and courtier Category:1185 ko:1185년

Metre

:This article is about the unit of length. For other uses of metre or meter, see meter (disambiguation). The metre (Commonwealth English) or meter (American English) (symbol: m) is the SI base unit of length. It is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in absolute vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second. Adding SI prefixes to metre creates multiples and submultiples; for example kilometre (1000 metres; kilo- = 1000) and millimetre (one thousandth of a metre; milli- = 1 / 1 000).

Conversions

1 metre is equivalent to:
- exactly 1/0.9144 yards (approximately 1.0936 yards)
- exactly 1/0.3048 feet (approximately 3.2808 feet)
- exactly 10000/254 inches (approximately 39.370 inches)

History

The word metre is from the Greek metron (μετρον), "a measure" via the French mètre. Its first recorded usage in English is from 1797. In the 18th century, there were two favoured approaches to the definition of the standard unit of length. One suggested defining the metre as the length of a pendulum with a half-period of one second. The other suggested defining the metre as one ten-millionth of the length of the earth's meridian along a quadrant (one-fourth the polar circumference of the earth). In 1791, the French Academy of Sciences selected the meridional definition over the pendular definition because of the slight