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Malta

Malta

The Republic of Malta is a small and densely populated island nation in southern Europe. It consists of an archipelago in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea directly south of Italy and north of Africa. These strategically located islands have been ruled and fought over by various powers over the centuries. Malta is the smallest EU country in terms of both population and area. Malta has many museums, shops, beaches, and leisure activities in a densely packed area. It is a well-known popular vacation destination among Europeans.

History

Main article: History of Malta Malta has been inhabited since around 5200 BC. A significant prehistoric civilization, that predates the Pyramids of Giza by a millennium, is believed to have existed on the islands. Phoenicians colonized the islands at around 1000 BC, using it as an outpost from which they expanded sea explorations and trade in the Mediterranean. In 736 BC, they were occupied by the Greeks who called the colony "Melita". Greeks These islands later came under the control of Carthage (400 BC) and then of Rome. The islands prospered under Roman rule, during which time it was considered a Municipium and a Feodorata Civitas. Many Roman antiquities still exist, testifying to the close link between the Maltese inhabitants and the people of Rome. In AD 60, the islands were visited by Saint Paul, who is said to have been shipwrecked on the shores of the aptly named Saint Paul's Bay. After a period of Byzantine rule (4th to 9th century) and a probable sack by the Vandals, the islands were conquered by the Arabs in AD 870. Their influence can be seen most prominently in the modern Maltese language, which is derived from Arabic. Maltese has also been heavily influenced by Romance languages and is written in a variety of the Latin alphabet. The period of Arab rule lasted until 1090, when the islands were taken by the Sicilian Normans, restoring Christianity again. Subsequent rulers included the Anjouvines, Hohenstaufen, and the Aragonese (1287). The Maltese nobility was established during this period; some of it dating back to 1090. About 32 noble titles remain in use today, of which the oldest is Barons of Djar il Bniet and Buqana. In 1530, the islands were given by Spain to the Order of Knights of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem in perpetual lease (Aragon having owned the island as part of their Mediterranean empire for some time). These Knights, a militant monastic order now known as the "Knights of Malta", had been driven out of Rhodes by the Ottoman Empire in 1522. They withstood a full-blown siege by the Ottoman Turks in 1565, who, at that time, were considered to be the greatest non-European military power. After this they decided to increase the fortifications, particularly in the inner-harbour area, where the new city of Valletta, named after Jean Parisot de la Valette, was built. Their reign ended when Malta was captured by Napoleon in 1798 en route to his expedition of Egypt. As a ruse, Napoleon asked for safe harbor to resupply his ships, and then turned against his hosts once safely inside Valetta. The occupying French forces were unpopular, however, due particularly to their negative attitude towards religion. The Maltese rebelled against them, and the French were forced behind the fortifications. Great Britain, along with the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, sent munitions and aid. Britain also sent her navy, which instigated a blockade of the islands. The isolated French forces, under General Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois, surrendered in 1800, and the island became a British protectorate, being presented by several Maltese leaders to Sir Alexander Ball. In 1814, as part of the Treaty of Paris, Malta officially became a part of the British Empire and was used as a shipping waystation and fleet headquarters. Malta's proximity to the Suez Canal proved to be its main asset during these years, and it was considered to be a most important stop on the way to India. In the 1930s, due to Malta's cultural and geographical proximity to Italy, the British Mediterranean Fleet was moved to Alexandria. Malta played an important role during World War II, owing to its vicinity to Axis shipping lanes, and its people's bravery led to the awarding of the George Cross now seen on its flag. After the war, and after a short period of political instability due to the Malta Labour Party's unsuccessful attempt at 'Integration with Britain', Malta was granted independence on September 21, 1964 (Independence Day). Under its 1964 constitution, Malta initially retained Queen Elizabeth II as Queen of Malta, with a Governor-General exercising executive authority on her behalf, but on December 13, 1974 it became a republic within the Commonwealth, with the President as head of state (Republic Day). A defence agreement signed soon after Independence (and re-negotiated in 1972) expired on March 31, 1979 (Freedom Day) when the British military forces were withdrawn. Malta joined the European Union on May 1, 2004.

Politics

2004 Main article: Politics of Malta The unicameral House of Representatives, known in Maltese as Kamra tar-Rappreżentanti, is elected by direct universal suffrage through single transferable vote every five years unless the House is dissolved earlier by the President on advice of the Prime Minister. The House of Representatives is made up of 65 MPs. However, where a party manages an absolute majority of votes, but not of seats, that party is given additional seats to ensure a parliamentary majority. The Parliamentary system (as well as public administration) is closely modeled on the Westminster system. The President of the Republic is elected every five years by the House of Representatives. The role of the president as head of state is highly ceremonial. The main political parties are the Nationalist Party which is Christian Democrat and the Malta Labour Party which is Social Democrat. There is also a Green Party (Alternattiva Demokratika) and a far right party (Imperium Europa) which, however, have no parliamentary seats. Two other small parties include the Alpha Party, led by Dr. Emmy Bezzina and the Communist Party (which did not participate in the latest elections) led by Tony Vassallo. The Nationalist Party is currently at the helm of the government, the Prime Minister being Dr. Lawrence Gonzi. The Malta Labour Party, under Dr. Alfred Sant, is in opposition.

Geography

Dr. Alfred Sant Main article: Geography of Malta
Main article: Local councils of Malta Malta is an archipelago in the central Mediterranean Sea, some 93 km south of Sicily. Only the three largest islands Malta Island (Malta), Gozo (Għawdex), and Comino (Kemmuna) are inhabited. Numerous bays along the indented coastline of the islands provide good harbours. The landscape is characterised by low hills with terraced fields. The highest point, which even many locals have no idea how to locate, is the Ta' Dmejrek on Malta Island at 253 m near Dingli. The local climate is Mediterranean temperate climate with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers. Effectively there are only two seasons, which makes the islands attractive for tourists especially during the drier months. Contrary to popular belief, the south of Malta is not Europe's most southern point: Malta is Europe's 4th southernmost country; Spain (Punta de Tarifa), Cyprus and Greece (island of Gavdos), rank 3rd, 2nd, and 1st respectively. Since 1993, Malta has been subdivided into 68 local councils or localities. These form the most basic form of local government. There are no intermediate levels between local government and national government.

Economy

1993 Main article: Economy of Malta Until 1800, Malta had very few industries except the cotton, tobacco, and shipyards industry. The dockyard was later used by the British for military purposes. At times of war, Malta's economy prospered due to its strategic location. In 1869, the opening of the Suez Canal benefited Malta's economy greatly as there was a massive increase in the shipping which entered in the port. By the end of the 19th century, the economy began declining and by the 1940s, Malta's economy was in serious crisis. This was due to invention of large ships which did not require refuelling. Nowadays, Malta’s major resources are limestone, a favourable geographic location, and a productive labour force. Malta produces only about 20% of its food needs, has limited freshwater supplies, and has no domestic energy sources. The economy is dependent on foreign trade (serving as a freight trans-shipment point), manufacturing (especially electronics and textiles), and tourism. Malta has recently privatised some state-controlled firms and liberalised markets in order to prepare for membership in the European Union, which it joined on May 1 2004. Malta and Tunisia are currently discussing the commercial exploitation of the continental shelf between their countries, particularly for petroleum exploration. The Maltese government is intending to adopt the euro as the country's currency on 1 January 2008, having entered ERM II in May 2005. Although Malta is now a member of the European Union, it is not a member of the Schengen Treaty yet. It is currently adopting Schengen regulations with the goal to be finished by 2007.

Demographics

2007 Main article: Demographics of Malta According to the last demographic survey (2003) the estimated population of the Malta at the end of that year (including non-Maltese residents) was 399,867 of whom 198,099 were males and 201,768 were females. In the same year there was a net natural increase of 872 persons and a net inflow of 1,699 persons in the total population. Fertility rate has stabilised but with a crude birth rate of 10.06 Malta remains one of the "youngest" European populations (the 0-14 age group represents 18.2% of the total population). The national language of Malta is Maltese. The Maltese alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet, but uses a number of diacritically altered letters not found in other Latin-based alphabets, such as ċ, ġ, and ħ. The official languages are English and Maltese. Italian is also widely spoken and taught in secondary schools. Italian Education is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16 years. Whilst the state provides education free of charge, the church and the private sector run a number of schools in Malta and Gozo. Education in Malta is based on the British Model owing its origins in Malta's colonial past. The first years of education in Malta are done in kindergarten. Attendance is up to 5 years and not compulsary. Compulsary education starts at the age of 6 with primary education. Primary education lasts for 6 years. Following public examinations they enter into secondary schools. They follow a five year course which prepares them for the Secondary Education Certificate which is the equivalent of the British General Certificate of Education. Upon passing the Public Examinations students may enter either in a vocational college such as MCAST or a Sixth Form. Sixth forms provide a two year course leading to the Matriculation Certificate which is the equivalent of the UK Advanced Level Examinations and Advanced Subsidiary Examinations. Tertiary education is provided by the University of Malta. The adult literacy rate is 92%.

Culture

University of Malta Main article: Culture of Malta
- List of Maltese People
- Music of Malta
- Maltese cuisine
- Maltese nobility

See also


- Coat of Arms of Malta
- Communications in Malta
- Flag of Malta
- Foreign relations of Malta
- List of cities in Malta
- Armed Forces of Malta
- The Scout Association of Malta
- Transportation in Malta
- Pan Am Flight 103
- The Great Siege of Malta

External links


- [http://www.aboutmalta.com About Malta] – aboutmalta.com is an online guide to everything Maltese
- [http://www.geocities.com/geldof_99/w_w2.html Cottonera during World War 2] – Cottonera
- [http://www.di-ve.com Di-Ve.com] News / Entertainment Portal
- [http://www.gov.mt Gov.mt] Maltese Government Official Site
- [http://www.buettni-malta.com Büttni-Malta] – A privately run website with lots of information about Malta and the Maltese, facts, photos and much more.
- [http://www.maltavista.net/en/map Map of Malta] Scalable map of the Maltese islands and towns
- [http://members.fortunecity.com/victorcauchi/lex/lexindex.htm Laws of Malta] Chapter summaries and a general Glossary of definitions.
- [http://www.maltamilitary.cjb.net Malta Military] – A Website on the Military History of Malta
- [http://www.maltamedia.com MaltaMedia] Daily News in Maltese and English
- [http://www.maltaseek.com Maltaseek] – Maltaseek.com is a Search Engine and Directory dedicated to Malta, Gozo and Comino
- [http://www.maltanetworkresources.com www.maltanetworkresources.com] – Search engine, directory and portal dedicated to Malta, USENET archives for Maltese newsgroups
- [http://www.evdaniken.com/e/gallery.htm Mystery surounding archeological sites on Malta]
- http://www.onlyinmalta.com – a privately run website with a great photo gallery of Malta and Gozo and the most popular Maltese forums.
- [http://www.vrmalta.com VR Malta] – Panoramic tour of Malta with maps, photos and guide.

References

This article has been created by making reference to the following:
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- Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations Category:European Union member states category:Collective George Cross recipients zh-min-nan:Malta ko:몰타 ms:Malta ja:マルタ simple:Malta fiu-vro:Malta

Island nation

An island nation is a country that is wholly confined to an island or island group, and has no territory on the mainland of the world's continents. Forty-seven of the world's countries are island nations, including most of the smallest ones. Island nations can be divided in two approximate groups. There are those that are large, relatively populous, and usually close to a continent. These include the United Kingdom, Japan, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Madagascar. These countries typically share cultural and political similarities with their continental neighbours. Their island status has sometimes been an important advantage that has isolated them from invasion and made them important in regional trade because of their locations and the maritime abilities of the population. Australia can be considered this category of nation taken to an extreme: an island nation so large it is considered a continent. Smaller island nations such as the Comoros, the Bahamas, Tonga, and the Maldives tend to be very different from continental nations. The small size usually means there is little agricultural land and rarely many natural resources. However, in modern times smaller island nations around the world have become centres for tourism, which in many is today the dominant industry. Some island nations are centered on one or two major islands, such as the United Kingdom and Fiji. Others are spread out over hundreds or thousands of smaller islands, such as Indonesia or the Maldives. Some island nations share their islands with other countries; these include the Republic of Ireland, Haiti, and Papua New Guinea. The opposite of an island nation is a landlocked one.

See also


- List of island nations
- List of islands (by country)
- List of countries
- :Category:Island nations zh-tw:島嶼國家

Southern Europe

Southern Europe is a region of Europe. Although there is no precise definition, the UN [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm#europe regional categorisation scheme for statistical purposes] coincides with general notions of what states comprise Southern Europe:
- The Iberian Peninsula
  - Spain
  - Portugal
  - Andorra
- The Italian peninsula
  - Italy
  - Vatican City
  - San Marino
  - Malta
- The Balkan Peninsula
  - Albania
  - Bulgaria
  - Greece
  - Bosnia and Herzegovina
  - Croatia
  - Republic of Macedonia
  - Serbia and Montenegro
  - Slovenia
  - the European part of Turkey
- Also:
  - Cyprus Southern Europe ko:남유럽 ja:南ヨーロッパ

Mediterranean Sea

The Mediterranean Sea is a part of the Atlantic Ocean almost completely enclosed by land, on the north by Europe, on the south by Africa, and on the east by Asia. It covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km² (965 000 mi²). It is also called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea in oceanography to distinguish it from other mediterranean seas in the world. It was a superhighway of transport in ancient times, allowing for trade and cultural exchange between emergent peoples of the region — Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and the Middle-East (Arab/Persian/Semitic) cultures. The history of the Mediterranean is important in understanding the origin and development of Western Civilization.

Name

The term Mediterranean derives from the Latin mediterraneus, 'inland' (medius, 'middle' + terra, 'land, earth'), in Greek "mesogeios". The Mediterranean Sea has been known by a number of alternative names throughout human history. It was, for example, commonly called Mare Nostrum (Latin, Our Sea) by the Romans. In the Bible, it is referred to as the Great Sea or the Western Sea. In modern Hebrew, it is called "ha-Yam ha-Tichon" (הים התיכון), "the middle sea", a literal adaptation of the German equivalent Mittelmeer. In Turkish, it is Akdeniz, "the white sea". In Arabic, it is Al-Bakhr Al-Abiad Al-Muttawasit, "the middle white sea". Currently, "The Med" is a common English language contraction for the Mediterranean Sea and its surrounding regions when employed in informal speech.

Geography

Turkish The Mediterranean Sea is connected to the Atlantic Ocean by the Strait of Gibraltar on the west and to the Sea of Marmara and Black Sea, by the Dardanelles and the Bosporus respectively, on the east. The Sea of Marmara is often considered a part of the Mediterranean Sea, whereas the Black Sea is generally not. The man-made Suez Canal in the south-east connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea. Tides are very limited in the Mediterranean as a result of the narrow connection with the ocean. The Mediterranean climate is generally one of wet winters and hot, dry summers. Special crops of the region are olives, grapes, oranges, tangerines, and cork. The region has a long history of civilization. Large islands in the Mediterranean include:
- Cyprus, Crete, Euboea and Rhodes in the eastern Mediterranean
- Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, and Malta in the central Mediterranean
- Ibiza, Majorca and Minorca (the Balearic Islands) in the western Mediterranean

Bordering countries

Modern states bordering the Mediterranean Sea are:
- Europe (from west to east): Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, the island state of Malta, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Turkey, and the island state of Cyprus.
- Asia (from north to south): Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, the Gaza Strip and Egypt.
- Africa (from east to west): Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco

Subdivisions

Morocco] The Mediterranean Sea is sub-divided into a number of smaller seas, each with their own designation (from west to east):
- the Alboran Sea, between Spain and Morocco,
- the Ligurian Sea between Corsica and Liguria (Italy),
- the Tyrrhenian Sea enclosed by Sardinia, Italian peninsula and Sicily,
- the Adriatic Sea between the Italian peninsula and the Dalmatian coast,
- the Ionian Sea between Italy and Greece,
- the Aegean Sea between Greece and Turkey, with
  - the Thracian Sea in its north,
  - the Mirtoon Sea between the Cyclades and the Peloponnesos,
  - the Sea of Crete north of Crete, and
- the Sea of Marmara between the Aegean and Black Seas. In addition to the seas, a number of gulfs and straits are also recognised:
- the Gulf of Lyon, south of France
- the Strait of Messina, between Sicily and the toe of Italy
- the Gulf of Taranto, southern Italy,
- the Gulf of Haifa, between Haifa and Akko, Israel
- the Gulf of Sidra, between Tunisia and Cyrenaica (eastern Libya)
- the Strait of Sicily, between Sicily and Tunisia
- the Corsica Channel, between Corsica and Italy
- the Strait of Bonifacio, between Sardinia and Corsica
- the Gulf of Iskenderun, between Iskenderun and Adana(Turkey).
- the Gulf of Antalya, between west and east shores of Antalya(Turkey).

Geology

The geology of the Mediterranean is complex, involving the break-up and then collision of the African and Eurasian plates, and the Messinian Salinity Crisis in the late Miocene when the Mediterranean dried up. The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m and the deepest recorded point is 5267 meters (about 3.27 miles) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. The coastline extends for 46,000 km. A shallow submarine ridge (the Strait of Sicily) between the island of Sicily and the coast of Tunisia divides the sea in two main subregions (which in turn are divided into subdivisions), the Western Mediterranean and the Eastern Mediterranean. The Western Mediterranean covers an area of about 0.85 million km² and the Eastern Mediterranean about 1.65 million km². In the last few centuries, humankind has done much to alter Mediterranean geology. Structures have been built all along the coastlines, exacerbating and rerouting erosional patterns. Many pollution-producing boats travel the sea that unbalance the natural chemical ratios of the region. Beaches have been mismanaged, and the overuse of the sea's natural and marine resources continues to be a problem. This misuse speeds along and/or confounds natural processes. The actual geography has also been altered by the building of dams and canals. The Mediterranean was once thought to be the remnant of the Tethys Ocean. It is now known to be a structurally younger ocean basin known as Neotethys. Neotethys formed during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic rifting of the African and Eurasian plates. There have been theories that the Mediterranean reflooded after Man reached the area, causing the Biblical Flood legend. However, the Strait of Gibraltar is too deep to have dried out in the Ice Age, and the Flood legend may recall the Black Sea re-flooding.

Ecology

As a result of the drying of the sea during the Messinian Salinity Crisis, the marine biota of the Mediterranean are derived primarily from the Atlantic Ocean. The North Atlantic is considerably colder and more nutrient-rich than the Mediterranean, and the marine life of the Mediterranean has had to adapt to its differing conditions in the five million years since the basin was reflooded. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 created the first salt-water passage between the Mediterranean and Red seas. The Red Sea is higher than the Eastern Mediterranean, so the canal serves as a salt-water river that pours Red Sea water into the Mediterranean. The Bitter Lakes, which are hypersaline natural lakes that form part of the canal, blocked the migration of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean for many decades, but as the salinity of the lakes gradually equalized with that of the Red Sea, the barrier to migration was removed, and plants and animals from the Red Sea have begun to colonize the eastern Mediterranean. The Red Sea is generally saltier and more nutrient-poor than the Atlantic, so the Red Sea species have advantages over Atlantic species in the salty and nutrient-poor Eastern Mediterranean. The construction of the Aswan High Dam across the Nile River in the 1960s reduced the inflow of freshwater and nutrient-rich silt from the Nile into the eastern Mediterranean, which has made conditions there even more like the Red Sea. This species exchange is known as the Lessepsian Migration, after Ferdinand de Lesseps, the engineer who oversaw the canal's construction.

See also


- Seaports of Valencia (Spain)
- Mediterranean Basin
- Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and shrub
- Mediterranean sea (oceanography term)
- List of islands in the Mediterranean
- Familial Mediterranean fever
- History of the Mediterranean
- Holy League (Mediterranean)
- Seto Inland Sea, which is sometimes named the Japanese Mediterranean Sea
- History of the Suez Canal

External Links


- [http://www.planbleu.org/indexUK.html Planblue - Environment and Development in the Mediterranean Region]
- Category:Seas zh-min-nan:Tē-tiong-hái ko:지중해 ja:地中海 th:ทะเลเมดิเตอร์เรเนียน



EU

: This article is about the European Union. For other meanings of 'EU', see the EU (disambiguation) page. The European Union or the EU is an intergovernmental and supranational union of 25 European countries, known as member states. It will include another 2 countries in 2007 - Romania and Bulgaria. The European Union was established under that name in 1992 by the Treaty on European Union (the Maastricht Treaty). However, many aspects of the Union existed before that date through a series of predecessor relationships, dating back to 1951. The European Union's activities cover all areas of public policy, from health and economic policy to foreign affairs and defence. However, the extent of its powers differs greatly between areas. Depending on the area in question, the EU may therefore resemble:
- a federation (for example, on monetary affairs, agricultural, trade and environmental policy)
- a confederation (for example, on social and economic policy, consumer protection, home affairs)
- an international organisation (for example, in foreign affairs) A key activity of the EU is the establishment and administration of a common single market, consisting of a customs union, a single currency (adopted by 12 of the 25 member states), a Common Agricultural Policy, a common trade policy, and a Common Fisheries Policy. The most important EU institutions are the Council of the European Union, the European Commission, the European Parliament and the European Court of Justice.

Status

The members of the European Union have transferred to it considerable sovereignty, more than that of any other non-sovereign regional organisation. As has been mentioned, in certain areas the EU begins to take on the character of a federation or confederation. However, in legal terms, member states remain the masters of the Treaties, which means that the Union does not have the power to transfer additional powers from states onto itself without their agreement through further international treaties. Further, in many areas member states have given up relatively little national sovereignty, particularly in key areas of national interest such as foreign relations and defence. This unique structure means the European Union is perhaps best seen as a sui generis entity. On 29 October, 2004, European heads of government and state signed the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe. This has been ratified by some member states and is currently awaiting ratification by the other states. However, this process faltered on May 29, 2005 when the majority of French voters rejected the constitution in a referendum by 54.7%. The French rejection was followed three days later by a Dutch one on June 1 when in the Netherlands 61.6% of voters refused the constitution as well. The current and future status of the European Union therefore continues to be subject of political controversy, with widely differing views both within and between member states. For example, in the United Kingdom, currently holding the EU presidency, one poll suggested that around 75% of the population are indifferent or opposed to the European Union. However, other countries are more in favour of European integration — soon after the Netherlands and the French voted "no" on the constitution, Luxembourg voted "yes."

Current issues

Major issues currently facing the European Union cover its membership, structure, procedures and policies; they include the adoption, abandonment or adjustment of the new constitutional treaty, the Union's enlargement to the south and east (see below), resolving the Union's problematic fiscal and democratic accountability, revision of the rules of the Stability and Growth Pact, and the future budget and the Common Agricultural Policy. At the next Intergovernmental Conference (IGC), which is a semi-annual meeting of EU member states' heads of state and government, EU member states must decide on how it will allocate the EU budget. Also, here is the issue of the "Financial Perspective", which is renegotiated every seven years. The next Financial Perspective will be for 2007-2013. Issues that will be controversial during upcoming budget debates will be the British rebate, France's benefits from the Common Agricultural Policy, Germany and the Netherlands' large contributions to the EU budget, and reform of the European Regional Development Funds. Many commentators have envisaged these debates to yield a major split between governments such as France and Germany, who call for a broader budget and a more federal union, and governments such as that of the UK, who demand a slimmer budget with more funding transferred to science and research (and whose watchword is modernisation). Turkey on 4 October 2005 furthered its will to enter the European Union, making them the first predominantly Muslim country to open membership talks with the organisation. Many states within the union are wary of this decision, chiefly Austria. Austrian apprehension for Turkey dates back for centuries, leading from the 1683 Battle of Vienna, where the Austrians defeated the Ottoman Turks. Fears of an influx of migration from Turkey into Austria if the country and its 70 million inhabitants are allowed into the union is a heated topic. Others argue that most of the country is on the wrong side of the Bosporus Strait, which many believe to be the dividing line between Europe and Asia. Turkey also refuses to acknowledge any relations with the state of Cyprus since Turkish troops invaded the northern section of the island in 1974 following a coup attempt by Greek ultra-nationalists. Austria has proposed for an esteemed partnership for Turkey which would come short of an actual membership. Turkey rejected that proposal. Other European states claim that denying Turkey to a membership would brew future hostilities with other Muslim nations.

Origins and history

1974 Attempts to unite the disparate nations of Europe precede the modern nation states; they have occurred repeatedly throughout the history of Europe. Three thousand years ago, Europe was dominated by the Celts, and then conquered and ruled by the Mediterranean centred Roman Empire. These early unions were created by force. The Frankish empire of Charlemagne and the Holy Roman Empire united large areas under a loose administration for hundreds of years. More recently the 1800s customs union under Napoleon and the 1940s conquests of Nazi Germany had only transitory existence. Given Europe's collections of languages and cultures, these attempts usually involved military subjugation of unwilling nations, leading to instability, others have lasted thousands of years and large spells of peace and economical and technological progress as in the Roman Empire's Pax Romana. One of the first proposals for peaceful unification through cooperation and equality of membership was made by the pacifist Victor Hugo in 1851. Following the catastrophes of the First World War and the Second World War, the impetus for the founding of (what was later to become) the European Union greatly increased, driven by the determination to rebuild Europe and to eliminate the possibility of another war. This sentiment eventually led to the formation of the European Coal and Steel Community by (West) Germany, France, Italy and the Benelux countries. This was accomplished by the Treaty of Paris, signed in April, 1951, and taking effect in July, 1952. The first full customs union was originally known as the European Economic Community (informally called the Common Market in the UK), established by the Treaty of Rome in 1957 and implemented on 1 January 1958. This later changed to the European Community which is now the "first pillar" of the European Union. The EU has evolved from a trade body into an economic and political partnership. For more details, please see History of the European Union. As president of the Convention on the Future of Europe, the former French president Valéry Giscard d'Estaing proposed to change the name of the European Union to United Europe but it was not adopted.

Member states and enlargement

The European Union has 25 member states, an area of 3,892,685 km² and approximately 460 million EU citizens as of December 2004. If it were a country, it would be the seventh largest in the world by area and the third largest by population after China and India. The European Union has land borders with 20 nations and sea borders with 31. India Since its inception with six countries, nineteen further states have joined in successive waves of enlargement: Note:
- Greenland, which was granted home rule by Denmark in 1979, left the European Community in 1985, following a referendum.
- Romania and Bulgaria will join EU on 1 January 2007

Overseas territories

Several overseas territories and dependencies have close associations with particular EU member states, for example Greenland, the Isle of Man, the Azores and Madeira.

Future enlargement and close relationships


- Romania and Bulgaria are scheduled to become members on 1 January 2007, provided that they meet the conditions for membership and that the Treaty of Accession for the Republic of Bulgaria and Romania is ratified by parliaments of member states. The treaty was signed by representatives of the EU Member States at the Abbaye de Neumünster in Luxembourg on 25 April 2005. As of 2005, member state parliaments are taking forward its ratification.
- Turkey is an official candidate to join the European Union. Turkish European ambitions date back to 1963 Ankara Agreements. Turkey started preliminary negotiations on 3 October 2005. However, analysts believe 2015 is the earliest date the country can join the union due to the plethora of economic and social reforms it has to complete. Since it has been granted official candidate status, Turkey has implemented permanent policies on human rights, abolished the death penalty, granted cultural rights to its large Kurdish minority, and taken positive steps to solve the Cyprus question. However, due to its religious and cultural differences, Turkey faces strong opposition from conservative and religious governments of the member states, mainly France, Germany, Austria, Greece, Cyprus and Slovenia.
- Croatia is another official candidate country to join. It is expected to join by 2010, although the accession process could still be hampered by issues with the UN War Crimes Tribunal in The Hague among other things. See also: Croatian accession to the European Union.
- On 9 November 2005, the European Commission recommended granting candidate status to Macedonia [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4420158.stm].
- The EFTA states of Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway are members of the European Economic Area which allows them to participate in most aspects of the EU single market without joining the EU. Switzerland, the fourth EFTA state, rejected EEA membership in a referendum; however, it has established close ties to the EU by means of bilateral treaties.

Context – rationale for enlargement and future prospects

Supporters of the European Union argue that the growth of the EU is a force for peace and democracy. They argue that the wars which were a periodic feature of the history of Western Europe have ceased since the formation of the European Economic Community (which later became the EU) in the 1950s. They also claim that in the early 1970s, Greece, Portugal and Spain were all dictatorships, but the desire of the business communities in these three countries to be in the EU created a strong impetus for democracy there. Others argue that peace in Europe since World War II is more due to other causes, such as the need for a unified response to the threat from the Soviet Union, a need for reconstruction after World War II, and a collective temporary tiring of waging war, and that the dictatorships cited came to an end for totally different reasons. In more recent times, the European Union has been extending its influence to the east. It has accepted several new members that were previously behind the Iron Curtain, and has plans to accept several more in the medium-term. It is hoped that in a similar fashion to the entry of Spain, Portugal and Greece in the 1980s, membership for these states will help cement economic and political stability. Further eastward expansion also has long-term economic benefits, but the remaining European countries are not viewed as currently suitable for membership, especially the troubled economies of countries further east. It is hoped by some that eventual membership of states that are currently politically unstable might help deal with tensions resulting from earlier conflicts such as the Yugoslav wars and the Cyprus dispute, and help avoid such conflict in the future. As the EU continues to enlarge eastward, the candidate countries' accessions tend to grow more controversial. As discussed, the EU has finished accession talks with Bulgaria and Romania, and set an entry date for the two countries in 2007. However, the rejection of the EU Constitution by France and the Netherlands, and the EU's slow economic growth, have cast some doubt on whether the EU will be ready to accept new members in 2007, despite the fact that both Bulgaria and Romania have signed Accession Treaties to join in 2007. A further point of contention for EU members is the accession of Turkey. Accession preliminary talks between Turkey and the EU are due to begin in early October 2005. Turkey's Government, led by Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan, has enacted many legal reforms to meet the EU's entry requirements. However, some member states, especially Austria [http://euobserver.com/9/19989] repudiate Turkey joining the EU, and the possible economic, immigration and cultural implications that may bring.

Institutions and legal framework

EU institutions

The functioning of the European Union is supported by several institutions:
- The European Parliament (732 members 750 max.)
- The Council of the European Union (or 'Council of Ministers') (25 members)
- The European Commission (25 members)
- The European Court of Justice (incorporating the Court of First Instance) (25 judges (& 25 judges of CFI))
- The European Court of Auditors (25 members)
- The European Council (25 members) - whose unique role is perhaps better described as that of a "quasi-institution" There are several financial bodies:
- European Central Bank (which alongside the national Central Banks, composes the European System of Central Banks)
- European Investment Bank (including the European Investment Fund) There are also several advisory committees to the institutions:
- Committee of the Regions, advising on regional issues
- Economic and Social Committee, advising on economic and social policy (principally relations between workers and employers)
- Political and Security Committee, established in the context of the Common Foreign and Security Policy, monitoring and advising on international issues of global security. There are also a great number of bodies, usually set up by secondary legislation, which exist to implement particular policies. These are the agencies of the European Union. Examples are the European Environment Agency, the European Aviation Safety Agency and the Office for Harmonisation in the Internal Market. Lastly, the European Ombudsman investigates complaints of maladministration by EU institutions.

Location of EU institutions

The EU has no official capital and its institutions are divided between several cities:
- Brussels, Belgium - Considered the de facto capital of the EU
  - Seat of the European Commission and the Council of the European Union
  - Venue for the European Parliament's committee meetings and mini-sessions
  - Host city for all European Council summits (since 2004)
- Strasbourg, France
  - Seat of the European Parliament and venue of its twelve week-long plenary sessions each year
  - Also the location of two key European organisations — the Council of Europe and the European Court of Human Rights — which are different from the EU and have a wider membership than the EU
- Luxembourg City, Luxembourg
  - Seat of the European Court of Justice and the Secretariat of the European Parliament
  - Seat of the European Investment Bank
- Frankfurt, Germany
  - Seat of the European Central Bank
- The Hague, The Netherlands
  - Seat of EUROPOL (the European Police Office)

Legal framework

EUROPOL] European Union law comprises a large number of overlapping legal and institutional structures. This is a result of its being defined by successive international treaties, with each new treaty amending and supplementing earlier ones.. In recent years, considerable efforts have been made to consolidate and simplify the treaties, culminating with the final draft of the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe. If this proposed treaty is adopted, it will replace the set of overlapping treaties that form the current constitution of the EU with a single text. The earliest EU treaty was the Treaty of Paris of 1951 (took effect in 1952) which established the European Coal and Steel Community between an original group of six European countries. This treaty has since expired, its functions taken up by subsequent treaties. On the other hand, the Treaty of Rome of 1957 is still in effect, though much amended since then, most notably by the Maastricht treaty of 1992, which first established the European Union under that name. The most recent amendments to the Treaty of Rome were agreed as part of the Treaty of Accession of the 10 new member states, which entered into force on 1 May 2004. The EU member states have recently agreed to the text of a new constitutional treaty that, if ratified by the member states, would become the first official constitution of the EU, replacing all previous treaties with a single document. Although accepted by many countries, this document was rejected in a French referendum with a 55% majority on May 29th and in the Dutch referendum with a 62% majority on June 1st. If the Constitutional Treaty fails to be ratified by all member states, then it might be necessary to reopen negotiations on it. Most politicians and officials agree that the current pre-Constitution structures are inefficient in the medium term for a union of 25 (and growing) member states. Senior politicians in some member states (notably France) have suggested that if only a few countries fail to ratify the Treaty, then the rest of the Union should proceed without them, possibly creating an "Avant Garde" or Inner Union of more committed member states to proceed with "an ever-deeper, ever-wider union".

The role of the European Community within the Union

European Communities: European Community plus Euratom The term European Communities refers collectively to two entities -- the European Economic Community (now called the European Community) and the European Atomic Energy Community (also known as Euratom) -- each founded pursuant to a separate treaty in the 1950s. A third entity, the European Coal and Steel Community, was also part of the European Communities, but ceased to exist in 2003 upon the expiration of its founding treaty. Since 1967, the European Communities have shared common institutions, specifically the Council, the European Parliament, the Commission and the Court of Justice. In 1992, the European Economic Community, which of the three original communities had the broadest scope, was renamed the "European Community" by the Treaty of Maastricht. European Union: European Communities plus CFSP and PJCC The European Communities are one of the three pillars of the European Union, being both the most important pillar and the only one to operate primarily through supranational institutions. The other two "pillars" – Common Foreign and Security Policy, and Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters – are looser intergovernmental groupings. Confusingly, these latter two concepts are increasingly administered by the Community (as they are built up from mere concepts to actual practice). Effect of Constitutional Treaty If it is ratified, the proposed new Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe would abolish the three-pillar structure and, with it, the distinction between the European Union and the European Community, bringing all the Community's activities under the auspices of the European Union and transferring the Community's legal personality to the Union. There is, however, one qualification: it appears that Euratom would remain a distinct entity governed by a separate treaty.

Intergovernmentalism and supranationalism

A basic tension exists within the European Union between intergovernmentalism and supranationalism. Intergovernmentalism is a method of decision-making in international organisations where power is possessed by the member states and decisions are made by unanimity. Independent appointees of the governments or elected representatives have solely advisory or implementational functions. Intergovernmentalism is used by most international organisations today. An alternative method of decision-making in international organisations is supranationalism. In supranationalism power is held by independent appointed officials or by representatives elected by the legislatures or people of the member states. Member state governments still have power, but they must share this power with other actors. Furthermore, decisions are made by majority votes, hence it is possible for a member-state to be forced by the other member-states to implement a decision against its will. Some forces in European Union politics favour the intergovernmental approach, while others favour the supranational path. Supporters of supranationalism argue that it allows integration to proceed at a faster pace than would otherwise be possible. Where decisions must be made by governments acting unanimously, decisions can take years to make, if they are ever made. Supporters of intergovernmentalism argue that supra-nationalism is a threat to national sovereignty, and to democracy, claiming that only national governments can possess the necessary democratic legitimacy. Intergovernmentalism is being favoured by more Eurosceptic nations such as the United Kingdom, Denmark and Sweden; while more integrationist nations such as the Benelux countries, France, Germany, and Italy have tended to prefer the supranational approach. The European Union attempts to strike a balance between the two approaches. This balance however is complex, resulting in the often labyrinthine complexity of its decision-making procedures. Starting in March 2002, a Convention on the Future of Europe again looked at this balance, among other things, and proposed changes. These changes were discussed at an Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) in May 2004 and led to the Constitutional Treaty discussed above. Supranationalism is closely related to the inter-governmentalist vs. neofunctionalist debate. This is a debate concerning why the process of integration has taken place at all. Intergovernmentalists argue that the process of EU integration is a result of tough bargaining between states. Neofunctionalism, on the other hand, argues that the supranational institutions themselves have been a driving force behind integration. For further information on this see the page on Neofunctionalism.

Main policies

As the changing name of the European Union (from European Economic Community to European Community to European Union) suggests, it has evolved over time from a primarily economic union to an increasingly political one. This trend is highlighted by the increasing number of policy areas that fall within EU competence: political power has tended to shift upwards from the member states to the EU. This picture of increasing centralisation is counter-balanced by two points. First, some member states have a domestic tradition of strong regional government. This has led to an increased focus on regional policy and the European regions. A Committee of the Regions was established as part of the Treaty of Maastricht. Second, EU policy areas cover a number of different forms of co-operation.
- Autonomous decision making: member states have granted the European Commission power to issue decisions in certain areas such as competition law, State Aid control and liberalisation.
- Harmonisation: member state laws are harmonised through the EU legislative process, which involves the European Commission, European Parliament and Council of the European Union. As a result of this European Union Law is increasingly present in the systems of the member states.
- Co-operation: member states, meeting as the Council of the European Union agree to co-operate and co-ordinate their domestic policies. The tension between EU and national (or sub-national) competence is an enduring one in the development of the European Union. (See also Inter-governmentalism vs. Supra-nationalism (above), Euroscepticism.) All prospective members must enact legislation in order to bring them into line with the common European legal framework, known as the Acquis Communautaire. (See also European Free Trade Association (EFTA), European Economic Area (EEA) and Single European Sky.) See table of states participating in some of the initiatives.

Single market

Many of the policies of the EU relate in one way or another to the development and maintenance of an effective single market. Significant efforts have been made to create harmonised standards – which are designed to bring economic benefits through creating larger, more efficient markets. The power of the single market reaches beyond the EU borders, because to sell within the EU, it is beneficial to conform to its standards. Once a non-member country's factories, farmers and merchants conform to EU standards, much of the cost of joining the union has already been sunk. At that point, harmonising domestic laws in order to become a full member is relatively painless, and may create more wealth through eliminating the customs costs. The single market has both internal and external aspects:

Internal policies

single market
- Free trade of goods and services among member states (an aim further extended to three of the four EFTA states by the European Economic Area, EEA)
- A common EU competition law controlling anti-competitive activities of companies (through antitrust law and merger control) and member states (through the State Aids regime).
- The Schengen treaty allowed removal of internal border controls and harmonisation of external controls between its member states. This excludes the UK and Ireland, which have derogations, but includes the non-EU members Iceland and Norway. Switzerland also voted via referendum in 2005 to become part of the Schengen zone.
- Freedom for citizens of its member states to live and work anywhere within the EU, provided they can support themselves (also extended to the other EEA states).
- Free movement of capital between member states (and other EEA states).
- Harmonisation of government regulations, corporations law and trademark registrations.
- A single currency, the Euro (excluding the UK, and Denmark, which have derogations). Sweden, although not having a specific opt-out clause, has not joined the ERM II, voluntarily excluding itself from the monetary union.
- A large amount of environmental policy co-ordination throughout the Union.
- A Common Agricultural Policy and a Common Fisheries Policy.
- Common system of indirect taxation, the VAT, as well as common customs duties and excises on various products.
- Funding for the development of disadvantaged regions (structural and cohesion funds).

External policies


- A common external customs tariff, and a common position in international trade negotiations.
- Funding for programmes in candidate countries and other Eastern European countries, as well as aid to many developing countries, through its Phare and Tacis programmes.
- The establishment of a single market European Energy Community by means of the Energy Community South East Europe Treaty.

Co-operation and harmonisation in other areas


- Freedom for citizens of the EU to vote in local government and European Parliament elections in any member state.
- Co-operation in criminal matters, including sharing of intelligence (through EUROPOL and the Schengen Information System), agreement on common definition of criminal offences and expedited extradition procedures.
- A common foreign policy as a future objective, however this has some way to go before being realised. The divisions between the member states (in the letter of eight) and then-future members (in the Vilnius letter) during the run up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq highlights just how far off this objective could be before it becomes a reality.
- A common security policy as an objective, including the creation of a 60,000-member European Rapid Reaction Force for peacekeeping purposes, an EU military staff and an EU satellite centre (for intelligence purposes).
- Common policy on asylum and immigration.
- Common funding of research and technological development, through four-year Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development. The Sixth Framework Programme is running from 2002 to 2006.

Economy

Sixth Framework Programme If considered a single unit, the European Union has the largest economy in the world with a 2004 GDP of 11,723,816 PPPs. The EU economy is expected to grow further over the next decade as more countries join the union - especially considering that the new States are usually poorer than the EU average, and hence the expected fast GDP growth will help achieve the dynamic of the united Europe. However, It is estimated that the Eurozone will only grow around 0.3 per cent (Q2 2005) [http://www.eubusiness.com/Finance/050831114912.e6x23dfu 1], while other industrialised nations such as the United States is estimated to grow three times as much at around 3.2%(Q2 2005).The European Council published on 17 November 2005 that the economy of the European Union will grow approximately 1.5% in 2005. The eurozone however, will grow 1.3% in 2005. The Council is hopeful that the European Union will grow further in 2006 and in 2007 (2.1% 2006 2.4% 2007). Germany, the most important country for the EU will grow about: 0.8% 2005, 1.2% 2006 and 1.6% 2007. After a extremely slow growth, it seems that the EU will grow again the next couple of years. [http://www.neatideas.com/gdp.htm 2]

Standard of living

Below is a table and three graphs showing, respectively, the GDP (PPP), the GDP (PPP) per capita and the GDP (nominal) per capita for the European Union and for each of its 25 member states. This can be used as a rough gauge to the relative standards of living among member states. The two future members Bulgaria and Romania (set for 1 January, 2007) are also included in the table. The data set is for the year 2005 and graphs are for the year 2004. All 2005 data are projections. Source: CIA World Factbook [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ee.html]
All other figures, source: IMF web site ([http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2005/02/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2005&ED=2005&R1=1&R2=1&CS=3&SS=2&OS=C&DD=0&OUT=1&C=941-946-137-122-181-124-138-964-182-423-935-128-936-961-939-184-172-132-134-174-144-944-178-136-112&S=PPPWGT&CMP=0&x=80&y=8 2005 GDP PPP], [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2005/02/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2005&ED=2005&R1=1&R2=1&CS=3&SS=2&OS=C&DD=0&OUT=1&C=941-946-137-122-181-124-138-964-182-423-935-128-936-961-939-184-172-132-134-174-144-944-178-136-112&S=PPPPC&CMP=0&x=31&y=6 2005 per capita GDP PPP], [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2005/02/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2005&ED=2005&R1=1&R2=1&CS=3&SS=2&OS=C&DD=0&OUT=1&C=941-946-137-122-181-124-138-918-964-182-968-423-935-128-936-961-939-184-172-132-134-174-144-944-178-136-112&S=NGDPDPC&CMP=0&x=41&y=14 2005 per capita GDP, current prices]).

Comparison with other blocs/countries

During 2003. Cyan for largest value, green for smallest, among the blocs compared.
Source: CIA World Factbook 2004, IMF WEO Database
1 Member of NAFTA

See also

Lists


- :Category:European Union (hierarchical list of all EU articles)
- European Union Statistics
- Largest cities of the European Union by population
- List of European Union-related topics

Other


- Citizenship of the European Union
- Economy of Europe
- Economy of the European Union
- Pro-European and Euroscepticism
- Transatlantic relations
- United States of Europe
- Value-added tax
- Latin Monetary Union (1865-1927)
- Międzymorze
- European Union legislative procedure

Partial bibliography


- Europe Recast: A History of European Union by Desmond Dinan (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004) ISBN 0333987349
- The Great Deception: The Secret History of the European Union by Christopher Booker, Richard North (Continuum International Publishing Group - Academi, 2003) ISBN 0826471056
- Understanding the European Union 2nd ed by John McCormick (Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) ISBN 033394867X
- The Institutions of the European Union edited by John Peterson, Michael Shackleton (Oxford University Press, 2002) ISBN 0198700520
- The Government and Politics of the European Union by Neill Nugent (Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) ISBN 0333984617
- The European Union: A Very Short Introduction by John Pinder (Oxford, 2001) ISBN
- The United States of Europe: The New Superpower and the end of American Supremacy by T.R. Reid (Penguin Press, 2004) ISBN 1594200335
- This Blessed Plot: Britain and Europe from Churchill to Blair by Hugo Young (Macmillan, 1998) ISBN 0333579925
- The European Dream: How Europe's Vision of the Future Is Quietly Eclipsing the American Dream by Jeremy Rifkin (Jeremy P. Tarcher, 2004) ISBN 1585423459

External links and references

[http://www.europa.eu/ The European Union On-Line]

Official EU website, europa.eu, in the official languages. Some subpages:
- [http://www.europa.eu/comm/mediatheque/multimedia/select/maps_en.html European Commission - Maps of Europe]
- [http://www.europa.eu/comm/mediatheque/audio/index_en.html Press conferences and speech audio] (MP3 and RealAudio).
- [http://www.europa.eu/eur-lex/en/index.html EUR-LEX - EU law and proposed legislation]
- [http://www.europa.eu/en/record/green/gp9611/index.htm Green Paper on a numbering policy for telecommunications (+3 country call code proposal)]
- [http://www.europa.eu/comm/external_relations/china/intro/ EU Policy on China]

Other sites


-
- [http://www.democracyineurope.com Democracy in Europe]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/europe/2003/inside_europe/ BBC News: Inside Europe] guide to the changing face of the EU
- [http://www.cafebabel.com/ café babel] European current affaires online magazine, published in six languages
- [http://www.zei.de/zei_startseite_neu/startseite_e.htm Center for European Integration Studies] (ZEI) - Research Institute focusing on the EU
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ee.html CIA World Factbook entry]
- [http://www.dadalos-europe.org/ Dadalos, International UNESCO Education Server for Civic, Peace and Human Rights Education: Basic Course on the EU]
- [http://www.timbro.com/euvsusa/ EU versus USA] - Study comparing GDP and growth (available in PDF)
- [http://www.eurunion.org/ EU in the USA] - EU delegation to the US
- [http://eunews.euroesprit.org/ EU News] - European Union News
- [http://www.europeanlawmonitor.com/ European Law Monitor] - Monitors and tracks EU proposals
- [http://www.europeanvoice.com European Voice] - Independent Weekly Newspaper on EU Affairs
- [http://www.EUobserver.com/ EU Observer] - News website focusing on the EU
- [http://www.eufpc.org/ EUFPC European Foreign Policy Council] - Interdisciplinary Think-tank and Network
- [http://www.euractiv.com/ EurActiv.com] Independent media portal dedicated to EU affairs
- [http://www.euronews.net/ Euronews] - Multilingual public TV news channel run by ITN
- [http://www.guardian.co.uk/eu/ Guardian Unlimited Special Report: European Union] guide and ongoing news
- [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us552286/us554374/us526499/us526505/us531057/ LookSmart - European Union] directory category
- [http://www.mapsofworld.com/world-eumember-map.htm Mapsofworld.com] - World Map of European Union Countries
- [http://www.oecd.org/eu OECD's EU country page] and [http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/eu OECD's Economic Survey of the EU]
- [http://dmoz.org/Society/Government/Multilateral/Regional/European_Union/ Open Directory Project - European Union] directory category
- [http://europeansociety.tripod.com/ S.C. European Society - Oxford University (1950s)] World's oldest?
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Regions/Europe/Government/European_Union__EU_/ Yahoo - European Union] directory category

European Union history


- [http://www.eu-history.leidenuniv.nl/index.php3?m=10&c=52 The Messina Declaration 1955 final document of The Conference of Messina 1 to 3 June 1955 - birth of the European Union]
- [http://www.ena.lu European Navigator] - Thousands of multimedia documents on the history of Europe Category:European Union member states Category:International organizations Category:Federalism fiu-vro:Õuruupa Liit zh-min-nan:Europa Liân-bêng ko:유럽 연합 ms:Kesatuan Eropah ja:欧州連合 simple:European Union th:สหภาพยุโรป

5200 BC

(7th millennium BC – 6th millennium BC – 5th millennium BC – other millennia)

Events


- c. 5760 BC – The volcano Puy-de-Dôme erupts.
- c. 5600 BC – Beginning of the desertification of north Africa, which ultimately lead to the creation of the Sahara desert. It's possible this process pushed some natives into migrating to the region of the Nile in the east, thereby laying the groundwork for the rise of Egyptian civilization.
- c. 5600 BC – The Red Paint People become established in the region from present-day Labrador to New York state
- c. 5450 BC – Volcano Hekla eruption
- c. 5400 BC – Irrigation in Mesopotamia.
- c. 5200 BC – Beginning of human inhabitation and settlements in Malta.
- the Byzantine Greek Calendar dates creation to 1 September 5509 BC.

Environmental changes


- c. 5600 BC – According to the Black Sea deluge theory, the Black Sea floods with salt water. Some 3000 cubic miles (12,500 km³) of salt water is added, significantly expanding it and transforming it from a fresh-water landlocked lake into a salt water sea.
- 1 September 5509 BC – Day of creation of the world according to the Byzantine Empire, and the beginning of their calendar.

Inventions, discoveries, introductions


- Agriculture appears in the valley of the Nile
- Rice cultivated in Asia
- Wheel and plough invented
- Artifacts of stone were supplemented by those of metal, and the crafts of basketry, pottery, weaving (Africa)
- Dead were buried in a fetal position, surrounded by the burial offerings and artifacts, facing west (Africa)
- Decorated, black-topped clay pots and vases; bone and ivory combs, figurines, and tableware, are found in great numbers (Africa)
- Jewelry of all types and materials (Africa)
- Objects began to be made not only with a function, but also with an aesthetic value. (Africa)
- Organized, permanent settlements focused around agriculture. (Africa)

Cultural landmarks


- c. 5500 BC – pottery at Mehrgarh in South Asia
- 5100s BC – Temples founded in South Mesopotamia
- Mediterranean Old European cultures -4 ja:紀元前6千年紀

Pyramids of Giza

The Giza Necropolis (coordinates 29 58' 33.31" N 31 07' 49.56" E) stands on the Giza Plateau, on the outskirts of Cairo, Egypt. This complex of ancient monuments is located some eight km inland into the desert from the old town of Giza on the Nile, some 20 km southwest of Cairo city centre.

The site

This Ancient Egyptian necropolis consists of the Pyramid of Khufu (also known as the Great Pyramid and the Pyramid of Cheops), the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Kephren), and the relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinus), along with a number of smaller satellite edifices, known as "queens" pyramids, and the Great Sphinx. Associated with these royal monuments are the tombs of high officials and much later burials and monuments (from the New Kingdom onwards) associated with the reverence to those buried in the necropolis. New Kingdom pyramid, Khafra pyramid, Great (Khufu) pyramid.]] Of the three, only Khafre's pyramid retains part of its original polished limestone casing, towards its apex. Interestingly this pyramid appears larger than the adjacent Khufu pyramid by virtue of its more elevated location, and the steeper angle of inclination of its construction — it is, in fact, smaller in both height and volume. The most active phase of construction here was in the 25th century BC. The ancient remains of the Giza necropolis have attracted visitors and tourists since classical antiquity, when these Old Kingdom monuments were already over 2,000 years old. It was popularised in Hellenistic times when the Great Pyramid was listed by Antipater of Sidon as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Today it is the only one of the ancient Wonders still in existence. While, due largely to nineteenth-century images, the pyramids of Giza are generally thought of by foreigners as lying in a remote, desert location, they are located in what is now part of the most populated city in Africa. [http://www.delange.org/Giza_Pyramids_Sphinx/GC.jpg] Consequently, urban development reaches right up to the perimeter of the antiquities site, to the extent that in the 1990s a Pizza Hut and KFC restaurant opened across the road. [http://www.theagitator.com/archives/60-16-andec-01.jpg]

Components of the Necropolis

KFC
- Pyramid of Khufu ("Great Pyramid")
- Pyramid of Khafre
- Pyramid of Menkaure
- Great Sphinx
- Solar Barque

See also

Egyptian Pyramids

Further reading


- Lehner, Dr. Mark, "The Complete Pyramids," Thames & Hudson (1997). (ISBN 0-50-005084-8)
- Manley, Bill (Ed.), "The Seventy Great Mysteries of Ancient Egypt". Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0500051232
- "Mysteries of Egypt" National Geographic Society, 1999. ISBN 0792297520
- Rhys-Davies, John, "Riddles of the monument builders : Who built the Sphinx" Time-Life Video, 1995.
- Bauval, Robert, and Adrian Gilbert, "The Orion Mystery : Unlocking the Secrets of the Pyramids". 1994. ISBN 0517884542
- Morris, Margaret, "The Egyptian Pyramid Mystery Is Solved". ISBN 0972043403
- Childress, David Hatcher, "Technology of the Gods: The Incredible Sciences of the Ancients". Adventures Unlimited Pre, 2000. ISBN 0932813739
- Stephen_Goodfellow, "[http://goodfelloweb.com/giza The Vanishing Point]" 1979-2005

External link


- [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=29.976132,31.128795&spn=0.010965,0.015836&t=k&hl=en Giza Plateau] on GoogleMaps.
- [http://www.googleearthhacks.com/dlcat13p2/Individual-3D-Structures.htm 3D model of the pyramids] for use in [http://earth.google.com Google Earth] Category:Archaeological sites in Egypt Category:Pyramids

Phoenicia

Phoenicia was an ancient civilization in the north of ancient Canaan, with its heartland along the coastal plain of what is now Lebanon and Syria, between the Lebanon Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea. Phoenician civilization was an enterprising maritime trading culture that spread right across the Mediterranean during the first millennium BC. Though ancient boundaries of such city-centered cultures fluctuated, the city of Tyre seems to have been the southernmost. Sarepta between Sidon and Tyre, is the most thoroughly excavated city of the Phoenician homeland. Although the people of the region called themselves the Canaani or Kenaani, the name Phoenicia became common thanks to the Greeks who called them the Phoiniki - Φοινίκη (Phoiníkē; see also List of traditional Greek place names); the Greek word for Phoenician was synonymous with the colour purple/red or crimson, φοῖνιξ (phoinix), through its close association with the famous dye Tyrian purple (cf also Phoenix). The dye was used in ancient textile trade, and highly desired. The Phoenicians became known as the 'Purple People'. The Phoenicians, most likely a Semitic people, spoke the Phoenician language, later called Punic since the Roman word for purple was Puniceus. In addition to their many inscriptions, the Phoenicians, contrary to some reports, wrote many books that have not survived. Evangelical Preparation by Eusebius of Caesarea quotes extensively from Philo of Byblos and Sanchuniathon. Furthermore, the Phoenician Punic colonies of North Africa continued to be a source of knowledge about the Phoenicians. Saint Augustine (who spoke Punic, and calls it "our language") refers to their books as containing much wisdom.

Origins

Herodotus's account (written c. 440 BC) refers to a faint memory from 1000 years earlier, and so may be subject to question (History, I:1): :"According to the Persians best informed in history, the Phoenicians began to quarrel. This people, who had formerly reached the shores of the Erythraean Sea, having migrated to the Mediterranean from an unknown origin and settled in the parts which they now inhabit, began at once, they say, to adventure on long voyages, freighting their vessels with the wares of Egypt and Assyria..." But this is merely a legendary introduction to Herodotus' brief retelling of some mythic Hellene-Phoenician interactions: he follows directly with succinct accounts of the abduction of Io from Pylos, and the retaliatory abduction of Europa by the Cretans. "The Cretans say that it was not they who did this act, but, rather, Zeus, enamored of the fair Europa, who disguised himself as a bull, gained the maiden's affections, and thence carried her off to Crete, where she bore three sons by Zeus: Sarpedon, Rhadamanthys, and Minos, later king of all Crete." Few modern archaeologists would confuse this myth with history. In terms of archaeology, language, and religion, there is little to set the Phoenicians apart as markedly different from other local cultures of Canaan. However, they are unique in their remarkable seafaring achievements. Indeed, in the Amarna tablets of the 14th century BC they call themselves Kenaani or Kinaani (Canaanites); and even much later in the 6th century BC, Hecataeus writes that Phoenicia was formerly called χνα, a name Philo of Byblos later adopted into his mythology as his eponym for the Phoenicians: "Khna who was afterwards called Phoinix". To many archaeologists therefore, the Phoenicians are simply indistinguishable from the descendants of coastal-dwelling Canaanites, who over the centuries developed a particular seagoing culture and skills. But others believe equally firmly, like Herodotus, that the Phoenician culture must have been inspired from an external source. All manner of suggestions have been made: that the Phoenicians were sea-traders from the Land of Punt who co-opted the Canaanite population; or that they were connected with the Minoans; or the Sea Peoples or the Philistines further south; or on the other side of the fence, that they represent the activities of supposed coastal maritime Israelite tribes like Dan. While the Semitic language of the Phoenicians, and some evidence of invasion at the site of Byblos, suggest origins in the wave of Semitic migration that hit the Fertile Crescent between 2300 and 2100 BC, many scholars, including Sabatino Moscati believe that the Phoenicians evolved from a prior non-Semitic people of the area, suggesting a mixture between the two populations. Historian Gerhard Herm further asserts that, because the Phoenicians' legendary sailing abilities are not well attested before the invasions of the Sea Peoples around 1200 BC, that these Sea Peoples would have merged with the local population to produce the Phoenicians, who seemingly gained these abilities rather suddenly at that time. This idea is backed up by archaeological evidence that the Philistines, often thought of as related to the Sea Peoples, were culturally linked to Mycenaean Greeks, who were also known to be great sailors even in this period. And so the debate has persisted. Professional archaeologists have now been at work on the origins of the Phoenicians for generations, basing their analysis in the mainstream of excavated sites, the remains of material culture, contemporary texts set into contemporary contexts, and the even more slippery slopes of linguistics. Modern cultural agendas, both personal and national, have been brought to bear. But ultimately, the origins of the Phoenicians are still unknown: where they came from and just when (or if) they arrived, and under what circumstances, are all still energetically disputed. Some Lebanese, Syrians, Maltese, Tunisians, Algerians and a small percentage of Somalis, along with certain other island folk in the Mediterranean, still consider themselves descendants of Phoenicians.

The cultural and economic "empire"

Fernand Braudel remarked (in The Perspective of the World) that Phoenicia was an early example of a "world-economy" surrounded by empires. The high point of Phoenician culture and seapower is usually placed ca 1200 – 800 BC. Many of the most important Phoenician settlements had been established long before this: Byblos, Tyre, Sidon, Simyra, Aradus and Berytus all appear in the Amarna tablets; and indeed, the first appearance in archaeology of cultural elements clearly identifiable with the Phoenician zenith is sometimes dated as early as the third millennium BC. This league of independent city-state ports, with others on the islands and along other coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, was ideally suited for trade between the Levant area, rich in natural resources, and the rest of the ancient world. Suddenly, during the early Iron Age, in around 1200 BC, an unknown event occurred, historically associated with the appearance of the Sea Peoples. The powers that had previously dominated the area, notably the Egyptians and the Hittites, became weakened or destroyed; and in the resulting power vacuum a number of Phoenician cities established themselves as significant maritime powers. Authority seems to have stabilized because it derived from three power-bases: the king; the temple and its priests; and councils of elders. Byblos soon became the predominant centre from where they proceeded to dominate the Mediterranean and Erythraean (Red) Sea routes. However, Byblos was attacked by successive invaders, and by around 1000 BC Tyre and Sidon had taken its place. The collection of city-kingdoms constituting Phoenicia came to be characterized by outsiders and the Phoenicians themselves as Sidonia or Tyria, and Phoenicians and Canaanites alike came to be called Zidonians or Tyrians, as one Phoenician conquest came to prominence after another.

Phoenician Trade

In the centuries following 1200 BC, the Phoenicians formed the major naval and trading power of the region. Perhaps it was through these merchants that the Hebrew word kena'ani ('Canaanite') came to have the seconda