:: wikimiki.org ::

Maasai

Maasai

The Maasai or Masai, an indigenous African tribe of semi-nomadic people located primarily in Kenya and northern Tanzania, are probably one of the most familiar tribes of East Africa. Despite the growth of modern civilization, the Maasai have largely managed to maintain their traditional ways, although this becomes more challenging each year.

Demography

The estimated total population of the Maasai people is about 900,000, with about 350,000-453,000 Maasai living in Kenya. The accuracy of these statistics is in question, however, due to the inefficiencies of government census in the region.

Identity

The Maasai are part of the Nilotic family of African tribal groups, and probably migrated from the Nile valley in Sudan to central and south-western Kenya and northern Tanzania sometime after 1500 AD, bringing their domesticated cattle with them.
- The Maasai speak the Maa language, an Eastern Nilotic language closely related to Samburu (or Sampur), the language of the Samburu people of central Kenya, and to Camus spoken south and southeast of Lake Baringo (sometimes regarded a dialect of Samburu). The Maasai, Samburu and Camus people are historically related and all refer to their language as ɔl Maa, although they acknowledge mutual cultural and economic differences. Most Maasai also speak Swahili, the lingua franca of East Africa.
- Although other African tribes organised themselves into civilisations and kingdoms, the Maasai never quite surrendered their semi-nomadic lifestyle. However, the clans in Kenya (not in Tanganyika) were united in the 1870, under the politcial and military leadership of a Laibon (styled Paramount Chief in 1904) and an Orkoiyoi, both originally religious leaders; their tribal territory was included in British East Africa in 1888, the chiefdom was abolished in 1918. 1918

Culture

The ability to graze their cattle over large territories has diminished considerably in recent years, due to increased urbanisation and the declaration of the Maasai Mara and Serengeti game reserves, which was all formerly Maasai grazing land.
- Despite their reputation as fierce warriors, Maasai culture revolves around their cattle. One of their spiritual beliefs is that their rain god Ngai gave all cattle to the Maasai people, and therefore anyone else who possesses cattle must have stolen them from the Maasai. This has led to some fatal altercations with other tribes of the regions over the centuries when the Maasai attempt to reclaim their "property". The huts of the Maasai are built from dried cattle dung, and certain sacred rituals involve the drinking of cow blood. There are numerous traditions and ceremonies performed by Maasai men. Perhaps best known is the warrior "jumping" dance, where young Maasai morani (warrior-youth) leap into the air from a standing position, in order to demonstrate their strength and agility. Until recent times, in order to earn the right to have a wife, a Maasai moran was required to have killed a lion. Officially this practice has stopped, although there is evidence that it continues in the more remote regions of Kenya. Also in earlier times a group of young boys were required to build a new village and live in it for a lengthy period (often years) as part of the passage to manhood. This practice is dying out due to lack of land. Unlike many tribal cultures, Maasai women have a strong voice in their culture. Maasai women are easily identified by their shaved heads, bright clothing and beads, and the removal of one of the bottom teeth (for both sexes). Circumcision is performed on both sexes, with the elder men circumcising the teenage boys (who are not permitted to make a noise during the ceremony), and the elder women circumcising the teenage girls (for whom crying is permitted). Attempts by the Kenyan government to stamp out female circumcision have failed, primarily due to the fact that it is the Maasai women who defend the practice, not the men.

Flag of Masaii

Circumcision

External links

- [http://www.maasai-infoline.org/ The Maasai Association]
- [http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~dlpayne/maasai/madict.htm The Maasai Language Project]
- [http://www.watchtower.org/library/g/2002/2/22/article_01.htm Masai - A Unique and Colorful People] (Awake!, 22nd Febr, 2002)
- [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Kenya_native.html World Statesmen website on political and administrative polities] Category:Ethnic groups of Kenya Category:Indigenous peoples of Africa Category:Indigenous peoples of East Africa

Indigenous peoples

The term indigenous peoples has no universal, standard or fixed definition. Several widely-accepted formulations have been put forward by important internationally-recognised organizations, such as the United Nations, the International Labour Organization and the World Bank. Drawing on these, a contemporary working definition of "indigenous peoples" has criteria which would seek to include cultural groups (and their descendants) who have an historical continuity or association with a given region, or parts of a region, and who formerly or currently inhabit the region either: :
- before its subsequent colonization or annexation; or :
- alongside other cultural groups during the formation of a nation-state; or :
- independently or largely isolated from the influence of the claimed governance by a nation-state, and who furthermore :
- have maintained at least in part their distinct linguistic, cultural and social / organizational characteristics, and in doing so remain differentiated in some degree from the surrounding populations and dominant culture of the nation-state. To the above, a criterion is usually added to also include: :
- peoples who are self-identified as indigenous, and those recognised as such by other groups. Other related terms for indigenous peoples include aborigines, native peoples, first peoples, Fourth World, first nations and autochthonous (this last term having a derivation from Greek, meaning "sprung from the earth"). Indigenous peoples may often be used in preference to these or other terms, as a neutral replacement where these terms may have taken on negative or pejorative connotations by their prior association and use. It is the preferred term in use by the United Nations and its subsidiary organizations.

Characteristics of indigenous peoples: overview

Population and distribution

Indigenous societies range from those who have been significantly exposed to the colonizing or expansionary activities of other societies (example: the Maya of Central America) through to those who as yet remain in comparative isolation from any external influence (example: the Sentinelese and Jarawa of the Andaman Islands). Precise estimates for the total population of the world's indigenous peoples are very difficult to compile, given the difficulties in identification and the variances and inadequacies of available census data. Recent credible source estimates range from 300 million to 350 million as of the start of the 21st century. This would equate to just under 6% of the total world population. This includes at least 5000 distinct peoples in over 70 countries. Contemporary distinct indigenous groups survive in populations ranging from only a few dozen to hundreds of thousands or more. Many indigenous populations have undergone a dramatic decline and even extinction, and remain threatened in many parts of the world. In other cases, indigenous populations are undergoing a recovery or expansion in numbers. Certain indigenous societies persist even though they may no longer inhabit their "traditional" lands, owing to migration, relocation, forced resettlement or having been supplanted by other cultural groups.

Common characteristics

Characteristics common across many indigenous groups include present or historical reliance upon subsistence-based production (based on pastoral, agricultural and/or hunting and gathering techniques), and a predominantly non-urbanized society. Indigenous societies may be either essentially settled in a given location or exhibit a nomadic lifestyle across a large territory. Indigenous societies are found in every inhabited climate zone and continent.

Common concerns

Indigenous peoples confront a diverse range of issues and concerns associated with their status and interaction with other cultural groups, and changes in their inhabited environment. These challenges may be either specific to particular groups, or are commonly experienced by many such groups. These issues include cultural and linguistic preservation, land rights, ownership and exploitation of natural resources, political determination and autonomy, environmental degradation and incursion, poverty, health, and discrimination. The interaction between indigenous and non-indigenous societies throughout history has been a complex one, ranging from outright conflict and subjugation to some degree of mutual benefit and cultural transfer. A particular aspect of anthropological study involves investigation into the ramifications of what is termed first contact, the study of what occurs when two cultures first encounter one another. The situation can be further confused when there is a complicated or contested history of migration and population of a given region, which can give rise to disputes about primacy and ownership of the land and resources.

Definitions

An indigene is literally someone or something that is native to or originating from a given place. Therefore, when indigenous is used purely as an adjective, an indigenous people is a group or culture regarded as "coming from" a given place. In this broad sense almost any person or group is indigenous to some location or other. As a contemporary cultural description, however, the term indigenous peoples has a much narrower common meaning. The more restrictive criteria as outlined need to be satisfied in order to identify an indigenous group as such in the sense interpreted here. The identification of a people as indigenous under these terms can in practice be further refined by examining the nature and status of their interactions with other communities. These other, external communities or nation-states are those having some degree of association, claim or control over the same territory inhabited (or formerly inhabited) by the indigenous group. In this relationship the status of the indigenous people can in most instances be characterised as being effectively marginalised, isolated and/or as forming a minority, when compared to other groups from whom they are distinct, or the nation-state as a whole. They have limited participation and influence over external policies concerning their territorial, environmental and societal governance. This situation can persist even in the case where the indigenous population outnumbers that of the other inhabitants of the region or state; the defining notion here is one of separation from decision and regulatory processes having some at least titular effect over aspects of their community and lands. The presence of external laws, claims and cultural mores either potentially or actually act to variously constrain the practices and observances of an indigenous society. These constraints can be observed even when the indigenous society is regulated largely by its own tradition and custom. They may be purposefully imposed, or arise as unintended consequence of trans-cultural interaction; and have a measurable effect even where countered by other external influences and actions deemed to be beneficial or which serve to promote indigenous rights and interests within the wider community. Thus many organizations advocating for indigenous rights, and the indigenous communities themselves, seek to particularly and explicitly identify peoples in this position as indigenous. This identification may also be made or acknowledged by the surrounding communities and nation-state, although there are some instances where the identity claim is the subject of some dispute, particularly with regard to recognizing assertions made over territorial rights. In contrast, the term non-indigenous might well be applied to describe these other communities; however, its application may be inaccurate or contested in some circumstances where the cultural group has or lays claim to lengthy prior association with the territory. Some formal contemporary definitions which have been offered and widely accepted are described below. In 1972 the United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations (WGIP) accepted as a preliminary definition a formulation put forward by Mr. José Martinez Cobo, Special Rapporteur on Discrimination against Indigenous Populations: :Indigenous populations are composed of the existing descendants of the peoples who inhabited the present territory of a country wholly or partially at the time when persons of a different culture or ethnic origin arrived there from other parts of the world, overcame them, by conquest, settlement or other means, reduced them to a non-dominant or colonial condition; who today live more in conformity with their particular social, economic and cultural customs and traditions than with the institutions of the country of which they now form part, under a state structure which incorporates mainly national, social and cultural characteristics of other segments of the population which are predominant. This definition has some limitations which were subsequently noted by the organization. The definition applies mainly to pre-colonial populations, and would likely exlude other isolated or marginal societies. In 1983 the WGIP enlarged this definition (FICN. 41Sub.211983121 Adds. para. 3 79) to include the following criteria: :
- (a) they are the descendants of groups, which were in the territory at the time when other groups of different cultures or ethnic origin arrived there; :
- (b) precisely because of their isolation from other segments of the country's population they have almost preserved intact the customs and traditions of their ancestors which are similar to those characterised as indigenous; :
- (c) they are, even if only formally, placed under a state structure which incorporates national, social and cultural characteristics alien to their own. In 1986 it was further added that any individual who identified himself or herself as indigenous and was accepted by the group or the community as one of its members was to be regarded as an indigenous person (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1986/7/Add.4. para.381). The draft Universal Declaration on the Rights of the Indigenous Peoples prepared by the DWIG does not provide a specific definition of indigenous peoples or populations. According to the Chairperson, Ms. Erica Irene Daes, Rapporteur of the Working Group, this was because "historically, indigenous peoples have suffered, from definitions imposed by others" (E/CN.4/Stib.2/AC.4/1995/3, page 3). A definition as used by the International Labour Organisation (Convention No. 169, concerning the working rights of Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, 1989) applies to: :both tribal peoples whose social, cultural and economic conditions distinguish them from other sections of the national community and whose status is regulated wholly or partially by their own customs or traditions or by special laws or regulations, and to peoples who are regarded as indigenous on account of their descent from the populations which inhabit the country at the time of conquest or colonisation. A description of Indigenous Peoples given by the World Bank (operational directive 4.20, 1991) reads as follows: :Indigenous Peoples can be identified in particular geographical areas by the presence in varying degrees of the following characteristics: a) close attachment to ancestral territories and to the natural resources in these areas; b) self-identification and identification by others as members of a distinct cultural group; c) an indigenous language, often different from the national language; d) presence of customary social and political institutions; and e) primarily subsistence-oriented production.

Historical indigenous cultures

The migration, expansion and settlement of societies throughout different territories is a universal, almost defining thread which runs through the entire course of human history. Many of the cross-cultural interactions which arose as a result of these historical encounters involved societies which might properly be considered as indigenous, either from their own viewpoint or that of external societies. Most often, these past encounters between indigenous and "non-indigenous" groups lack contemporary account or description. Any assessment or understanding of impact, result and relation can at best only be surmised, using archaeological, linguistic or other reconstructive means. Where accounts do exist, they frequently originate from the viewpoint of the colonizing, expansionary or nascent state.

Classical antiquity

Greek sources of the Classical period acknowledge the prior existence of indigenous people(s), whom they referred to as "Pelasgians." These peoples inhabited lands surrounding the Aegean Sea before the subsequent migrations of the Hellenic ancestors claimed by these authors. The disposition and precise identity of this former group is elusive, and sources such as Homer, Hesiod and Herodotus give varying, partially mythological accounts. However, it is clear that cultures existed whose indigenous characteristics were distinguished by the subsequent Hellenic cultures (and distinct from non-Greek speaking "foreigners", termed "barbarians" by the historical Greeks).

European expansion and colonialism

The rapid and extensive spread of the various European powers from the early 15th Century onwards had a profound impact upon many of the indigenous cultures with whom they came into contact. The exploratory and colonial ventures in the Americas, Africa, Asia and the Pacific often resulted in territorial and cultural conflict, and the intentional or unintentional displacement and devastation of the indigenous populations.

Contemporary distribution and survey

Indigenous populations are distributed in regions throughout the globe. The numbers, condition and experience of indigenous groups may vary widely within a given region. A comprehensive survey is further complicated by sometimes contentious membership and identification.

Africa

See also: :Category:Indigenous peoples of Africa In the post-colonial period, the concept of specific indigenous peoples within the African continent has gained wider acceptance, although not without controversy. The highly-diverse and numerous ethnic groups which comprise most modern, independent African states contain within them various peoples whose situation, cultures and pastoralist or hunter-gatherer lifestyles are generally marginalised and set apart from the dominant political and economic structures of the nation. Since the late 20th century these peoples have increasingly sought recognition of their rights as distinct indigenous peoples, in both national and international contexts. Although the vast majority of African peoples can be considered to be indigenous in the sense that they have originated from that continent and nowhere else, in practice identity as an "indigenous people" as per the term's modern application is more restrictive, and certainly not every African ethnic group claims identification under these terms. Groups and communities who do claim this recognition are those who by a variety of historical and environmental circumstances have been placed outside of the dominant state systems, and whose traditional practices and land claims often come into conflict with the objectives and policies promulgated by governments, companies and surrounding dominant societies. Given the extensive and complicated history of human migration within Africa, being the "first peoples in a land" is not a necessary pre-condition for acceptance as an indigenous people. Rather, indigenous identity relates more to a set of characteristics and practices than priority of arrival. For example, several populations of nomadic peoples such as the Tuareg of the Sahara and Sahel regions now inhabit areas in which they arrived comparatively recently; their claim to indigenous status (endorsed by the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights) is based on their marginalisation as nomadic peoples in states and territories dominated by sedentary agricultural peoples. The Indigenous Peoples of Africa Co-ordinating Committee (IPACC) is one of the main trans-national network organizations recognised as a representative of African indigenous peoples in dialogues with governments and bodies such as the UN. IPACC identifies several key characteristics associated with indigenous claims in Africa:
- political and economic marginalisation rooted in colonialism;
- de facto discrimination based often on the dominance of agricultural peoples in the State system (e.g. lack of access to education and health care by hunters and herders);
- the particularities of culture, identity, economy and territoriality that link hunting and herding peoples to their home environments in deserts and forests (e.g. nomadism, diet, knowledge systems);
- some indigenous peoples, such as the San and Pygmy peoples are physically distinct, which makes them subject to specific forms of discrimination. With respect to concerns expressed that identifying some groups and not others as indigenous is in itself discriminatory, IPACC states that it:
- "...recognises that all Africans should enjoy equal rights and respect. All of Africa’s diversity is to be valued. Particular communities, due to historical and environmental circumstances, have found themselves outside the state-system and underrepresented in governance...This is not to deny other Africans their status; it is to emphasise that affirmative recognition is necessary for hunter-gatherers and herding peoples to ensure their survival." At an African inter-governmental level, the examination of indigenous rights and concerns is pursued by a sub-commission established under the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights (ACHPR), sponsored by the African Union (AU) (successor body to the Organisation of African Unity (OAU)). In late 2003 the 53 signatory states of the ACHPR adopted the Report of the African Commission's Working Group on Indigenous Populations/Communities and its recommendations. This report says in part (p. 62):
- ...certain marginalized groups are discriminated in particular ways because of their particular culture, mode of production and marginalized position within the state[; a] form of discrimination that other groups within the state do not suffer from. The call of these marginalized groups to protection of their rights is a legitimate call to alleviate this particular form of discrimination. The adoption of this report at least notionally subscribed the signatories to the concepts and aims of furthering the identity and rights of African indigenous peoples. The extent to which individual states are mobilising to put these recommendations into practice varies enormously, however, and most indigenous groups continue to agitate for improvements in the areas of land rights, use of natural resources, protection of environment and culture, political recognition and freedom from discrimination.

the Americas

See also: :Category:Indigenous peoples of the Americas Indigenous peoples of the American continents are broadly recognised as being those groups and their descendants who inhabited the region before the arrival of European colonizers and settlers (i.e., Pre-Columbian). Indigenous peoples who maintain, or seek to maintain, traditional ways of life are found from the high Arctic north to the southern extremities of Tierra del Fuego. The impact of European colonization of the Americas on the indigenous communities was in general quite severe, with many authorities estimating ranges of significant population decline due to the ravages of various epidemic diseases (smallpox, measles, etc), displacement, conflict and exploitation. The extent of this impact is the subject of much continuing debate. Several peoples shortly thereafter became extinct, or very nearly so. Almost all modern American nations have populations of indigenous peoples within their borders. In some (particularly Latin American) countries indigenous peoples form a sizeable component of the overall population- in Bolivia they account for an estimated 56%-70% of the total, and nearly half of the populations in Guatemala and Peru. Indigenous peoples are collectively referred to by several different terms which vary by region and the peoples they include, such as Native Americans, Amerindians, pueblos indígenas, povos indígenas, etc. The Aboriginal peoples in Canada include Inuit, Métis and peoples designated as First Nations. The combined indigenous population is an estimated 900,000. Their status is recognized by Canada's Constitution Act, 1982. The Inuit have achieved a degree of administrative autonomy with the creation in 1999 of the territory of Nunavut. The self-administering Danish territory of Greenland is also home to a majority population of indigenous Inuit (about 85%). In the United States, the combined populations of Native Americans, Inuit and other indigenous designations totalled 2,786,652 (constituting about 1.5% of 2003 US census figures). Some 563 scheduled tribes are recognized at the Federal level, and a number of others recognized at the State level. In Mexico, approximately 30% of the total population identify as indígenas. In the southern states of Chiapas and Oaxaca they constitute the majority of the population. In these states several conflicts and episodes of civil war have been conducted, in which the situation and participation of indigenous societies were notable factors (see for example EZLN).

Asia

See also: :Category:Indigenous peoples of Asia The vast regions of Asia contain the majority of the world's present-day indigenous populations, about 70% according to IGWIA figures. The most substantial populations are in India, which constitutionally recognises a range of "Scheduled Tribes" within its borders. These various peoples (collectively referred to as Adivasis, or tribal peoples) number about 68 million (1991 census figures, approximately 8% of the total national population).

Europe

Adivasi See also: :Category:Indigenous peoples of Europe In Europe, present-day indigenous populations are relatively few, mainly confined to northern and far-eastern reaches of this Eurasian peninsula. Whilst there are various ethnic minorities distributed within European countries, few of these still maintain traditional subsistence cultures and are recognized as indigenous peoples, per se. Notable indigenous populations include the Sami people of northern Scandinavia, the Nenets and other Samoyedic peoples of the northern Russian Federation, and the Komi peoples of the western Urals.

Oceania

See also: :Category:Indigenous peoples of Oceania Many of the present-day Pacific Island nations in the Oceania region were originally populated by Polynesian, Melanesian and Micronesian peoples over the course of thousands of years. European colonial expansion in the Pacific brought many of these under non-indigenous administration. During the 20th century several of these former colonies gained independence and nation-states were formed under local control. However, various peoples have put forward claims for indigenous recognition where their islands are still under external administration; examples include the Chamorros of Guam and the Northern Marianas, and the Marshallese of the Marshall Islands. In New Zealand, the indigenous Maori (see also Iwi) constitute nearly 15% of the total population. Indigenous Australians, including Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders, account for 2.4% of the total population of Australia (2001 census figures). The independent state of Papua New Guinea (PNG) has a majority population of indigenous societies, with some 700+ different tribal groups recognised out of a total population of just over 5 million. The PNG Constitution and other Acts identify traditional or custom-based practices and land tenure, and explicitly sets out to promote the viability of these traditional societies within the modern state. However, several conflicts and disputes concerning land use and resource rights continue to be observed between indigenous groups, the government and corporate entities.

Viewpoints on indigenous societies

A range of differing viewpoints and attitudes have arisen from the experience and history of contact between indigenous and "non-indigenous" communities. The cultural, regional and historical contexts in which these viewpoints have developed are complex, and many competing viewpoints exist simultaneously in any given society, albeit promulgated with greater or lesser force depending on the extent of cross-cultural exposure and internal societal change. These views may be noted from both sides of the relationship.

Indigenous viewpoints

"Non-indigenous" viewpoints

Indigenous peoples have variously been identified as primitives, savages, or uncivilized. These terms were common during the heyday of European colonial expansion. By the 17th century, indigenous peoples were commonly labeled "uncivilized". Proponents of civilization, like Thomas Hobbes, considered them merely savages; critics of civilization, such as Jean Jacques Rousseau, considered them to be "noble savages". Those who were close to the Hobbesian view tended to believe themselves to have a duty to civilize and modernize indigenes. Although anthropologists, especially from Europe, used to apply these terms to all tribal cultures, it has fallen into disfavor as demeaning and, according to anthropologists, inaccurate (see tribe, cultural evolution). After World War I, however, many Europeans came to doubt the value of civilization. At the same time, the anti-colonial movement, and advocates of indigenous peoples, argued that words such as "civilized" and "savage" were products and tools of colonialism, and argued that colonialism itself was savagely destructive. In the mid 20th century, Europeans began to recognize that indigenous and tribal peoples should have the right to decide for themselves what should happen to their ancient cultures and their ancestral lands. Several criticisms of the concept of indigenous peoples are:
- In many cases, such as with some Native American tribes, some people claim that the people termed indigenous arrived in an area after the people termed non-indigenous.
- Peoples have invaded or colonised each other's lands since before recorded history and so the division into indigenous and non-indigenous is a matter of judgement. Even in recent centuries there are difficulties: for example, are the Zulu people indigenous to South Africa?
- Lumping indigenous peoples into one group ignores the vast amounts of diversity among them and at the same time imposes a uniform identity on them, which may not be historically accurate. Some feel that those who argue that indigenous peoples should have the right of self-determination often are simply replacing the stereotype of the barbaric savage with another stereotype, that of the noble savage possessing mystic truths and at peace with nature, and that this second stereotype ignores some of the real issues of indigenous peoples such as economic development.

Indigenous rights, issues and concerns

Wherever indigenous cultural identity is asserted, some particular set of societal issues and concerns may be voiced which either arise from (at least in part), or have a particular dimension associated with, their indigenous status. These concerns will often be commonly held or affect other societies also, and are not necessarily experienced uniquely by indigenous groups. Despite the diversity of indigenous peoples, in may be noted that they share common problems and issues in dealing with the prevailing, or invading, society. They are generally concerned that the cultures of indigenous peoples are being lost and that indigenous peoples suffer both discrimination and pressure to assimilate into their surrounding societies. This is borne out by the fact that the lands and cultures of nearly all of the peoples listed at the end of this article are under threat. Notable exceptions are the Sakha and Komi peoples (two of the Northern Indigenous Peoples of Siberia), who now control their own autonomous republics within the Russian state. It is also sometimes argued that it is important for the human species as a whole to preserve a wide range of cultural diversity as possible, and that the protection of indigenous cultures is vital to this enterprise. An example of this occurred in 2002 when the Government of Botswana expelled all the Kalahari Bushmen from the lands they had lived off for at least twenty thousand years. Government ministers described the Bushmen as "stone age creatures" and likened their forced eviction to a cull of elephants. These events passed almost without comment in the world's media, at a time when the eviction of a number of white people from land in nearby Zimbabwe was headline news. In response, many have pointed out that in many cases the indigenous peoples often haven't been living self-sufficiently in an area for centuries, and that economic development was not an issue before because it was not an option. They point out that when given a choice, indigenous peoples themselves often want economic development, and that this has indeed caused conflicts with environmental groups when indigenous peoples have been given title to land and then proceed to develop just like non-indigenous people. Furthermore, it has been pointed out that indigenous peoples are not necessarily any more self-sufficient or in tune with nature, and that indigenous peoples have themselves perhaps adversely affected the environment, examples given (but not necessarily universally accepted) including catastrophic deforestation on Easter Island, or the disappearance of Australian and North American megafauna, believed by some to have been caused by hunting activities.

Indigenous knowledge and culture

Indigenous societies possess an often unique body of cultural and environmental knowledge. The preservation and investigation of specialised indigenous knowledge, particularly in relation to the resources of the natural environment with which the society is associated, is an increasingly sought-after goal of both the indigenous and the societies who thereby seek to identify new resources and benefits (example: partnerships established to research useful biological extracts from vegetation in the Amazon rainforests). For some people (e.g. indigenous communities from India, Brazil, and Malaysia and some NGOs such as GRAIN and Third World Network), indigenous peoples may be victims of biopiracy when they are subjected to unauthorised use of their biological resources, of their traditional knowledge on these biological resources, of unequal share of benefits between them and a patent holder. A controversial case of biopiracy was reported on human genes of a tribal community reported to be resistant to malaria and leprosy.

Representation

The rights, claims and even identity of indigenous peoples are apprehended, acknowledged and observed quite differently from government to government. Various organizations exist with charters to in one way or another promote (or at least acknowledge) indigenous aspirations, and indigenous societies have often banded together to form bodies which jointly seek to further their communal interests.

United Nations

Indigenous peoples and their interests are represented in the United Nations primarily through the mechanisms of the Working Group on Indigenous Populations (WGIP). In April 2000 the UN Commission on Human Rights adopted a resolution to establish the
- UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (PFII) as an advisory body to the Economic and Security Council with a mandate to review indigenous issues. In late December 2004, the United Nations' General Assembly proclaimed 2005-2014 to be the Second International Decade of the World's Indigenous People. The main goal of the new decade will be to strengthen international cooperation around resolving the problems faced by indigenous people in areas such as culture, education, health, human rights, the environment, and social and economic development.

Other accredited organizations

Various organizations are devoted to the preservation or study of indigenous peoples. Of these, several have widely-recognized credentials to act as an intermediary or representative on behalf of indigenous peoples' groups, in negotiations on indigenous issues with governments and international organizations. These include:
- International Working Group on Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA)
- Indigenous Peoples of Africa Co-ordinating Committee (IPACC)
- Survival International
- Indigenous Dialogues

List of indigenous peoples

Main article: List of indigenous peoples ;Other (external) lists:
- [http://www.elandnet.org For a further list]

References

-
-
- Ibid.
- United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations, from Study of the Problem of Discrimination Against Indigenous Populations, J. Martinez Cobo, United Nations Special Rapporteur (1987)

External links

Institutions

- [http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/ UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UN PFII)]
- [http://www.unhchr.ch/indigenous/groups-01.htm Working Group on Indigenous Populations (WGIP)]
- [http://www.unhchr.ch/indigenous/main.html Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)- Indigenous peoples]
- [http://portal.unesco.org/culture/admin/ev.php?URL_ID=2946&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201 UNESCO Actions in favour of Indigenous Peoples]
- [http://www.iwgia.org/sw155.asp International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA)]
- [http://www.survival-international.org/ Survival International]
- [http://developmentgateway.org/indigenous Development Gateway Indigenous Issues Topic Page]
- [http://www.hri.ca/fortherecord2002/engtext/vol1eng/indigenous.htm Human Rights Internet- Indigenous issues]
- [http://www.unpo.org/index.php Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organisation]

Indigenous studies

- [http://www.cwis.org/wwwvl/indig-vl.html WWW Virtual Library- Indigenous studies resources]
- [http://www.cwis.org/ Center for World Indigenous Studies (CWIS)]
- [http://www.pygmies.info/ African Pygmies studies] Anthropological fieldwork about Pygmies Indigenous peoples als:Ureinwohner ja:先住民 zh-min-nan:Goân-chū-bîn

Tribe

Viewed historically or developmentally, a tribe consists of a social formation existing before the development of, or outside of, states. Many people use the term to refer to any non-Western or indigenous society. Some social scientists use the term to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of kinship, especially corporate descent groups (see clan and lineage). In some countries, such as the United States and India, tribes are Indigenous peoples that have been granted legal recognition and limited autonomy by the state. See also Hunter gatherer. Considerable debate takes place over how best to characterize tribes. Some of this debate stems from perceived differences between pre-state tribes and contemporary tribes; some of this debate reflects more general controversy over cultural evolution and colonialism. In the popular imagination, tribes reflect a way of life that predates, and is more "natural", than that in modern states. Tribes also privilege primordial social ties, are clearly bounded, homogeneous, parochial, and stable. Thus, many believed that tribes organize links between families (including clans and lineages), and provide them with a social and ideological basis for solidarity that is in some way more limited than that of an "ethnic group" or of a "nation". Anthropological and ethnohistorical research has challenged all of these notions. In his 1972 study, The Notion of the Tribe, Morton Fried provided numerous examples of tribes the members of which spoke different languages and practised different rituals, or that shared languages and rituals with members of other tribes. Similarly, he provided examples of tribes where people followed different political leaders, or followed the same leaders as members of other tribes. He concluded that tribes in general are characterized by fluid boundaries and heterogeneity, are not parochial, and are dynamic. Archeologists continue to explore the development of pre-state tribes. Current research suggests that tribal structures constituted one type of adaptation to situations providing plentiful yet unpredictable resources. Such structures proved flexible enough to co-ordinate production and distribution of food in times of scarcity, without limiting or constraining people during times of surplus. Fried, however, proposed that most contemporary tribes do not have their origin in pre-state tribes, but rather in pre-state bands. Such "secondary" tribes, he suggested, actually came about as modern products of state expansion. Bands comprise small, mobile, and fluid social formations with weak leadership, that do not generate surpluses, pay no taxes and support no standing army. Fried argued that secondary tribes develop in one of two ways. First, states could set them up as means to extend administrative and economic influence in their hinterland, where direct political control costs too much. States would encourage (or require) people on their frontiers to form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses and taxes, and would have a leadership responsive to the needs of neighboring states (the so-called "scheduled" tribes of the United States or of British India provide good examples of this). Second, bands could form "secondary" tribes as a means to defend themselves against state expansion. Members of bands would form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses that could support a standing army that could fight against states, and they would have a leadership that could coordinate economic production and military activities.

References

Fried, Morton H. The Notion of Tribe. Cummings Publishing Company, 1975. ISBN 0846515482

Nomad

:For other senses of this word, see nomad (disambiguation). nomad (disambiguation)] nomad (disambiguation) Communities of nomadic people move from place to place, rather than settling down in one location. Many cultures have been traditionally nomadic, but nomadic behaviour is increasingly rare in industrialised countries. Typically there are two kinds of nomads, pastoral nomads and peripatetic nomads. Pastoralists raise herds and move with them so as not to deplete pasture beyond recovery in any one area. Peripatetic nomads are more common in industrialised nations travelling from place to place offering a trade wherever they go. Nomadism is suggested to have originated throughout three stages that accompany population growth and an increase in the density of social organization. Sadr has suggested the following stages:
- Pastoralism This is a mixed economy with a symbiosis within the family.
- Agropastoralism This is when symbiosis is between segments or clans within an ethnic group.
- True Nomadism This is when sybiosis is at the regional level, mostly it starts between specialized nomadic and agricultural populations.

Nomadic people in industrialized nations

- Roma and Sinti
- Kalderash
- Gitano (AKA Cale)
- Manush (AKA Sinti)
- Romnichal
- Irish Travellers
- Some sami communities

Modern nomads in industrialized nations

- Freetekno soundsystems
- RV Lifestyle
- Technomads

Indigenous nomadic peoples

- Pygmies
- Ababdeh
- Bakhtiari of Iran
- Bedouins
- Innu
- Kuchis (Kochai)
- Tuaregs
- Somalis (certain clans)
- Nenetses
- Moken

Historic nomadic peoples

- Eurasian Avars
- Hephthalites
- Khazars
- Magyars
- Moors
- Mongols
- Wu Hu
- Some Sami communities Also note that many Native Americans and Indigenous Australians were nomadic prior to Western contact.

Tanzania

The United Republic of Tanzania (Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania in Swahili), or Tanzania, is a country on the east coast of east Africa. It is bordered by Kenya and Uganda on the north, Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the west, and Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique on the south. To the east it borders the Indian Ocean. The country is named after Lake Tanganyika, which forms its western border, and Zanzibar, off its east coast. The country has been a member of the Commonwealth since reaching independence (1961). In 1964, Tanganyika united with the Zanzibar islands, forming the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, later renamed to the United Republic of Tanzania. In 1996, Tanzania's capital was officially moved from Dar es Salaam to Dodoma, although many government offices still remain in the old capital.

History

Main article: History of Tanzania A German colony from the 1880s until 1919, the area subsequently became a British trust territory from 1919 to 1961. Julius Nyerere became Minister of British-administered Tanganyika in 1960, and continued as Prime Minister when Tanganyika became independent in 1961. Tanganyika and the neighbouring Zanzibar — which had become independent in 1963 — merged to form the nation of Tanzania on 26 April 1964. Nyerere introduced African socialism, or Ujamaa, which emphasized justice and equality, but proved economically disastrous, leading to food shortages as collective farms failed. In 1979, Tanzania declared war on Uganda after Uganda invaded and tried to annex Tanzanian territory in the north of the country. Tanzania not only expelled Ugandan forces, but also invaded Uganda itself, forcing the ousting of Idi Amin. Nyerere handed over power to Ali Hassan Mwinyi in 1985, but retained control of the ruling party, Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM), as Chairman until 1990, when he handed that responsibility to Mwinyi. In October 1995, one-party rule came to an end when Tanzania held its first ever multi-party election. However, CCM comfortably won the elections and its candidate Benjamin Mkapa was subsequently sworn in as the new president of the United Republic of Tanzania on 23 November 1995. One of the deadly 1998 U.S. embassy bombings occurred in Dar es Salaam; the other was in Nairobi, Kenya. In 2004, the undersea earthquake on the other side of the Indian ocean caused tidal surges along Tanzania's coastline in which 11 people were killed. An oil tanker also temporarily ran aground in the Dar es Salaam harbor, damaging an oil pipeline. oil pipeline]]

Politics

Main article: Politics of Tanzania Tanzania's president and National Assembly members are elected concurrently by direct popular vote for 5-year terms. The president appoints a prime minister who serves as the government's leader in the National Assembly. The president selects his cabinet from among National Assembly members. The Constitution also empowers him to nominate 10 non-elected members of Parliament, who also are eligible to become cabinet members. Elections for president and all National Assembly seats will be held in October 2005. The unicameral National Assembly elected in 2000 has 295 members. These 295 members include the Attorney General, five members elected from the Zanzibar House of Representatives to participate in the Parliament, the special women's seats which are made up of 20% of the seats a particular party has in the House, 181 constituents seats of members of Parliament from the mainland, and 50 seats from Zanzibar. Also in the list are 48 appointed for women and the seats for the 10 nominated members of Parliament. At present, the ruling CCM holds about 93% of the seats in the Assembly. Laws passed by the National Assembly are valid for Zanzibar only in specifically designated union matters. Zanzibar's House of Representatives has jurisdiction over all non-union matters. There are currently 76 members in the House of Representatives in Zanzibar, including 50 elected by the people, 10 appointed by the president of Zanzibar, 5 ex officio members, and an attorney general appointed by the president. In May 2002, the government increased the number of special seats allocated to women from 10 to 15, which will increase the number of House of Representatives members to 81. Ostensibly, Zanzibar's House of Representatives can make laws for Zanzibar without the approval of the union government as long as it does not involve union-designated matters. The terms of office for Zanzibar's president and House of Representatives also are 5 years. The semiautonomous relationship between Zanzibar and the union is a relatively unique system of government. Tanzania has a five-level judiciary combining the jurisdictions of tribal, Islamic, and British common law. Appeal is from the primary courts through the district courts, resident magistrate courts, to the high courts, and Court of Appeals. Judges are appointed by the Chief Justice, except those for the Court of Appeals and the High Court who are appointed by the president. The Zanzibari court system parallels the legal system of the union, and all cases tried in Zanzibari courts, except for those involving constitutional issues and Islamic law, can be appealed to the Court of Appeals of the union. A commercial court was established in September 1999 as a division of the High Court. For administrative purposes, Tanzania is divided into 26 regions--21 on the mainland, 3 on Unguja, and 2 on Pemba (Unguja and Pemba make Zanzibar). Ninety-nine district councils have been created to further increase local authority. These districts are also now referred to as local government authorities. Currently there are 114 councils operating in 99 districts, 22 are urban and 92 are rural. The 22 urban units are classified further as city (Dar es Salaam and Mwanza), municipal (Arusha, Dodoma, Iringa, Kilimanjaro, Mbeya, Morogoro, Shinyanga, Tabora, and Tanga), and town councils (the remaining 11 communities).

Geography

Mwanza Mwanza] Mwanza Main article: Geography of Tanzania Tanzania is mountainous in the north-east, where Mount Kilimanjaro, Africa's highest peak, is situated. To the north and west are the Great Lakes of Lake Victoria (Africa's largest lake) and Lake Tanganyika. Central Tanzania comprises a large plateau, with plains and arable land. The eastern shore is hot and humid, with the island of Zanzibar lying just offshore. Tanzania contains many large and ecologically significant wildlife parks, including the famous Serengeti National Park in the north.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Tanzania Tanzania is one of the poorest countries in the world. The economy is heavily dependent on agriculture, which accounts for half of GDP, provides 85% of exports, and employs 90% of the work force. Topography and climatic conditions, however, limit cultivated crops to only 4% of the land area. Industry is mainly limited to processing agricultural products and light consumer goods. The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and bilateral donors have provided funds to rehabilitate Tanzania's deteriorated economic infrastructure. Tanzania has vast amount of natural resources like gold deposits and beautiful national parks that remain underdeveloped. Growth in 1991-99 has featured a pickup in industrial production and a substantial increase in output of minerals, led by gold. Natural gas exploration in the Rufiji Delta looks promising and production has already started [http://www.gasandoil.com/goc/company/cna52112.htm]. Recent banking reforms have helped increase private sector growth and investment. Short-term economic progress also depends on curbing corruption and cutting on unnecessary public spending [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3719712.stm].

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Tanzania Population distribution in Tanzania is extremely uneven. Density varies from 1 person per square kilometer (3/mi²) in arid regions to 51 per square kilometer (133/mi²) in the mainland's well-watered highlands to 134 per square kilometer (347/mi²) on Zanzibar. More than 80% of the population is rural. Dar es Salaam is the capital and largest city; Dodoma, located in the center of Tanzania, has been designated the new capital and the Parliament sits there, although action to move the capital has stalled. The African population consists of more than 120 ethnic groups, of which the Sukuma, Haya, Nyakyusa, Nyamwezi, and Chaga have more than 1 million members. The majority of Tanzanians, including such large tribes as the Sukuma and the Nyamwezi, are of Bantu stock. Groups of Nilotic or related origin include the nomadic Masai and the Luo, both of which are found in greater numbers in neighboring Kenya. Two small groups speak languages of the Khoisan family peculiar to the Bushman and Hottentot peoples. Cushitic-speaking peoples, originally from the Ethiopian highlands, reside in a few areas of Tanzania. Although much of Zanzibar's African population came from the mainland, one group known as Shirazis claims its origins to be the supposed island's early Persian settlers. Non-Africans residing on the mainland and Zanzibar account for 1% of the total population. The Asian community, including Hindus, Sikhs, Shi'a and Sunni Muslims, and Goans, has declined by 50% in the past decade to 50,000 on the mainland and 4,000 on Zanzibar. An estimated 70,000 Arabs and 10,000 Europeans reside in Tanzania. Each ethnic group has its own language, but the national language is Kiswahili, a Bantu-based tongue with strong Arabic borrowings.

Regions

Chaga Main article: Regions of Tanzania For further information see Tanzania
- [http://www.vdiest.nl/Africa/tanzania.htm] Tanzania is divided into 26 regions: Arusha, Dar es Salaam, Dodoma, Iringa, Kagera, Kigoma, Kilimanjaro, Lindi, Manyara, Mara, Mbeya, Morogoro, Mtwara, Mwanza, Pemba North, Pemba South, Pwani, Rukwa, Ruvuma, Shinyanga, Singida, Tabora, Tanga, Zanzibar Central/South, Zanzibar North, Zanzibar Urban/West

Culture

Zanzibar Urban/West Zanzibar Urban/West Main article: Culture of Tanzania
- Music of Tanzania
- List of writers from Tanzania Taarab Music[http://www.mwambao.com/tarab.htm] is a fusion of Swahili tunes sung in rhythmic poetic style spiced with Arabic or, at times, Indian melodies. It is an extremely lively art form springing from a classical culture, still immensely popular with women, drawing all the time from old and new sources. Taarab forms a major part of the social life of the Swahili people along the coastal areas; especially Zanzibar, Tanga and even further in Mombasa and Malindi along the Kenya coast. Wherever the Swahili speaking people travelled. Tarabu culture moved with them. It has penetrated to as far as Uganda. Rwanda and Burundi in the interior of East Africa, where taarab groups compete in popularity with other western-music inspired groups. In the Persian Gulf, Dubai and Muscat,perhaps because of significant number of Waswahili from Tanzania, play host to many groups of Taraab who receive frequent invitations. These days a taarab revolution [http://www.swahilicoast.com/taarab_music_of_zanzibar.htm] is taking place and much heated debate continues about the music which has been changed drastically by the East African Melody phenomenon. Melody, as they are affectionately known by their mostly women fans, play modern taarab, which, for the first time, is 'taarab to dance to' and features direct lyrics, by- passing the unwritten laws of lyrical subtlety of the older groups such as Egyptian Musical Club and Al-Wattan Musical Club where meaning to their songs where only alluded to and never directly inferred. Today taarab songs are explicit sometimes even graphic in sexual connotation. Much of the music, today, of groups like Melody and Muungano is composed and played on keyboards, increasing portability, hence the group is much smaller in number than 'real taarab' orchestras and therefore more readily available to tour and play shows throughout the region and beyond. Tanzanian music has lost much of its identity since the heydays of the likes of Mbaraka Minshehe (who, perhaps, was the most popular and original musician of his time), this is partly attributed to the influx of musicians from the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire), who were entering the country as refugees and made residence in the country. But in recent years, mainly from the mid-nineties, a new breed of young Tanzanian musicians has emerged and are coming up with popular tunes which are Tanzanian in composition. Bands like Twanga Pepeta have managed to curve a new tune distinct from imported Zairean tunes and are competing with Zairean bands in popularity and audience acceptance. The Tanzanian artistes have devised a new style going by the name of "Bongo Flava", which is blend of all sorts of melodies, beats, rhythms and sounds. The trend among the Tanzanian music consumers has started changing towards favouring products from their local artists who sing in Swahili, the national language. The mushrooming of FM music stations and cheap production studios has been a major boost to the music industry in the country. Contemporary artists like Juma Nature, Lady Jaydee, Mr. Nice, Mr. II, Cool James and many others command a huge audience of followers in the country and neighbouring countries. More information about Tanzanian music and events can be found on the various portals that have sprung up recently. Tanzania has an enormously high growth-rate for internet technologies, estimated at up to 500% per year. Because costs for computers are still quite high many users share connections at internet cafes or at work. [http://www.naomba.com naomba.com business directory], [http://www.tanzaniadirectory.info Movie and Sports information], [http://www.tanzaniayangu.com Arusha locality information] all are part of an increasing number of websites dedicated to the region.

Communications

Telecommunication services in Tanzania have in the past often been very unreliable. The mobile telephone services are usually available only in urban areas, although there are currently efforts to provide nationwide mobile phone coverage. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4036503.stm] Mobile Phone Companies
- Celtel
- Mobitel
- Tanzania Telecommunications Company
- Vodacom
- Zantel Internet Services Providers(ISPs) Internet services have been available since 1996 however there is no current fiber connectivity available to the Internet backbone, thus the connectivity is over Satellite network to the rest of the world, even to the neighbouring countries. It is expected that EASSY fiber project will bring in Internet connectivity to Tanzania at lower latency and lower cost. Some of the Internet Service Providers are;
- University Computing Centre[http://www.ucc.co.tz]
- Africa Online Tanzania[http://www.africaonline.co.tz ]
- Raha[http://www.raha.com]
- Cats-Net[http://www.cats-net.com]
- TTCL[http://www.ttcl.co.tz]
- Kicheko[http://www.kicheko.com]
- Arusha Node Marie[http://www.habari.co.tz]
- ZanLink[http://www.zanlink.com] The complete list of the ISPs can be accessed from Tanzania Communication Regulatory Authority(TCRA) website[http://www.tcra.go.tz/Market%20info/isp.htm] Data Operators
- SatCom Networks Africa Limited
- DATEL[http://www.datelnet.com]
- TTCL[http://www.ttcl.co.tz]
- SimbaNet[http://www.simbanet.net]
- Afsat Communications[http://www.afsat.com] The complete list of Data operators can be accessed from Tanzania Communication Regulatory Authority(TCRA) website[http://www.tcra.go.tz/Market%20info/data.htm] In 2005, mainland Tanzania (i.e. not Zanzibar) modified its licensing system for electronic communications, modelling it on the approach successfully pioneered in Malaysia in the late 1990s where traditional 'vertical' licences (right to operate a telecoms OR broadcasting network, and right to provide services on that network) are replaced by 'horizontal' licences (right to operate a telecoms AND broadcasting network, but a separate licence required to provide services on that network). This reform was the first of its kind on the African continent actually put into practice, and allows investors to concentrate on their area of expertise (i.e. network operation or service provision) across a maximum number of previously separate sectors (i.e. telecommunications, broadcasting, Internet). This reform should, amongst other things, facilitate the arrival of telephony services over cable television networks, television services over telecommunications networks, and Internet services over all types of networks. In short, Tanzania is the first African country to adapt its regulatory environment to the phenomenon of convergence.

Miscellaneous topics

- Communications in Tanzania From the CIA World Factbook 2000. Not Wikified.
- Foreign relations of Tanzania From the CIA World Factbook 2000. Not Wikified.
- List of Tanzanian companies
- List of Famous Tanzanians
- Military of Tanzania From the CIA World Factbook 2000. Not Wikified.
- [http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/36/345.html Privatizing Tanzania telecommunication company]
- Stamps and postal history of Tanzania
- Transportation in Tanzania From the CIA World Factbook 2000. Not Wikified.

External links

Government

- [http://www.tanzania.go.tz/ The United Republic of Tanzania] official site
- [http://www.parliament.go.tz/ Parliament of Tanzania] official site

Higher Learning Institutions

- [http://www.udsm.ac.tz/ UDSM]The University Of Dar-Es-Salaam.
- [http://www.suanet.ac.tz/ SUA]The Sokoine University Of Agriculture.
- [http://www.hkmu.ac.tz/ HKMU]The Hubert Kairuki Memorial University.

News

- [http://allafrica.com/tanzania/ AllAfrica.com - Tanzania] news headline links
- [http://www.theexpress.com/ The Express Online] weekly newspaper
- [http://www.ippmedia.com/ IPP Media]
- [http://www.tanzania-news.com/ Tanzania News] The Top headlines from the major Tanzanian newspapers.

Business

- [http://www.cti-tz.com/members2.htm Confederation of Tanzanian Industries]

Overviews

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1072330.stm BBC News Country Profile - Tanzania]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/tz.html CIA World Factbook - Tanzania]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/tz/ US State Department - Tanzania] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports

Directories

- [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Tanzania.html Columbia University Libraries - Tanzania] directory category of the WWW-VL
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Tanzania/ Open Directory Project - Tanzania] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/tanzan.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Tanzania] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Tanzania/ Yahoo! - Tanzania] directory category

Tourism

-
- [http://www.discovertanzania.org/tanzania.asp Tanzania] Climate, medical and visa information

Other

- [http://www.globalpolitician.com/articles.asp?ID=256 GlobalPolitician - "Tanzania: An Example Of What Third World Should Not Do"] December 22, 2004 editorial
- [http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/04/14/opinion/edpower.html IHT - "Now, some good news from Africa"] April 15, 2005 editorial Category:African Union member states Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations Category:Geographic portmanteaus zh-min-nan:Tanzania ko:탄자니아 ms:Tanzania ja:タンザニア

East Africa

East Africa often refers to Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, but depending on geography or geopolitics, may also include:
- Burundi and Rwanda (sometimes considered part of Central Africa)
- Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia (sometimes considered The Horn of Africa or North East Africa)
- Mozambique, Malawi and Madagascar (usually considered part of Southern Africa)
- Sudan (usually considered North East Africa, and sometimes North Africa) The East African Community (EAC), an intergovernmental organisation and trading bloc, consists of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.

Geography

Some parts of East Africa have been renowned for their concentrations of wild animals, such as the "big five" of elephant, giraffe, lion, zebra and rhinoceros, though populations have been declining under increased stress in recent times, particularly the rhino and elephant. The geography of East Africa is often stunning and scenic. Shaped by global forces that have created the Great Rift Valley, East Africa is the site of Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya, the two tallest peaks in Africa. The unique geography and apparent suitability for farming made East Africa a target for European exploration and exploitation in the nineteenth century. Today, tourism is an important part of the economies of Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda.

Politics

Until recently most governments were illiberal and corrupt, and several countries were riven with political coups and ethnic violence. Since the end of colonialism, the region has endured:
- Ethiopian Civil War (Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front against the Derg)
- Ogaden War
- Second Sudanese Civil War
- Somali Civil War
- Burundi Civil War
- Lord's Resistance Army insurgency in Uganda
- 1998 American embassy bombings in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam
- Eritrean-Ethiopian War Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda have enjoyed relatively stable government. The Awdal region of Somalia too has seen relative prosperity.

Nilotic

Nilotic refers to a number of indigenous East African peoples originating in northeast Africa in the region of the Nile River. Included are groups such as the Dinka, Kalenjin, Luo, Masai, Nuer, Hima, Turkana, and Tutsi. Today, Nilotic peoples are found primarily in Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, Somalia, Egypt, Ethiopia and Eritrea. They tend to be among the darkest of blacks in terms of skin color, with a taller and slimmer stature than the human average. :See also: Nilotic languages Category:Ethnic groups

Nile

:For alternative meanings of "Nile", see Nile (disambiguation) The Nile (Arabic: النيل an-nīl), in Africa, is one of the two longest rivers on Earth.

Terminology of the Nile

The word "Nile" comes from the word Neilos (Νειλος), a Greek name for the Nile. Another Greek name for the Nile was Aigyptos (Αιγυπτος), which itself is the source of the name "Egypt".

Longest river

The Nile is usually considered the longest river in the world, but whether the Nile is actually longer than South America's Amazon still remains the subject of much debate. This is, for the most part, due to two reasons: first, the lengths of rivers vary over time and, second, the point from which the length of a river is measured is not always agreed upon. The Nile also carries far less water than the Amazon.

Branches

Amazon There are two great branches of the Nile: the White Nile, from equatorial East Africa, and the Blue Nile, from Ethiopia. Both branches formed on the western flanks of the East African Rift, which is the southern African part of the Great Rift Valley.

White Nile

Lake Victoria, which lies between Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania is considered to be the source of the Nile, although the lake itself has feeder rivers of considerable size from the other Great Lakes of Africa. In particular, the farthest headstream of the Nile is the Ruvyironza River in Burundi, which is an upper branch of the Kagera River. The Kagera flows for 690 km (429 miles) before reaching Lake Victoria. Leaving Lake Victoria, the river is known as the Victoria Nile. It flows further for approximately 500 km (300 miles), through Lake Kyoga, until it reaches Lake Albert. After leaving Lake Albert, the river is known as the Albert Nile. It then flows into Sudan, where it becomes known as the Bahr al Jebel. At the confluence of the Bahr al Jebel with the Bahr el Ghazal, itself 720 km (445 miles) long, the river beomes known as the Bahr al Abyad, or the White Nile, from the clay suspended in its waters. From there, the river flows to Khartoum.

Blue Nile

Meanwhile, the Blue Nile (or Bahr al Azraq to Sudanese; Abbay to Ethiopians) springs from Lake Tana in the Ethiopian Highlands. The Blue Nile flows about 1,400 km (850 miles) to Khartoum, where the Blue Nile and White Nile join to form "the Nile." Most of the water carried by the Nile (about 85%) originates from Ethiopia, but this runoff only happens in summer, when the great rains fall on the Ethiopian Plateau; the rest of the year the great rivers draining Ethiopia to the Nile (Sobat, Blue Nile, and Atbara) flow weakly or are dry. Khartoum)]]

The Nile

After the Blue and White Niles merge, the only remaining major tributary is the Atbara River, which originates in Ethiopia north of Lake Tana, and is approximately 800 km (500 miles) long. It joins the Nile approximately 300 km (200 miles) past Khartoum. The Nile is also unusual in that its last tributary (the Atbara) joins it approximately halfway to the sea. From that point north, the Nile diminishes because of evaporation. The Nile in Sudan is distinctive for two reasons: 1) it flows over 6 groups of cataracts, from the first at Aswan to the sixth at Sabaloka (just north of Khartoum); and 2) it reverses course for much of its course, flowing back to the SW before returning to flow north again to the sea. This is the "Great Bend of the Nile". 6 groups of cataracts The Nile then reaches the man-made Lake Nasser, impounded behind the Aswan High Dam 270 km (170 miles) into Egypt from the Sudanese border. Since 1998 some of Lake Nasser's waters have spilt westward to form the Toshka Lakes. From Lake Nasser the main channel flows north through Egypt and into the Mediterranean Sea; a side channel, the Bahr Yussef, splits from the main channel downriver from the city of Asyut, and empties into the Fayum. Where the Nile meets the Mediterranean, the Nile Delta, is the eponym of all river deltas worldwide. Enrichment from Nile sediments carried eastward by currents nurture the fishing industries of the Eastern Mediterranean, or used to before the Aswan High Dam was built.

History of the Nile

The Nile (iteru in Ancient Egyptian) was the lifeline of the ancient Egyptian civilization, with most of the population and all of the cities of Egypt resting along those parts of the Nile valley lying north of Aswan. The Nile has been the lifeline for Egyptian culture since the Stone Age. Climate change — or perhaps overgrazing — about 8000 BC desiccated the pastoral lands of Egypt to form the Sahara and the tribes naturally migrated to the river, where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society. Despite the attempts of the Greeks and Romans (who were unable to penetrate the Sudd), the source of the Nile was unknown until the 19th century, when John Hanning Speke was the first to identify it as Lake Victoria. Various earlier expeditions since ancient times had failed to determine the river's source, thus yielding classical Hellenistic and Roman representations of the river as a male god with his face and head obscured in drapery. Speke was part of a 1856–1858 expedition led by Richard Francis Burton to search for the source of the Nile by entering Africa from Dar-Es-Salam (modern Tanzania). Burton was convinced that Lake Tanganyika was the source, but it was Speke who, leaving a sick Burton behind, found the large body of water now known as Lake Victoria and convinced himself that this was the Nile's true source. Speke returned with James Augustus Grant in 1860-1863 for further explorations around Lake Victoria and traced the Nile northwards to Gondokoro, on the southern boundary of the Sudd. The White Nile Expedition, led by South African national Hendri Coetzee, was to become the first to navigate the Nile in its entire length. The expedition took off from The Source of the Nile in Uganda on January 17, 2004 and arrived safely at the Mediterranean in Rosetta, Egypt, 4 months and 2 weeks later. National Geographic are releasing a feature film about the expedition in towards the end of 2005, to be entitled The Longest River. On April 28, 2004, geologist Pasquale Scaturro and his partner, kayaker and documentary filmmaker Gordon Brown became the first people to navigate the Blue Nile, from Lake Tana in Ethiopia to the beaches of Alexandria on the Mediterranean. Though their expedition included a number of others, Brown and Scaturro were the only ones to remain on the expedition for the entire journey. They chronicled their adventure with an IMAX camera and two handheld video cams, sharing their story in the IMAX film "Mystery of the Nile," and in a book of the same title. Despite this attempt, the team was forced to use outboard motors for most of their journey and it was not until January 29, 2005 when Canadian Les Jickling and New Zealander Mark Tanner reached the Mediterranean Sea that the river had been paddled for the first time under human power. The Nile still supports much of the population of Africans living along its banks, as well as Egyptians; the latter living between otherwise inhospitable regions of the Sahara Desert. The river flooded every summer, depositing fertile soil on the fields. The flow of the river is disturbed at several points by cataracts, which are sections of faster flowing water with many small islands, shallow water, and rocks, forming an obstacle to navigation by boats. The sudd in the Sudan also forms a formidable obstacle for navigation and flow of water, to the extent that Egypt had once attempted to dig a canal (the Jongeli Cananl) to improve the flow of this stagnant mass of water (also known as Lake No). boat The Nile was, and still is, used to transport goods to different places along its long path; especially since winter winds in this area blow up river, the ships could travel up with no work by using the sail, and down using the flow of the river. While most Egyptians still live in the Nile valley, the construction of the Aswan High Dam (finished in 1970) to provide hydroelectricity ended the summer floods and their renewal of the fertile soil. Cities on the Nile include Khartoum, Aswan, Luxor (Thebes), and the Giza–Cairo conurbation. The first cataract, the closest to the mouth of the river, is at Aswan to the north of the Aswan Dams. The Nile north of Aswan is a regular tourist route, with cruise ships and traditional wooden sailing boats known as feluccas. In addition, many "floating hotel" cruise boats ply the route between Luxor and Aswan, stopping in at Edfu and Kom Ombo along the way. It used to be possible to sail on these boats all the way from Cairo to Aswan, but security concerns have shut down the northernmost portion for many years.

Flooding of the Nile

The annual cycles of the Nile were very important to the lives of ancient Egyptians. The Nile 'mysteriously' but predictably rose each summer to flood and fertilize the land, without rain and in the hottest time of the year. A good flood and Egypt's wealth was assured; a poor flood or too great of a flood and Egypt would suffer. The cyclic mystery created awe and stimulated worship, and the job of recording the history of Nile flooding, when the Nile was expected to flood, and the locations of farmers' plots after the floodwaters receded stimulated creation of the first scientific instrument (the Nilometer), astronomy, and surveying. The concerns of ancient Egyptians for a good flood were justified. The failure of the Nile floods and the generally low level of the river is thought to have been responsible for the collapse of the Old Kingdom about 4200 years ago. These concerns are captured in the Bible, where Joseph correctly interpreted Pharoah's dreams of 7 years of abundance and 7 years of poverty in Egypt to relate to good and then bad Nile floods. Ledyard, in his Travels, speaks contemptuously of this celebrated wonder:—"This is the mighty, the sovereign of rivers—the vast Nile that has been metamorphosed into one of the wonders of the world! Let me be careful how I read, and, above all, how I read ancient history. You have heard, and read too, much of its inundations. If the thousands of large and small canals from it, and the thousands of men and machines employed to transfer, by artificial means, the water of the Nile to the meadows on its banks—if this be the inundation that is meant, it is true; any other is false; it is not an inundating river." More recently, drought during the 1980s led to widespread starvation in Ethiopia and Sudan but Egypt was protected from drought by water impounded in Lake Nasser.

The Eonile

The present Nile is at least the fifth river that has flowed north from the Ethiopian Highands. Satellite imagery was used to identify dry watercourses in the desert to the west of the Nile. An Eonile canyon, now filled by surface drift, represents an ancestral Nile called the Eonile that flowed during the later Miocene. The Eonile transported clastic sediments to the Mediterranean, where several gas fields have been discovered within these sediments. South of Cairo, the sand-filled canyon can reach a depth of up to 1400 meters. During the late Miocene Messinian Salinity Crisis, when the Mediterranean Sea was a closed basin and sealevel in the sea dropped approximately 1500 m, the Nile cut its course down to the new base level until it was several hundred feet below world ocean level at Aswan. This huge canyon is now full of later sediment. Formerly Lake Tanganyika drained northwards into the Nile, until the Virunga Volcanoes blocked its course in Rwanda. That would have made the Nile much longer, with its longest headwaters in northern Zambia.

External links

- [http://earthtrends.wri.org/maps_spatial/maps_detail_static.cfm?map_select=299&theme=2 Information and a map of the Nile's watershed]
- [http://www.utdallas.edu/dept/geoscience/remsens/Nile/index.html Geology and History of the Nile]
- [http://www.photoglobe.info/spc_nile_delta.html Nile Delta from Space]
- [http://www.ancient-egypt-online.com/river-nile-facts.html Facts About The Nile River]
- [http://www.ianandwendy.com/OtherTrips/Egypt/NileCruise/slideshow2.htm Photo Gallery from a cruise between Luxor and Aswan]
- [http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/Inscrutable%20Nile1.pdf An excellent essay about the challenges of equitably allocating the waters of the Nile]
- [http://www.aber.ac.uk/~qecwww/tana/geology.htm Nile paleogeography] Category:Rivers of Egypt Category:Rivers of Uganda Category:Rivers of Sudan
- Category:Geography of Africa ko:나일 강 ja:ナイル川

1500

Events

- Europe's population was ~60 million. (Spielvogel)
- January 5 - Duke Ludovico Sforza recaptures Milan, but is soon driven out again by the French.
- April 21 - Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral officially discovers Brazil and claims the land for Portugal.
- November 11 - Treaty of Granada - Louis XII of France and Ferdinand II of Aragon agree to divide the Kingdom of Naples between them.
- Emperor Go-Kashiwabara ascends to the throne of Japan.
- Battle of Hemmingstedt: The Danish army fails to conquer the peasants' republic of Dithmarschen.
- Second Battle of Lepanto - The Turkish fleet of Kemal Re'is defeats the Venetians. The Turks proceed to capture Modon, Lepanto, and Koron.
- The Luo, a Nilotic people from modern Sudan, settle the Cwezi states, establishing the state of Buganda. (approximate date)
- Diogo Dias is the first European to see Madagascar.

Births

- February 22 - Cardinal Rodolfo Pio da Carpi, Italian humanist (d. 1564)
- February 24 - Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (died 1558)
- April 12 - Joachim Camerarius, German classical scholar (died 1574)
- April 23 - Alexander Ales, Scottish theologian (died 1565)
- November 1 - Benvenuto Cellini, Italian goldsmith and sculptor (died 1571)
- Johannes Aal, Swiss theologian and composer (died 1553)
- John of Avila, Spanish mystic and saint (died 1569)
- George Cavendish, English writer
- Wu Cheng'en, Chinese novelist (died 1582)
- Charles Dumoulin, French jurist (died 1566)
- Heinrich Faber, German music theorist (died 1552)
- Federico II of Gonzaga, Marquis of Mantua (died 1540)
- Francisco de Moraes, Portuguese writer (died 1572)
- Reginald Cardinal Pole, Archbishop of Canterbury (died 1558)
- Mem de Sá, Governor-General of Brazil (died 1572)
- Johann Stumpf, Swiss writer (died 1576)
- Pietro Martire Vermigli, Italian theologian

Deaths

- May 29 - Bartolomeu Dias, Portuguese explorer
- June 19 - Edmund Tudor, Duke of Somerset (born 1499)
- September 12 - Albert, Duke of Saxony (born 1443)
- September 15 - John Morton, Archbishop of Canterbury
- October 1 - John Alcock, English churchman
- October 21 - Emperor Go-Tsuchimikado of Japan (born 1442)
- Juan Pérez de Gijón, Spanish composer (born 1460)
- Feodor Kuritsyn, Russian statesman
- Thomas Rotherham, English cleric and minister (born 1423) Category:1500 ko:1500년

Maa language

The Maa languages, are a group of closely related Eastern Nilotic languages spoken in parts of Kenya and Tanzania by more than a million speakers altogether. They are subdivided into North and South Maa. The Maa languages are related to the Lotuxo languages spoken in Southern Sudan. In the past, several peoples have abandoned their language in favor of a Maa language, usually following a period of intensive cultural and economic contact. Among peoples that have assimilated to Maa peoples are the Aasáx (Asa) and the Elmolo, former hunter-gatherers who spoke Cushitic languages, and the Mukogodo-Maasai (Yaaku), former bee-keepers and hunter-gatherers (Eastern Cushitic). The Akiek of northern Tanzania, speakers of a Southern Nilotic Kalenjin tongue, are under heavy influence from Maasai.
- Northern Maa
- Samburu (spoken by the Samburu people)
-

Maasai

Demography

Identity

Culture

Flag of Masaii

See also

External links

Indigenous peoples

Characteristics of indigenous peoples: overview

Population and distribution

Common characteristics

Common concerns

Definitions

Historical indigenous cultures

Classical antiquity

European expansion and colonialism

Contemporary distribution and survey

Africa

the Americas

Asia

Europe

Oceania

Viewpoints on indigenous societies

Indigenous viewpoints

"Non-indigenous" viewpoints

Indigenous rights, issues and concerns

Indigenous knowledge and culture

Representation

United Nations

Other accredited organizations

List of indigenous peoples

References

External links

Institutions

Indigenous studies

Tribe

References

See also

Regional Tribes

Other Links

Nomad

Nomadic people in industrialized nations

Modern nomads in industrialized nations

Indigenous nomadic peoples

Historic nomadic peoples

See also

Further reading

Tanzania

History

Politics

Geography

Economy

Demographics

Regions

Culture

Communications

Miscellaneous topics

External links

Government

Higher Learning Institutions

News

Business

Overviews

Directories

Tourism

Other

East Africa

Geography

Politics

See also

Nilotic

Nile

Terminology of the Nile

Longest river

Branches

White Nile

Blue Nile

The Nile

History of the Nile

Flooding of the Nile