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Māori Culture

Māori culture

Māori culture is a distinctive part of New Zealand culture. It was primarily observed only in Māori society and social gatherings with significant Māori aspect, but with the growth of tourism and exposure of haka to international audiences on TV and at sporting competitions, Māori culture is increasingly seen as fundamental to New Zealand culture.

Activities

hakaThe most appropriate venue for any Māori cultural event is a marae, an enclosed area of land where a wharenui or meeting house (literally "big house") stands. A marae is the spiritual home of a person who is culturally Māori. Any place appropriate to an occasion can, however, be used. Generally the Māori language is spoken, though translations and explanations are provided when the primary participants are not Māori speakers. Significant Māori cultural events or activities include:
- The hui or meeting, usually on a marae. It begins with a pōwhiri or welcome. If a visitor is noteworthy, he or she may be welcomed with an aggressive challenge by a warrior armed with a taiaha (traditional fighting staff), who then offers a token of peace, such as a fern frond, to the visitor. Acceptance of the token in the face of such aggression is a demonstration of the courage and mana (charisma) of the visitor. The pōwhiri is highly structured, with speeches from both hosts and guests following a traditional format, their sequence dictated by the kawa (protocol) of that place, and followed by waiata, songs. Hui are held for business, for festivities or for rites of passage such as baptism, marriage and death.
- Tangihanga or funeral rites may take two or three days. The deceased lies in state, usually in an open coffin flanked by female relatives dressed in black, their heads possibly wreathed in kawakawa leaves, who take few and short breaks. During the day, visitors come, sometimes from great distances despite only a distant relationship, to address the deceased. They may speak frankly of his or her faults as well as virtues, but singing and joking are also appropriate. Free expression of grief by both men and women is encouraged. Traditional beliefs may be invoked, and the deceased told to return to the ancestral homeland, Hawaiki, by way of te rerenga wairua, the spirits' journey. The close kin or kiri mate ("dead skin") may not speak. On the last night, the pō whakamutunga (night of ending), the mourners hold a vigil and at sunrise the coffin is closed, before a church or marae funeral service and/or graveside interment ceremony, invariably Christian. It is traditional for mourners to wash their hands in water and sprinkle some on their heads before leaving a cemetery. After the burial rites are completed, a feast is traditionally served. Mourners are expected to provide koha or gifts towards the meal. After the burial, the home of the deceased and the place they died are ritually cleansed with karakia (prayers or incantations) and desanctified with food and drink, in a ceremony called takahi whare, trampling the house. That night, the pō whakangahau (night of entertainment) is a night of relaxation and rest. The widow or widower is not left alone for several nights following.
- During the following year, the kinfolk of a prominent deceased person will visit other marae, "bringing the death" (kawe mate) to them. They carry pictures of the person on to the marae.
- Unveilings of headstones (hura kōwhatu) are usually held about a year after a death, often on a public holiday to accommodate visitors who could not get to the tangihanga. The dead are remembered and more grief expressed.
- The haka - an action chant, often described as a "war dance", but more a chant with hand gestures and foot stamping, originally performed by warriors before a battle, proclaiming their strength and prowess and abusing the opposition. Now regularly performed by New Zealand representative Rugby and Rugby League teams before a game begins. There are many different haka though one, "Ka mate" by Te Rauparaha, is much more widely known than any other.
- Kapa haka (haka groups) often come together to practice and perform cultural items such as waiata or songs, especially action songs, and haka for entertainment. Poi dances may also form part of the repertoire. Traditional instruments sometime accompany the group, though the guitar is also commonly used. Many New Zealand schools now have a kapa haka as part of the Māori studies curriculum. Today, national kapa haka competitions are held where groups are judged to find the best performers; these draw large crowds. (The common expression "kapa haka group" is strictly speaking, a tautology.)
- Koha are gifts, often of food or traditional items, though money is most commonly used today. The essence of koha is that it is voluntary and comes from the heart, so to specify the amount is contrary to its spirit. Recepients rely on the donors' aroha (empathy), manaakitanga (cherishing) and wairua (spirit) to ensure that it is enough. Thanks for koha are accordingly warm.

Cultural Concepts

tautologyMāori have an number of cultural concepts that have been taken into the predominant New Zealand culture.
- whānau, extended family, includes any relative connected by whakapapa, genealogy. Traditionally, the whole whānau was responsible for raising the children, not just the parents. The concept has more to do with social relationship and friendship than genetics and bloodlines, and is similar to the clans of Scotland. The whānau is the smallest social unit, grouped into hapǖ, subtribe (comparable to Scottish septs), which are in turn grouped into iwi or tribe.
- Tapu, sometimes translated as sacred, holy or forbidden. Things or places that are tapu should not be interfered with. Examples are the dead, a person's head and the work of carving.
- Noa, the opposite of tapu. Examples are food and alcohol. Tapu and noa things must be kept separate. For that reason, it is culturally offensive to sit on a food table, put a hat on a food table, pass food over a person's head, sit on their pillow, or walk over their outstretched legs. (Male things are tapu and female are noa, a fact that brings traditional Māori culture into conflict with modern European views about sex roles. It would be very misleading, however to translate noa as "unclean" or "impure". Tapu and noa both have their roles, and things that have been made tapu must be made noa before they can be used in an ordinary way. People are made tapu by entering a meeting house, and the image over the door is often female to make them noa again.) A lengthy ceremony (kawa in its strict sense) is required to desanctify (whakanoa) a new carved house before it can be used.
- Meeting, with discussion and debate where all viewpoints are heard and considered before a decision is made.
- Apart from place names, many Māori words have also been taken up into New Zealand English language. The word whanau, family, means to give birth. "We are bound to our whanau, our family, by birth." The word hapu, extended family group, means to become pregnant. The hapu is made up of family groups bound together by marriage. The word for tribe, the word iwi, also means bones.

Dramatic representations

- The best known dramatic work that features the Māori culture is the acclaimed film, Whale Rider.
- The movie Once Were Warriors also gained international acclaim with its depiction of modern urban Māori and a potent message about domestic violence.
- The Bone People is a novel by New Zealand writer Keri Hulme. It won the Booker Prize for Fiction in 1985.

Māori

Māori is the name of the indigenous people of New Zealand, and their language. It is also the name of the people and language of the Cook Islands, referred to as Cook Islands Māori. The word māori means "normal" or "ordinary" in the Māori language and denotes mortal beings as distinct from the gods. "Māori" has similarities in some other Polynesian languages such as Hawaiian in which the cognate word maoli means native, indigenous, real or actual. Māori often refer to themselves as tāngata whenua (literally "people of the land") to emphasise their indigenous status.

Māori arrival in New Zealand

It is not precisely known when Māori arrived. Polynesian voyagers are believed to have migrated to what is now New Zealand from eastern Polynesia in the latter part of the 1st millennium. As their descendants adjusted their practices and culture to their new environment, they became the Māori. New Zealand was one of the last Pacific island groups reached by humans. Archaeological evidence suggests there were probably several waves of migration to New Zealand between 800 and 1300. Māori oral history describes their arrival from a place called Hawaiki by large ocean–going canoes (waka). Migration accounts vary among Māori tribes or iwi, whose members can identify with the different waka in their genealogies or whakapapa. According to Sir Peter Buck there were 10 Māori tribes resulting from the Main Fleet but this is not supported by all tribes. Ngapuhi, one of the northern tribes, say their ancestors' journey from Hawaiki was aided by the gods, in that the sun did not set for three days. A possible reason for this claim is that their voyage coincided with the appearance in the sky of the Crab Nebula supernova which for several days was bright enough to be seen in daylight. Contemporary Chinese and Arab astronomers also recorded this event and dated it equivalent to July 1054. There is no credible evidence of human settlement in New Zealand prior to the Māori voyagers. A fringe element claims there was extensive pre–Māori settlement, especially Martin Doutré in his book Ancient Celtic New Zealand, but such claims are universally dismissed as unsubstantiated by mainstream historians and archaeologists.

Possible origins

Recent maternal mitochondrial DNA analysis suggests that Polynesians, including Māori, are genetically linked to indigenous peoples of parts of Southeast Asia including those of Taiwan and the Andaman Islands. Current theory suggests that peoples from these areas made their way into the Pacific over many centuries, passing through Melanesia and moving eastwards, colonizing previously-unsettled islands as far east as what is now French Polynesia, Hawai'i and Rapa Nui (Easter Island). Polynesian seafarers achieved Pacific settlement by making very long canoe voyages, in some cases against the prevailing winds and tides, and their navigation skills were very well developed. There are suggestions that Polynesian voyagers reached the South American mainland and made contact with indigenous South Americans. The sweet potato, known to Māori as "kumara" and introduced to New Zealand by them, is widely grown around the Pacific but originated in the Andes. There is no evidence that Pacific peoples actually settled on the South American mainland or that South American peoples voyaged into the Pacific.

European arrival

European colonisation of New Zealand occurred relatively recently, causing the late New Zealand historian Michael King to state in his book, The Penguin History Of New Zealand, that Māori were "the last major human community on earth untouched and unaffected by the wider world." The early European explorers, including Abel Tasman and James Cook, reported encounters with Māori. These early reports described the Māori as a fierce and proud warrior race. Inter-tribal warfare was a way of life, with the conquered being enslaved or in some cases eaten. From as early as the 1780s Māori had encounters with European sealers and whalers; some even crewed on their ships. There was also a continuous trickle of escaped convicts from Australia and deserters from visiting ships. By 1830 it was estimated that there were as many as 2,000 Pakeha living among the Māori, status varying from slaves through to high ranking advisors, from prisoners to those who abandoned European culture and identified themselves as Māori. Pakeha were valued for their ability to describe European skills and culture and their ability to obtain European items in trade, particularly weaponry. These Europeans were known as Pakeha Māori. When Pomare led a war party against Titore in 1838, among his warriors were 132 Pakeha mercenaries. Frederick Edward Maning, an early settler, wrote two colourful contemporaneous accounts of life at that time which have become classics of New Zealand literature: Old New Zealand and History of the War in the North of New Zealand against the Chief Heke. Governor George Grey learned the language and recorded much of the mythology.

Musket wars

During this period the acquisition of muskets by those tribes in close contact with European visitors destabilised the existing balance of power between Māori tribes, and there was a period of bloody inter-tribal warfare, known as the Musket Wars, during which several tribes were effectively exterminated and others were driven from their traditional territory. European diseases also killed a large but unknown number of Māori during this period. Estimates vary between ten and fifty percent.

Annexation

With increasing European missionary activity and settlement in the 1830s as well as perceived European lawlessness, the British Crown, as a predominant world power, came under pressure to intervene. Ultimately this led to William Hobson being dispatched with instructions to take possession of New Zealand. Before he arrived, Queen Victoria annexed new Zealand by royal proclamation in January 1840. On arrival in February, Hobson negotiated the Treaty of Waitangi with the surrounding northern chiefs. This treaty was subsequently signed by many other Māori chiefs, though by no means all. The treaty made the Māori British subjects in return for a guarantee of property rights and tribal autonomy.

Disputes and decline

In the 1860s, disputes over questionable land purchases and the attempts of Māori in the Waikato to establish a rival British-style system of royalty led to the New Zealand wars. Although these resulted in relatively few deaths, large tracts of tribal land were confiscated by the colonial government. Settlements such as Parihaka in Taranaki are remembered as sites of violent conflict that took place there during that period. With the loss of much of their land, Māori went into a period of decline, and in the late 19th century it was believed that the Māori population would cease to exist as a separate race and be assimilated into the European population.

Revival

The predicted decline did not occur, and population levels recovered. Despite a high degree of intermingling between the Māori and European populations (virtually all Māori are of mixed racial heritage today), Māori were able to retain their cultural identity and in the 1960s and 1970s, Māoridom underwent a cultural revival. No Māori live a traditional pre-European contact lifestyle today. Some commentators express frustration with the "theme-parkisation" of Māori identity with tourist-driven performances and gift shop "art". Others seek to develop a New Zealand identity that incorporates strands of Māori identity. Sympathetic governments and political activism have led to compensation for certain historic instances of unjust confiscation of land and the violation of other property rights. A special court, the Waitangi Tribunal, was established to investigate and make recommendations on such issues. As a result of the compensation paid, Māori now have significant interests in the fishing and forestry industries. Māori language ceased to be used as a living community language (by significant numbers of people) in the post-war years. Generous state funding is assisting with the revival attempt. Māori culture and language is taught in most New Zealand schools, and pre-school kohanga reo or language nests, teach tamariki or young children exclusively in Māori. Māori Television, a government-funded TV station committed to broadcasting primarily in te reo, began broadcasting on March 28, 2004. Māori language has the equivalent status to English in government and law. Māori politicians have seven designated Māori seats in the New Zealand parliament (and may stand in the General seats), and consideration and consultation with Māori are routine requirements for many New Zealand councils and government organisations. Despite significant social and economic advances during the 20th century, Māori still perform negatively in most health and education statistics, labour participation as well as being over-represented in criminal and corrections statistics. In 2001 a dispute arose between Danish toymaker LEGO and several Māori tribal groups fronted by lawyer Maui Solomon, and also several members of an online discussion forum Aotearoa Cafe, over the popular LEGO toy line Bionicle. The product line used many words that were an appropriation of Māori language, imagery and folklore. The dispute was settled amicably. Initially LEGO refused to withdraw the game, saying the names it used were drawn from many cultures, but later agreed that it had taken the names from Māori and agreed to change certain names or spellings to help set the toy line apart from the Māori legends. This, however, did not prevent the many Bionicle users from continuing to use the disputed words, resulting in the popular Bionicle website BZPower coming under a denial-of-service attack for four days by an attacker using the name Kotiate [http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,56451,00.html?tw=wn_story_related]. Several artistic collectives have been established by Māori tribal groups. These collectives have begun creating and exporting jewellery (such as bone carved hei matau pendants and greenstone jewellery) and other artistic items (such as wood carvings and textiles). Several actors who have recently appeared in high-profile movies filmed in New Zealand have come back wearing such jewellery, the most notable of which is Viggo Mortensen of The Lord of the Rings fame, who is now never without a Hei Matau hanging around his neck. These events have contributed towards a worldwide interest in traditional Māori culture and arts.

Culture

Maori were originally hunters, but later they became farmers and started the life in agriculture. The main tasks were separarted for men and women, but there were also a lot of group activities like food gathering & food cultivation, warfare. Art was and is one of the main parts of the culture like tatooing or carving of wood. Communal buildings were highly decorated with wood carvings and also the people wore highly decorative personnal ornaments and amulettes. The history was not recorded in written words. To kept the history they had long and very specific songs and chants, that’s why music and poetry was so important.

Religion

Tiki

The Lord of the Rings Maori believe in gods and personifications. The supreme god is Io, the god of the land. The religion is closely related to the nature and to the ancestors, similar to the indians. All things have a type of soul. The Maori believe all living things are descended from the Gods, embodied within certain mountains, rivers and lakes. Most things contain "mana" - spiritual essence. Mana is within man himself, land, nature, and also man-made objects. Tiki was the name given to the first man on earth in the Maori mythology. The term "Tiki" comes out of a Maori legend, when Tane the God of earth, man, birds created the first man. Tiki in Maori personifies the primeval man and it is a powerful good luck symbol. The tilted head symbolises thinking, the hand is strength, the mouth is communication, the heart is love and the loins are fertility.

Tapu

Tapu is the strongest force in Maori life. It can be interpreted as "sacred", as "spiritual restriction" or "implied prohibition" and has numerous meanings and references. Tapu contains a strong conditions of rules and prohibitions. There are two kinds of tabu, the private (concerned individuals) and the public tapu (concerned communities). A person, an object or a place, which is tapu, may not be touched by human contact. In some cases, not even approached. A person, object or a place could be made sacred by tapu for a certain time, and the two main types of tapu were private for individuals and public for communities. In earlier times, tribal members of a higher rank would not touch objects which belonged to members of a lower rank. This was considered "pollution" and persons of a lower rank could not touch the belongings of a highborn person. Death was the penalty. A breach of "tapu" was to commit a violation and it could incur the wrath of the Gods. In earlier times food cooked for a chief was tapu, and could not be eaten by an inferior. A chief's house was tapu, and even the chief could not eat food in the interior of his house. A woman could not enter a chief's house unless a special religious ceremony was performed (the karakia). Not only their houses were tapu, also their possessions, including their clothing. Burying grounds and places of death were always tapu, and these areas were often surrounded by a protective fence. Today, tapu observances are still in use concerning sickness, death, and burial.

Marae

karakia The marae is a local ceremonial centre, dedicated to the meetings of Maori people and there they practice the traditional rituals. It is a place where members share their beliefs and it is the place of the greatest spirituality. The marae symbolises group unity. It is the base of traditional Maori community life In the Marae official functions take place in, like: celebrations, weddings, christenings, tribal reunions, funerals. The older people have the authority and in the marae they give the traditiions to the young people like the legends, the songs or the way of weeving or carving. Locals and visitors have to respect certain rules.

Rituals

Hangi

The simple describtion of hangi is a traditional way of cooking food among people in Polynesia. The hangi consists of a shallow hole dug in the ground. A fire is prepared in the hole and stones are placed on the top of it. When the stones are hot the hangi is prepared for cooking by leaving the hot stones and some of the coals at the bottom of the hole. The food is placed on top of the stones, the meat first, with the vegetables, such as kumara and potatoes, on top of it. The hangi is then covered with leaves or mats woven out of flax and left to cook. Soil is usually heaped over the mat to keep the heat in.” Apart from this everyday use, hangi has it’s own spiritual place in the Maori rituals. For example hangi has its own place in a ritual for opening a new house, or at harvest time. For these rituals, kumara were cooked in the hangi because it is believed that cooked food has the power to disperse tapu. Through the process of cooking in the hangi the essence of the food ascends to the gods.

Haka

harvest Haka is a dance or a performance and there were quite a number of different types of haka performed, depending on the occasion. There were hakas of song and joy, and warlike hakas. There were two types of war haka - one is performed without weapons, usually to express public or private feelings, known as the "haka taparahi", and the war haka with weapons, the "peruperu". The "peruperu" was traditionally performed before going into a battle. It was to invoke the god of war and warned the enemy of the fate awaiting him. It involved fierce facial expressions and grimaces, poking out of the tongue, eye bulging, grunts and cries, and the waving of war weapons. If the haka was not performed in total unity, this could be taken as an bad omen for the battle. The warriors went very often naked into the battle, apart from a plaited flax belt around the waist. The aim of the battle was to kill all the members of the enemy war party, so that no survivors would remain with the risk revenge.

Ta Moko

enemy Initially tattooing came from Eastern Polynesian culture to New Zealand. The head was considered the most sacred part of the body. That’s why are the tattoos mainly facial. All high-ranking Maori were tattooed, and those who went without tattoos were seen as persons of no social status. In their culture they get the tattoos during the puberty, accompanied by many rites and rituals. One reason is to make a warrior attractive to women. It is a important event in a person's life. Tattoo instrument was a bone chisel or an extremely sharp edge. The first stage of the tattoo started with the graving of deep cuts into the skin. Next, the chisel was dipped into a sooty type pigment such as burnt Kauri gum or burnt vegetable caterpillars and then smeared into the skin. It was an extremely painful and long process, and often leaves from the native Karaka tree were placed over the swollen tattoo cuts to hasten the healing process. The women were not as extensively tattooed as the men. Their upper lips were outlined, usually in dark blue. The chin moko was always the most popular, and continues to be practiced.

External links

- [http://www.culture.co.nz/ culture.co.nz] — Important Māori websites on the net.
- [http://www.maori.org.nz/ maori.org.nz] — The largest Māori site on the net, covering a wide range of topics.
- [http://www.korero.maori.nz/ korero.maori.nz] Interactive Māori language resource site
- [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/tino-rangatiratanga Māori Sovereignty Yahoogroup] — Active online discussion group; membership required
- [http://www.aocafe.com/ Aotearoa Cafe] — Discussion forum about Māori history, politics and art.
- [http://www.amio.maori.nz/ Aotearoa Māori Internet Organisation] — Online discussion board.
- [http://www.maorinews.com/karere/ Māori related news headlines] — From the Te Kareere Ipurangi news portal.
- [http://www.tamoko.org.nz Ta Moko] — Website about the famous 'Moko', unique Māori body art.
- [http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~dominic/intro.html Māori theology] — by the late Michael Shirres.
- [http://www.teara.govt.nz Te Ara Encylopedia of New Zealand] — Government-funded encyclopedia. Category:Indigenous peoples of Oceania Category:Indigenous peoples of Polynesia ja:マオリ

Culture of New Zealand

The culture of New Zealand is a fusion of Maori culture and that of the descendants of the early British colonists and later settlers, many of whom were of working class origin.

Introduction

While British culture predominates within the country, Maori culture is increasingly being identified with New Zealand, due to haka displays by New Zealand sporting teams, and to tens of thousands of visitors who each year experience and film or photograph Maori culture events held at places such as Rotorua. British and Irish culture in New Zealand has been significantly influenced by Maori and other Polynesians. Scottish influences are strong, mainly in the southernmost parts of the South Island. In general, early immigrants from other parts of Europe and Asia, and World War II refugees (particularly the Dutch) were readily assimilated. Small enclaves of these early immigrant cultures remain as islands in a sea of British colonial culture. Unlike Australia, New Zealand has not experienced sizeable immigration from Mediterranean countries in Southern Europe, but in recent years there has been a considerable influx of migrants from Asia, which now makes up a significant proportion of the population, particularly in Auckland. New Zealand has by some measures the highest proportion of the population born in a foreign country, at approximately 25%, higher than comparable nations like USA, Brazil, Australia, South Africa and Canada After the Second World War, significant immigration from the Pacific Islands began, so much so that there are now more nationals from some Pacific island nations living in New Zealand than on their home islands. The wide variety of Pacific Island cultures has combined in New Zealand, mostly in South Auckland, to form a distinctive subculture that is separate from the Maori culture. For a variety of reasons many Maori and Pacific people have been socially disadvantaged, forming an underclass in some areas. Cultural considerations for both Maori and Pacific people now have a significant influence on educational, medical and social organisations, particularly in areas with high concentrations of these population groups. Immigration policy in New Zealand has often been controversial, with some politicians claiming that the pace of immigration has been too rapid for New Zealand to absorb, and that recent immigrants are having trouble adapting to the New Zealand society. This position is seen by others as a cynical appeal to xenophobic sentiment in order to gain votes near election time, and these views are not widely supported by the general population.

Is there a separate New Zealand culture?

Many people have claimed that non-Maori New Zealanders have no culture separate from their ancestors' country of origin. Some have taken this argument further, claiming that New Zealand has no culture at all. This has led to protests from those who believe that there is a uniquely definable New Zealand culture developed from a mix of Maori and immigrant contributions. Others argue that belief in the 'absence' of culture in NZ is a symptom of white privilege, allowing members of a dominant group to see their culture as the 'default', rather than as a specific position of relative advantage. As with most modern western societies, New Zealand struggles to reconcile its high culture and its popular culture. But in contrast to many societies, the egalitarian nature of New Zealand means that the Pop Culture of the country is often afforded the greater value. This is observable in the common belief that kiwiana, a category of kitsch 1950's-style artifacts, is the defining cultural touchstone. Perhaps one of the more memorable protests at the high culture vs. popular culture divide was the 1980 song "Culture" by The Knobz after outspoken Prime Minister Sir Robert Muldoon stated that New Zealand pop music was not part of the New Zealand cultural scene.

The three "R's"

The three "R's" of New Zealand culture are Rugby, Racing and beeR. This cultural image probably has its origins in colonial agricultural New Zealand, when hard farm work such as harvesting, shearing and droving took place in hot summer conditions. The large number of soldiers who left New Zealand to fight in the First and Second World Wars and their subsequent socialising have contributed to this image. Commander of 2nd New Zealand Division, General Bernard Freyberg, famously stated that all his troops wanted for happiness was the three Fs - Feeding, Fighting and procreation. Although less obvious today, in the past team sports, particularly Rugby union, gambling on horse races, and sharing a beer after a hard day's work with some good friends or work mates have been significant images of New Zealand life. This predominantly working-class male cultural image has previously been so strong that it has overshadowed other, perhaps higher, cultural aspects of New Zealand society. Sporting and outdoor activities still play a significant part in the recreation of New Zealanders. Participation in a sport, rather than mere spectating, is considered a worthy pursuit. Team sports and sporting abilities are generally held in high regard, with top-performing players often becoming celebrities. However, New Zealanders can often be scathing when national sports teams and athletes lose. Anecdotal evidence suggests that domestic violence may increase when a NZ team has suffered a loss.

Kiwi

The word

Kiwi (usually capitalised) has been applied to and adopted by New Zealanders as a nickname for themselves and as an adjective for their culture. It originates from kiwi (usually uncapitalised), the Maori word for several species of a flightless bird endemic to New Zealand. The plural form for New Zealanders is always Kiwis. The plural forms for the birds are the anglicised kiwis or, following the Maori language, kiwi without an s. Kiwi (bird) logos are often associated with New Zealand military forces and New Zealand goods. The association probably originated during WWI when the ANZACS of Australia and New Zealand introduced Kiwi shoe polish to the allied trenches. It was widely used by British and American armies during that war. The New Zealand dollar is often called the Kiwi dollar (or just the Kiwi) and the bird's image appears on both the 20 cent and one dollar coins. Non-New Zealanders sometimes use the word Kiwi to refer to the kiwifruit, also known as the Chinese Gooseberry. This is not generally understood by New Zealanders, who use the full term to refer to the fruit.

Kiwiana

Items and icons from New Zealand's cultural heritage are often called Kiwiana. The word "Kiwiana" originated in 1956. It was registered as a trademark in 1980, but the originator did not complete the registration which left the name to become available for general use in New Zealand. Well-known kiwiana include:
- All Blacks — national Rugby Union team
- Black singlet — worn by many farmers, shearers as well as representative athletes
- Buzzy Bee — child's toy
- Chocolate fish — pretty self evident, really.
- Clayton's — originally a non alcoholic spirit, advertised as The drink you have when you're not having a drink, that did not gain market acceptance; now refers to any form of inferior substitute. This term is primarily used among those generations old enough to remember the original drink.
- Gumboots, calf length rubber boots, (designed to be puddle and cow-pat proof, not for fetishists).
- Kiwi — native bird; its stylised image or shape frequently appears on things associated with New Zealand
- Kiwifruit — fruit from a vine originating in China but selectively bred by New Zealand horticulturalists to obtain egg-sized fruit with green or gold flesh
- L&P — Lemon & Paeroa, a popular soft drink
- Paua — the polished shell of the native paua (abalone) shellfish, turned into jewellery, souvenirs, just about anything. Once considered kitsch, it is starting to regain its popularity
- Silver fern — native plant; its stylised image or shape is displayed by many of the national sports teams
- Tiki — Maori icon, often worn as a necklace pendant. Tourist vaierty in green plastic, (often stamped "Air New Zealand"), are the definitively tasteless deapths of kiwiana kitsch.
- Footrot Flats — popular cartoon strip by Murray Ball
- Jandals — beach footwear with a bit of sole but very little else. There are Kiwiana sections in many New Zealand museums, and some are dedicated to showing Kiwiana only.

Attitudes

The remoteness of many parts of New Zealand and the distance of the country from much of the developed world meant that things that were easily obtainable in other parts of the world were often not readily available locally. New Zealand has only recently experienced economic development outside farming, so traditionally, Kiwis are jacks-of-all-trades to some extent, willing to roll up their sleeves and have a go. Most highly industrialised countries produce experts trained in narrow fields of specialisation, but New Zealand professionals are often generalists as well. This reputation often makes New Zealanders uniquely valued employees in overseas organisations. This has given rise to the attitudes "She'll be right, mate" as well as "Kiwi ingenuity".

She'll be right, mate

This is an attitude that the situation, repairs, or whatever has been done is adequate or sufficient for what is needed. This is often perceived as carelessness, especially when a failure occurs.

Kiwi ingenuity

[http://www.techhistory.co.nz/Articles/No8Wire%20Review.html Kiwi ingenuity] is a "can-do" attitude that any problem or situation can be solved, despite apparently insurmountable odds, and the meagrest of resources. While this attitude occasionally leads to spectacular failure if inadequately prepared, it has also helped motivate many world-first innovations. Examples of these include Richard Pearse's aircraft flights, some nine months earlier than the Wright brothers (but unfortunately rather uncontrolled), the invention of aerial topdressing, Bill Hamilton's jetboat propulsion, the Rotary Cow Shed, John Britten's V-1000 [http://tpo.tepapa.govt.nz/ViewTopicExhibitDetail.asp?ExhibitID=0x000a3aff&ExhibitionID=0x000a39ba&Language=English&dumbyparam=search Superbike], Bob Semple's "Tank" and the Taranaki gate. This attitude is a matter of pride and national identity, summed up in the saying "If anybody can a Kiwi can". Another closely related expression is the "No. 8 wire" attitude, meaning that anything can be fixed with the most make-shift and basic materials. Australians and Americans have similar expressions involving coat hangers and duct tape.

Conformism

While New Zealand, like Australia, prides itself as being more egalitarian than Britain, there is a degree of inverse snobbery known as the 'Tall Poppy Syndrome', in which people who are seen as (over) ambitious and having ideas above their station are cut down to size. This is also known as the 'Great Kiwi Clobbering Machine', and has prompted many of the country's best and brightest to emigrate. Kiwis typically undersell their achievements and abilities — not many would label themselves an 'expert', even when others might use this title for them. This and their typically laid-back attitude contrast with those of Americans, who appear as brash and overbearing. A lack of diversity and intelligent analysis in local media leads to some New Zealanders feeling alienated and under-represented. This has led to a strong sub-culture of satire, sarcasm and withdrawal from the mainstream. Although this sub-culture is not peculiar to youth, until recently New Zealand had the highest youth suicide rate in the OECD. (It is sometimes suggested that this may be due the seasonal affective disorder blamed for similarly high rates in Scandinavia. This is based on the common perception that New Zealand is very southern, whereas in fact the whole country is closer to the equator that any part of England or Holland).[http://i6.photobucket.com/albums/y228/debnjohn/NZandEurope.jpg]

Anti-intellectualism

New Zealanders are practical people and generally dislike intellectual pretension. Academics are not considered highly valued in New Zealand culture with a preference for people who get their hands dirty and muck in. An insult directed to people who are too theorectial is "intellectual wanker."

Attribution

Because New Zealanders often have to relocate to achieve worldwide fame and fortune, New Zealanders are keen to claim famous people as being New Zealanders, however short their residency in New Zealand might have been. While being born in New Zealand is an absolute qualification for being identified as a New Zealander, attendance at a New Zealand school, or having been resident in New Zealand also qualifies, irrespective of national origin. This sometimes leads to famous people and innovations being identified as coming from both New Zealand and another country — such as the pop groups Crowded House and Split Enz, the Pavlova dessert, the race horse Phar Lap and the actors Sam Neill and Russell Crowe, all of whom have been claimed both by Aussies and by Kiwis as theirs. However, New Zealanders are generally quick to disown controversial or unpopular figures such as Sir Joh Bjelke-Petersen. Because New Zealand loses much of its talent to other countries, anything from 'Overseas' is seen as holding more cultural capital than the local equivalent, regardless of its quality. This means that New Zealanders are often lured to the performances of "international acts" not realising they are considered third-rate also-rans at home. This is exacerbated by New Zealand's isolation and small population causing it to be skipped by the international tours of all but the most commercially successful musicians and performers. The flipside to this phenomenon is that famous people from overseas can claim to an affinity with New Zealand with relatively little resistance from the locals. Particularly as New Zealanders are flattered by the attention of what they regard as international acts. The quick way to the heart of the New Zealand audience is to visit repeatedly within a short space of time. This technique has been used to good effect by semi-popular musicians such as Michael Franti, Ben Harper and Jack Johnson.

Social conservatism

While New Zealand has pioneered social reforms, including votes for women, the welfare state, and respecting indigenous culture, its society can also be conservative in outlook. Until the late 1960s pubs would close at 6pm, (a restriction introduced in World War 1), while until 1980 shops were closed all weekend. Both restrictions were considered attempts to preserve family life, but as the country became more urbanised and people's leisure activities more consumer-oriented, people found the restrictions stifling. Criticism centred on the observation that other countries had more liberal opening hours, and overseas tourists were uncatered for on weekends. In 1986, all restrictions on shopping hours were repealed, but it wasn't until 1999 that alcohol could be sold to the general public on Sundays. The current government has pursued a programme of liberal legislation. In their current term of office, prostitution was decriminalised, the legal drinking age was lowered from 20 to 18, and in December 2004 civil union laws were passed, and then fully implemented on 26 April 2005. The reforms give legal recognition to lesbian and gay relationships, as well as providing heterosexual couples with an alternative to formal marriage. New Zealand also has one of the world's most liberal attitudes to the migration of gay couples.

Macho culture

New Zealand's history has been dominated by physical labour, and even where New Zealanders have excelled intellectually, there is often strong mechanical or physical component to their pursuits (e.g. engineering or rocket science.) This has led to a 'strong, silent' culture which involves less discussion than just 'getting in and doing it.' Such attitudes have spilled into most aspects of New Zealand culture, with theoretical or spiritual pursuits taking up less of the nation's energy than driving cars and playing rugby. While New Zealand men often take pride in being 'strong, silent types', this attitude may have a downside in contributing to New Zealand having one of the highest suicide rates among young males in the industrialised world. It could also be an example of semiotic mythology and thus exaggerated out of proportion.

Regionalism and parochialism

While small in comparison to Australia or the US, there are regional differences in New Zealand, either between the North Island and South Island, or increasingly, between Auckland and the rest of the country. Auckland is the largest city, and dominates New Zealand economically. The New Zealand Herald, despite its name, is the daily newspaper of Auckland and the surrounding region, not the national newspaper. Aucklanders (sometimes known as Jafas — Just Another F
- ing Aucklander) dismiss anywhere 'south of the Bombay Hills', as backward, in much the same way as Londoners dismiss anywhere 'North of Watford', while people from the rest of New Zealand regard Aucklanders as self-centred, brash and crass, sharing many of the characteristics of Sydneysiders in Australia (Auckland, with its harbours, has been described as a 'Clayton's [i.e. ersatz] Sydney'). The popular saying "New Zealand stops at the Bombay Hills" is thus used equally no matter which side of the hills the speaker happens to live on or be referring to. The most identifiable form of provincial rivalry is rugby's National Provincial Championship (NPC), where the chief provincial rivalries are that of Otago and Cantebury, and Auckland and Wellington.

Anti-government attitudes

Following the experiences of the 1980s (1981 Springbok tour, Rogernomics) and 1990s (Ruthanasia, "User-pays") there is a profound distrust of politicians in New Zealand. A national survey of 'most trusted occupations' ranked politicians the least trustworthy, and New Zealanders do tend to monitor the credibility and performance of their elected officials, usually with a focus on what they do wrong rather than making sure they do well. Despite New Zealanders' lack of trust in politicians New Zealand is rated the second least corrupt nation in the world [http://www.transparency.org/pressreleases_archive/2004/2004.10.20.cpi.en.html (Transparency International, 2004)] . Public distrust of politicians also manifested itself clearly in two recent referenda, on 'Proportional Representation' and on 'Extending the Parliamentary Term'. In both cases the general public seemed to establish in their minds what the politicians wanted and then voted almost 90 per cent against it. The national media and blogosphere often presents harsh criticism of elected figures.

Apathy

In contrast to the above, many people are apathetic about local government issues, with turnout as low as 10% for local body election in 2004. Turnout for non-compulsory Central Government elections is normally above 80%.

"Fair go"

The attitude of "everybody deserves a fair go" seems to originate from the anti-class bias of 19th Century immigrants from the United Kingdom. This egalitarian ethic is the motivation behind much of the social liberalism and welfare legislation mentioned above.

Iconic characters

See also List of New Zealanders
- Sir Robert Muldoon, nicknamed 'Piggy', authoritarian Prime Minister of New Zealand (1975-1984) who was either loved or loathed. His supporters were known as Rob's Mob.
- Fred Dagg, a satirical character on Television New Zealand in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Created and portrayed by commedian John Clarke, who later created The Games for Australian television.
- Sam Hunt, poet, who presented his work in pubs rather than theatres.
- Barry Crump, humorous writer about New Zealand society, particularly the good keen man. Portrayed the stereotypical man from the land in several books and TV commercials.
- The Wizard, eccentric British-born figure described as "a living work of art"
- Sir Edmund Hillary, beekeeper, mountaineer, explorer, aid worker, and ambassador. His face appears on the $5 note.
- Kate Sheppard, women's suffrage campaigner. Her face appears on the $10 note.
- Sir Apirana Ngata, Maori politician and historian. His face appears on the $50 note.
- Lord Rutherford, physicist and Nobel Prize winner for chemistry, who "split the atom". His face appears on the $100 note.
- Billy T. James a successful Maori comedian.
- Sir Howard Morrison, a perennial singer.
- Dame Kiri Te Kanawa, opera singer.
- Sir Peter Blake, who won the America's Cup for New Zealand.
- Any All Black, past or present.
- Suzy Cato, children's entertainer

Arts

Due to the small population base and a lack of arts funding sources, many artists have struggled to sustain themselves economically, even though they may achieve popular success. For this reason many of New Zealand's best artists go overseas to further their careers, especially to Australia, but also to Europe or America. Arts funding is provided through a specific arts based government department, Creative New Zealand. New Zealand, like many countries, imports much of its cultural material from overseas, particularly from Britain and the United States. Most successful Hollywood films screen on New Zealand cinema screens and many British and American television programmes are shown on New Zealand Television. It is somewhat ironic that some of these programmes are now made in New Zealand but reflect an overseas culture. The film industry is becoming one of the country's major export enterprises, with several major motion pictures being filmed on New Zealand locations recently, including the highly acclaimed film adaptation of Tolkien's "The Lord of the Rings" directed by the Kiwi Peter Jackson. There are museums in many towns and cities that preserve the country's heritage. The country's national museum is Te Papa ('Our Place'), in Wellington. The New Zealand Historic Places Trust and the Ministry of Culture and Heritage are national bodies that assist with such heritage preservation.

Godzone

God's Own Country, or Godzone, is generally accepted, by New Zealanders as an alternative name for New Zealand. God's Own Country was the title of a poem about New Zealand written by Thomas Bracken about 1890. (He also wrote God Defend New Zealand, which became the country's second national anthem). It was a favourite saying of Richard John Seddon, Premier of New Zealand for 13 years (1893-1906).

External links

- [http://www.techhistory.co.nz/Articles/No8Wire%20Review.html Kiwi Ingenuity] Category:Culture of Oceania

Māori language

Māori (or Maori) is the Polynesian language spoken in New Zealand. It is closely related to Rarotongan (sometimes known as Cook Islands Māori), Tahitian (or Mā'ohi), and Hawaiian.

History

Māori was brought to New Zealand by Polynesians coming most likely from the area of the Cook Islands, who likely arrived in sea-faring canoes which were double-hulled and probably sail-rigged. In the last 200 years the Māori language has had a very tumultuous history, going from the position of predominant language of New Zealand until into the 1860s, when it became a minority language in the shadow of the English brought by white settlers, missionaries, gold-seekers and traders. In the late 19th century, the English school system was introduced for all New Zealanders, and from the 1880s the use of Māori in school was forbidden (see Native Schools). Increasing numbers of Māori people learned English because it was required at school and because of the prestige and opportunity associated with the language. Until World War II, however, most Māori still spoke Māori as a native language. Worship was in Māori, it was the language of the home, political meetings were conducted in Māori, and some newspapers and some literature was published in Māori. As late as the 1930s, some Māori parliamentarians were disadvantaged because the Parliament's proceedings were by then carried on in English. In this period, the number of speakers of Māori began to decline rapidly until by the 1980s less than 20% of Māori spoke the language well enough to be considered native speakers. Even for many of those people, Māori was no longer the language of the home. By the 1980s, Māori leaders began to recognize the dangers of the loss of their language and began to initiate Māori-language recovery programs such as the Kōhanga Reo movement, which immersed infants in Māori from infancy to school age. This was followed by the founding of the Kura Kaupapa, a primary school program in Māori.

Classification

The Māori language belongs to the Austronesian family of languages. A member of the Tahitic branch of the Polynesian languages, it is most closely related to Rarotongan, spoken in the southern Cook Islands, and to Tahitian, spoken in Tahiti and the Society Islands. These are so closely related that they are sometimes referred to as dialects of a single language, but they are generally listed as separate languages. They have been diverging for many centuries, and are no longer mutually intelligible.

Geographic distribution

Māori is spoken almost exclusively in New Zealand, by upwards of 100,000 people, nearly all of them of Māori descent. Estimates of the number of speakers vary: the 1996 census reported 160,000, while other estimates have reported as low as 50,000. The level of competence in the language of those claiming to be Māori speakers is unknown. The number of Māori-only speakers is likely to be very small indeed, counted in dozens, but of those who spoke Māori before they learnt English will be higher, because Māori persists as a community language in isolated settlements in the Northland, Urewera and East Cape areas. The Māori language effectively ceased to be a living community language in the post war years when there was a period of rapid urbanisation of the Māori population.

Structure

Sounds

Vowels

For the non-phonologist; the five long Māori vowel sounds are similar to those of Italian or Japanese. All vowel-pairs are in use except uo, and all vowel sounds are given their full value, whether stressed or not, except as noted for Southern Māori, but final short vowels may be devoiced (giving rise to the non-Māori speakers' versions of names like Waiuku and Paraparaumu, "Waiuk" and "Paraparam"). The most difficult vowel sounds for the English speaker are final e (as in "pen" without the n), and eu, which is rare except in "Te Heuheu" (the name of the paramount chiefs of Ngāti Tǖwharetoa). The surest sign of a non-native speaker is the sound of o, a pure "aw" sound unlike English "oh".

Consonants

is pronounced , that is, like the ng in English "sing." The pronunciation of <wh> varies, but it is generally pronounced , an "f" or "h" sound made by putting the lips together as if to make a "w" sound; today (labiodental) is also used, which may be an influence from English. Māori is a tap, like the in Spanish, the t in the American English pronunciation of "city" or the r in the Oxford English pronunciation of "very".

Syllables

A syllable in Māori has the form V, VV, CV or CVV. Two consonants are never together (ng and wh being single consonants), and no syllable ends with a consonant. (These rules give rise to such transliterations as Perehipeteriana, "Presbyeterian".) All CV combinations are in use except who. wo, wu and whu occur only in a few loan words from English such as wuru, "wool" and whutoporo, "football". The Māori vocabulary is parsimonious; almost all possible short words are meaningful, making clear pronuncation of the vowels essential, unlike English.

Bases

[http://www.rsnz.org/directory/yearbooks/year00/biggs.php|Professor Bruce Biggs] developed a grammar of Māori in which he divided bases (lexical words) into nouns, universals, statives, locatives and personals, and particles (grammatical words) into verbal particles, pronouns, locatives, possessives and definitives. Since these are based on how the language actually works, they fit better than imposed classes such as “adjective” and “adverb”.

Nouns

Bases that can take a definite article, but can not occur as the nucleus of a verbal phrase, such as ika, fish, rākau, tree. Nouns usually keep the same form in both singular and plural, the change of number being indicated by a change in the definite article from te (singular "the") to ngā (plural "the"). Some words lengthen a vowel in the plural, such as wahine, woman; wāhine, women.

Universals

Bases than can be used passively, such as inu, drink, (inumia, be drunk - of a liquid), tangi, weep (tangihia, be wept over). The passive suffixes are -a, -ia, -ina, -hia, -kia, -mia, -na, -ngia, -ria, -tia and -whia. Each universal always takes the same suffix. The passive may be used imperatively, as in Inumia!, Drink (it)!.

Statives

Bases that can be used as verbs but not passively, such as ora, alive/healthy, tika, correct.

Locatives

Bases that can follow the locative particle ki (to, towards) directly, such as runga, above, waho, outside, and placenames (ki Tamaki, to Auckland)

Personals

Bases that take the personal article a after ki, such as names of people (ki a Hohepa, to Joseph), personified houses, personal pronouns, wai? who? and Mea, So-and-so. Nouns can be derived from bases by adding the suffixes -nga, -anga, -kanga, -manga, -ranga, -tanga or –whanga. There is a correspondence between the beginning of the passive suffix and that of the derived noun suffix, so inu drink, inumanga, occasion of or thing for drinking, and tangi, weep, tangihanga, occasion for weeping.

Particles

Verbal particles

ka – inceptive i – past kua – perfect kia – desiderative me – prescriptive e – non-past kei – warning (“lest”) ina/ana – punctative-conditional, "if and when" e … ana imperfect

Pronouns

The pronouns have singular, dual and plural number, and the first-persons are inclusive or exclusive of you, the listener.

Locatives

ki, towards; kei, at; i, past position; hei, future position - all in time or space.

Possessives

Possessives fall in two classes, a and o, depending on the dominant/subordinate relationship between possessor and possessed, so ngā tamariki o te matua, the children of the parent, but te matua a ngā tamariki, the parent of the children.

Definitives

Articles: te (singular) and ngā plural Possessive: tā and tō. These also combine with the pronouns. Demonstrative: tēnei, this; tēnā, that (by you); tērā, that (far from us both); taua, the aforementioned. Which? tēhea? A certain, tētahi Those beginning with t form the plural by dropping the t: ēnei, these.

Phrases

Biggs' grammar defines possible forms of the phrase, which he says is the unit of Māori speech, not the word. Of all of the existing Polynesian languages, Māori is the only member of the group where compound nouns are formed extensively. Biggs calls these the head and the qualifier in the nucleus of a phrase. Longer compound nouns are possible but rare.

Dialects

The 1894 (Fourth) edition of Grammar of the New Zealand Language (by the Archdeacon of Auckland, R. Maunsell, LL.D.) described seven distinct dialects for the North Island alone — Rarawa, Ngapuhi, Waikato, Bay of Plenty, East Cape, Port Nicholson–Wanganui, and Wanganui–Mokau — but mentioned some variations within some of those. By 2004, many of the minor dialects have probably declined almost to extinction, and most new students and speakers can be expected to use the official and/or Māori Television standards. However, [http://www.maori.org.nz/ko-te-reo/dialect.htm regional variants] are still apparent, on different websites and even between speakers and subtitle-writers on Māori Television. Dialects of Māori are nothing like the barrier to comprehension that many non-speakers believe. There are some regional variants of pronunciation and accent, and a small number of lexical differences, but it is basically a single language across the country. The main pronuncation variations are that
- the iwi (tribes) of Wanganui and Taranaki drop the h (including the h of wh), or replace it with a glottal stop
- Tuhoe and some Eastern Bay of Plenty people pronounce ng as n.
- in part of the Far North, the sound of wh is is more bilabial as in English wh (when speakers distinguish it from w).
- the lower part of the South Island uses variants described in more detail below. A Māori phrasebook which is a useful general guide for visitors is [http://wikitravel.org/en/article/Maori_phrasebook here] at Wikitravel.

Kāi Tahu (Southern) Māori

One dialect that has returned to prominence in recent years is the Kāi Tahu dialect, often referred to as Southern Māori. The most obvious feature is the substitution of k for ng, as evidenced in the tribal name (Ngāi Tahu is the name used in certain acts of Parliament, leading to the common usage of both versions of the name). Other variations from more northern dialects include variations in the sounds of consonants g (as distinct from ng or k, e.g., Katigi, Otago from Otakou), and l which substitutes for r (e.g., Little Akaloa, Kilmog (from kirimoku), Waihola, Rakiula (a variation of Rakiura or Stewart Island/Rakiura). The "wh" of northern Māori is also often replaced by a simple "w" (e.g., Wangaloa) or even "u" (e.g., uare). Southern Māori also has apocope as a frequent feature, with the final letters of words often being pronounced as schwas or remaining unvoiced. For these reason, early European settlers to New Zealand referred, for example, to Lake Wakatipu as "Wagadib", and many locals still pronounce Otago as Otaguh. Until the last decade or so, Southern Māori was used uniquely in the south and was actively discouraged in favour of standard (Central North Island) Māori, which was the only form used by government and most institutions. It has gained acceptance in recent years, however, leading to changes in the official names and translations of several southern places and institutions. New Zealand's highest mountain, known for centuries as Aoraki by southern Māori, and as Aorangi by northern Māori, was later named Mount Cook after Captain Cook. Its official name now is Aoraki/Mount Cook and only this name may be printed on maps and official documents. Similarly, Dunedin's main research library (the Hocken Library) now has the name Te Uare Taoka o Hākena, rather than Te Whare Taonga o Hākena. Southern Māori still leads to some confusion among general Māori speakers, who will frequently persist in using standard Māori pronunciation rather than Southern Māori for southern place names, notably the town of Oamaru (pronounced with four syllables in standard Māori, but only three in Southern Māori).

Writing system

There is no native writing system for Māori. Missionaries made their first attempts to write the language using the Roman alphabet as early as 1814, and Professor Samuel Lee of Cambridge University worked with chief Hongi Hika and his junior relative Waikato to systematize the written language in 1820. Their efforts at phonetic spelling were remarkably successful, and written Māori has changed little since then, with only the the distinguishing of w and wh and the addition of macrons late in the 19th century, though they were not commonly used outside of specialist publications until late in the 20th. Literacy was an exciting new concept that the Māori embraced enthusiastically, and missionaries reported in the 1820s that Māori all over the country taught each other to read and write, using sometimes quite innovative materials, such as leaves and charcoal, carved wood, and the cured skins of animals, when no paper was available. There has been speculation that the petroglyphs once used by the Māori developed into a script similar to the Rongorongo of Easter Island, but there is no evidence that these petroglyphs ever evolved into a true system of writing. Some distinctive markings among the kōowhaiwhai (rafter paintings) of meeting houses were used as mnemonics in reciting whakapapa (genealogy) but again, there was no systematic relation between marks and meanings.

Official status

Māori is one of two official languages of New Zealand, the other being English. Most government departments and agencies now have bilingual names, for example, the Department of Internal Affairs is known as Te Tari Taiwhenua, and bodies such as local government offices and public libraries also have bilingual signs. New Zealand Post recognises Māori place names in postal addresses. State funding for teaching of the language ensures that it is an option in all state schools and from March 2004 a Māori TV service part broadcast in the language has been funded. The current interpretation of the Treaty of Waitangi sees language preservation as a Government responsibility. It is too early to know if the current attempts to revive the language are working.

Māori Language Week

Māori Language Day was an initiative of the activist group Ngā Tamatoa (The Young Warriors) in the 1970s. It grew into Māori Language Week, now celebrated annually in the last week of July.

Māori in English

According to New Zealand English specialist Elizabeth Gordon, many Māori loanwords, mainly bird, plant and place names, entered New Zealand English in the 19th century, but the flow stopped abruptly around the beginning of the 20th century. Only in the last quarter of the 20th century, with a revival of interest in Māori culture, has the flow resumed, this time of cultural concepts.

Words commonly used in New Zealand English:

(The length of vowels may not be observed when the words are used in English) haka – posture dance and chant of challenge hāngi – (food cooked in) an earth oven Kia ora! – Hello (especially on the telephone) mana – charisma Māori marae – oratory courtyard pakarū – broken, damaged Pākehā – non-Maori New Zealander (though the word is disliked by many Pākehā) puku – stomach, belly taihoa – not yet (as “tie ho” can be declined to “tied ho” [waited, delayed] “tying ho” [waiting, delaying])

birds:

kākāpō kea kiwi kōkako moa pūkeko takahē tūī weka

insects:

huhu wētā

reptile:

tuatara

shellfish:

paua pipi pupu (as “bubu”) toheroa tuatua

mineral:

pounamu

plants:

kahikatea kānuka kauri kōrari (as “koraddy”) flax stem (used by children to make toy boats) kumera mānuka mataī matakoura (as “matagouri”) rimu toetoe tōtara tutu

Words commonly understood in English, but considered Māori words and concepts

(the English words are used in non-Māori contexts) Haere mai! – Welcome! Haere rā! – Farewell! hapū – pregnant hui – meeting Ka pai! – It is good! (may be declined with the meaning “good”, as “it was kapai.”) kaumātua – elder, grandfather Kīngitanga – institution of the Maori King/Queen kōrero – talk kuia – old woman, grandmother kōhanga reo – total immersion Maori language preschool kura kaupapa (Māori) – total immersion Maori language school mahi – work moko – tattoo mokopuna – grandchild pōwhiri – ceremony of welcome rangatira – chief tangi – funeral tapu – sacred, forbidden Te Reo – the (Maori) language tōhunga – medicine man (in Māori, any expert) whare – house (in English, especially a farm worker’s cottage) urupā – burial ground utu – revenge (in Māori, any response or answer) wāhi tapu – sacred site waiata – song whaikōrero – oratory

External links

- [http://www.korero.maori.nz/ korero.maori.nz] Māori language educational resources
- [http://www.nzreo.org.nz/ NZ Reo, NZ Pride]
- [http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=MBF Ethnologue report for Maori]
- [http://www.tetaurawhiri.govt.nz/ Māori Language Commission] (for definitive standards).
- [http://kel.otago.ac.nz/translator/index.html English and Māori Word Translator] from the Knowledge Engineering Laboratory of the University of Otago.
- Online edition of the [http://www.learningmedia.co.nz/nz/online/ngata/ Ngata Māori–English English–Māori Dictionary] from Learning Media; gives several options and shows use in phrases.
- [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.com/definition/Maori-english/ Webster's Māori–English Dictionary] — (Take care. Uses the double letter long vowel conventions instead of macrons).
- [http://www.maorispellchecker.net.nz/ Free Māori spellchecker]
- [http://www.nzdl.org/niupepa Collection of historic Māori newspapers]
- [http://www.maorilanguage.info/mao_phon_desc1.html Maori Phonology] Category:Languages of the Cook Islands Category:Languages of New Zealand Language Category:Polynesian languages Category:Austronesian languages Category:Tahitic languages als:Maori (Sprache) ja:マオリ語

Marae

A Maori word now common in New Zealand English, marae refers an area of land where the Wharenui or meeting house (literally "big house") sits. Like nearly all Maori words, it is unchanged in the plural. New Zealand English The area in front is used for ceremonial welcomes and oratory. Some marae controllers do not allow women to perform oratory there. The meeting house holds longer meetings, communal meals, sleepovers, and craft and other cultural activities. Most tribes (iwi) and subtribes and even many small settlements have their own marae. An example of such a small settlement with its own marae is at Hongoeka Bay, Plimmerton, the home of renowned writer Patricia Grace. Since the second half of the 20th century, Maori in urban areas have been establishing intertribal marae such as Maraeroa in eastern Porirua. For many Maori, their marae is just as important to them as their own homes. Some marae have been benefiting from a substantial spruce-up, courtesy of Hula Haka Productions based in Rotorua, Maori Television and a well-known hardware firm, for the weekly series "[http://www.maoritelevision.com/programmes/lifestyle/marae_diy.htm Mitre 10 Marae DIY]". category: Maori Category:Maori words

Coffin

A coffin (also known as a casket) is a funerary box used in the display and containment of deceased remains -- either for burial or after cremation. The word comes ultimately from Greek kophinos, a basket. In English, the word wasn't used in a funeral sense until the 1500s.

Practices

A coffin is a tapered hexagonal or octagonal box used for a burial. A rectangular burial box is called a "casket". Receptacles for cremated human ashes (sometimes called cremains) are called urns. A coffin may be buried in the ground directly, placed in a burial vault or cremated. Some countries practice one form almost exclusively; in others it merely depends on the individual cemetery. The handles and other ornaments (such as doves, stipple crosses, crucifix, masonic symbols etc.) that go on the outside of a coffin are called fittings while organising the inside of the coffin with drapery of some kind is known as "trimming the coffin". Cultures that practice burial have widely different styles of coffin. In some varieties of orthodox Judaism, the coffin must be plain, made of wood, and contain no metal parts nor adornments. These coffins use wooden pegs instead of nails. In China and Japan, coffins made from the scented, decay-resistant wood of cypress, sugi, thuja and incense-cedar are in high demand. In Africa, elaborate coffins are built in the shapes of various mundane objects, like automobiles or aeroplanes. Today manufacturers offer features that they claim will protect the body. For example, some may offer a protective casket that uses a gasket to seal the casket shut after the coffin is closed for the final time. Many manufacturers offer a warranty on the structural integrity of the coffin. Consumers should keep in mind, however, that no coffin will preserve the body, regardless of whether it is a wooden or metal coffin, a sealed casket, or if the deceased was embalmed beforehand. In some cases, a sealed coffin may actually speed up rather than slow down the process of decomposition.

Cremation Coffins

With the resurgence of cremation in the Western world, manufacturers have begun providing options for those who choose cremation. For a direct cremation a cardboard box is normally used. Those who wish to have a funeral visitation (sometimes called a viewing) or traditional funeral service will use a coffin of some sort. Some chose to use a coffin made of wood or other materials like particle board. Others will rent a regular casket for the duration of the services. These caskets have a removable bed and liner which is replaced after each use. There is also a rental casket where there is an outer shell that looks like a traditional coffin. The deceased is placed in a cardboard box that fits inside the shell. At the end of the services the inner box is removed and the deceased is cremated inside this box.

Casket industry

In the United States, a number of companies produce caskets. Some manufactures do not sell directly to the public, and only work with licensed funeral homes. In that case, the funeral home usually sells the casket to a family for a deceased person as part of the funeral services offered, and in that case the price of the casket is included in the total bill for services rendered. Often funeral homes will have a small showroom to present families with the available caskets that could be used for a deceased family member. In many modern funeral homes the showroom will consist of sample pieces that show the end pieces of each type of coffin that can be used. They also include samples of the lining and other materials. This allows funeral homes to showcase a larger number of coffin styles without the need for a larger showroom. Examples of such showrooms can be seen on the A&E show Family Plots, and the HBO drama Six Feet Under. Other manufacturers will sell to the general public in addition to the funeral service industry. A number of stores and Internet sites have been set up to sell caskets. Costco recently made news headlines when they announced an intention to offer caskets for sale at their stores. In this case, the manufacturer sells directly to the public, or will sell the casket to the store, which then in turn sells it to their clients. Under U.S. Federal law, if a family provides a casket they purchased elsewhere, the establishment is required to accept the casket and use it in the services. If the casket is delivered direct to the funeral home from the manufacturer or store, they are required to accept delivery of the casket. The funeral home may not add any extra charges or fees to the overall bill if a family decides to purchase a casket elsewhere. It is noteworthy that the choosing of a coffin is often the most difficult part of a funeral arrangement, perhaps as it gives a very immediate reality to the death to see what will be the deceased's final "home".

Unusual Coffins

Custom coffins are occasionally created and some companies make set ranges with non-traditional designs. These include painting of peaceful tropical scenes, sea-shells, sunsets and cherubs. Some manufacturers have designed them to look like gym carry bags, guitar cases and even yellow dumpster bins. Others coffins are left deliberately blank so that friends and family can inscribe final wishes and thoughts upon it to the deceased. The rock band, KISS has made a coffin for their most diehard fans.

Use by the living

A few eccentric individuals sleep in coffins, usually as an affectation or deliberate taboo-breaking. With the lid closed, the coffin provides thermal insulation and reduces ventilation, thus allowing the air in the coffin to warm up from body heat. This performs the same function that a blanket or duvet does in a conventional bed, but without being in direct contact with the sleeper. Some people find this arrangement more comfortable. The actress Sarah Bernhardt was reputed to sleep in a coffin, and to take her coffin with her when she toured. American psychic Criswell also made a habit of sleeping in a coffin. Some people who believe themselves to be vampires also indulge in such habits.

Manufacturers

- Atlas Casket Company of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
- Aurora Casket Company of Aurora, Indiana.
- Batesville Casket Company of Batesville, Indiana.
- York Casket Company of York, Pennsylvania.
- New Melleray Abbey in rural Dubuque County, Iowa near Peosta. The monks of the abbey produce caskets for their own use and for sale to the public.

External links

- [http://www.batesville.com Batesville Caskets]
- [http://www.trappistcaskets.com Trappist Caskets]-Caskets made by the monks of New Melleray Abbey, Peosta, Iowa.
- [http://www.funeralmuseum.org/index.html Museum of Funeral Customs] Category:Death customs ja:棺

Kawakawa

Kawakawa may refer to the following:
- Kawakawa, a town in the North Island of New Zealand.
- Kawakawa, a tree endemic to New Zealand.
- A Maori name for the fern Blechnum fluviatile
- The Maori name for Euthynnus affinis (false albacore).

Haka

Haka is the generic name for Maori dance. It is an action chant, often described as a "War Dance", but more a chant with hand gestures and foot stamping, originally performed by warriors before a battle, proclaiming their strength and prowess and generally verbally abusing the opposition. In modern times, the haka is used in a number of situations. The most famous modern use is its regular performance by New Zealand representative Rugby Union (the All Blacks), Rugby League (the Kiwis) and basketball (Tall Blacks) teams before commencing a game. It is also performed at certain state functions, such as the welcoming of foreign dignitaries.

Origin of the Haka

According to Maori mythology, the Sun God, Tama-nui-to-ra, had two wives, the Summer maid, Hine-raumati, and the Winter maid, Hine takurua. The child of Tama-nui-to-ra and Hine-raumati, Tane-rore is credited with the origin of the dance.

The All Blacks' haka

The particular haka used by the All Blacks (the Kamate haka) dates to 1810 when Chief Te Rauparaha of the Ngati Toa tribe was being chased by enemies. He hid in a food-storage pit. He climbed out to find someone standing over him, who, instead of killing Te Rauparaha, turned out to be another chief friendly to Te Rauparaha. In relief Te Rauparaha performed a haka with the words— It is death, it is death: it is life, it is life; this is the man who enabled me to live as I climb up step by step toward sunlight. These words are still used today.

The 'new' All Blacks' haka

Before a Tri Nations match against South Africa on the August 28 2005, the All Blacks unexpectedly introduced a radically new haka. Kapa O Pango, written by Derek Lardelli of Ngati Porou, featured an extended and aggressive introduction by team captain Tana Umaga and was highlighted by its more aggressive climax: each player performing a throat-slitting action directed at the opposing team. The All Blacks went on to win the match 31 to 27. The new haka is said to be over a year in the making, and was created in consultation with many experts in Maori culture. It will serve as a complement to Ka Mate rather than a replacement, to be used for 'special occasions'. The words to Kapa O Pango are more specific to the rugby team than Ka Mate, referring to the warriors in black and the silver fern[http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/waikatotimes/0,2106,3391883a6648,00.html].

Kapa o pango kia whakawhenua au i ahau!		Let me become one with the land
Hi aue, hi!
Ko Aotearoa e ngunguru nei! Au, au, aue ha! Ko Kapa o Pango e ngunguru nei! Au, au, aue ha!		This is our land that rumbles And it's my time! It's my moment! This defines us as the All Blacks It's my time! It's my moment!
I ahaha!
Ka tu te ihiihi Ka tu te wanawana Ki runga ki te rangi e tu iho nei, tu iho nei, hi! Ponga ra! Kapa o Pango, aue hi! Ponga ra! Kapa o Pango, aue hi, ha!		Our dominance Our supremacy will triumph And will be placed on high Silver fern! All Blacks! Silver fern! All Blacks!

External links

- [http://www.tainui.co.nz/kapahaka/haka.htm The 2003 Schools Kapa Haka Nationals held at Hopuhopu November 28, 29] Nga Whakataetae Kapa Haka o te Motu mo nga Kura Tuatahi, Waikato 2003.
- [http://folksong.org.nz/ka_mate/ Lyrics and history of the All Black Haka]
- [http://www.allblacks.com/index.cfm?layout=haka All Blacks Official site on the Haka]
- [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4734073584981788645&q=men%27s+drill+team Video of the Haka as performed by the James W. Robinson Senior Men's Drill Team] Category:Maori words Category:New Zealand culture Category:Rugby union in New Zealand Category:Songs popular at sporting events Category:Ritual dances ja:ハカ (ダンス)

Rugby football

Rugby Union match]] Rugby football refers to sports descended from a common form of football developed at Rugby School. The two major sports are rugby league and rugby union. Rugby league is played both as a professional and amateur sport in some regions of Great Britain, Australia and New Zealand. It is regarded as the national sport of Papua New Guinea. Semi-professional and amateur rugby league tournaments take place in France, Russia and some Pacific Island nations. (For further information see: list of international rugby league teams.) Ten "major" unions dominate rugby union: Argentina, Australia, England, France, Ireland, Italy, New Zealand, Scotland, South Africa and Wales. Rugby union is a major sport played nationwide in each of these countries and is the national sport in New Zealand and Wales. Numerous "minor" unions include Canada, Fiji, Georgia, Japan, Namibia, Romania, Samoa, Spain, Tonga, USA and Uruguay. In Malaysia rugby union is played by campus students.(For further details see: list of international rugby union teams.) Rugby Union ranks as the national sport of Pacific countries such as Tonga, Fiji, and Samoa. An old saying goes "football (soccer) is a gentleman's game played by ruffians, and rugby is a ruffian's game played by gentlemen". In most rugby-playing countries, rugby union is widely regarded as an establishment, historically amateur, sport: many private schools and grammar schools play rugby union. By contrast, rugby league has traditionally the reputation of a working class, professional, pursuit. Because of the nature of the games (almost unlimited body contact with little or no padding), the rugby world frowns on unsporting behaviour, since even a slight infringement of the rules may lead to serious injury or even death. Because of this, governing bodies enforce the rules strictly.

Rules

Distinctive features common to both rugby games include the ovoid ball and the ban on passing the ball forwards, so that players can gain ground only by running with the ball or by kicking it. Set-pieces of the union code include the scrum, where packs of opposing players push against each other for possession, and the lineout, where lines of players attempt to catch the ball thrown from touch the area behind the touch-line (the sidelines). In the league code, the scrum still exists, but with greatly reduced importance, and line-outs do not occur. By reducing the importance of these set pieces, Rugby League has evolved into a simpler, faster and more attacking game with a greater emphasis on running with the ball in hand and passing. The main difference between the two games, besides league having teams of 13 players and union of 15, comes after tackles. Union players contest possession following the tackle: depending on the situation, either a ruck or a maul occurs. League players do not contest possession: play is continued with a play-the-ball. Scoring in both games occurs by achieving either a try or a goal. A try (at goal) involves grounding the ball over the goal line at the opponent's end of the field. A goal results from kicking the ball over the crossbar between the upright goalposts. Three different types of kick at goal can score points: the goal kick after a try has been awarded (which if successful becomes a conversion (of a try into a goal)); the drop kick; and the penalty kick.

History

See also: Football; History of rugby union; History of rugby league. History of rugby league The legendary story/myth about the origin of Rugby football — whereby a young man named William Webb Ellis "took the ball in his arms [i.e. caught it] and ran" while playing Rugby School's already distinctive version of football (not to be confused with association football, which was codified much later) in 1823 — has little evidence to support it. Pundits have dismissed the story as unlikely since it was first given the School's seal of approval following an official investigation by the Old Rugbeian Society in 1895. However, the story has entered into legend, and the trophy for the Rugby Union World Cup bears the name of "Webb Ellis" in his honour (as does Ellis Park in Johannesburg a major international rugby union stadium), and a plaque at the School commemorates the "achievement". Various kinds of football have a long tradition in England and football games had probably taken place at Rugby School for 200 years before three boys published the first set of written rules (in 1845). At the time, a set of rules would be agreed between two teams before a match. Teams which competed against each other regularly would tend to agree to play similar rules. Rugby football has strong claims to the world's first and oldest football club: the Guy's Hospital Football Club, formed in London in 1843, by old boys from Rugby School. (Although there is still a rugby club attached to Guy's Hospital, so few records of the original club survive that it is impossible to determine if there is any continuity.) Around the anglosphere, a number of other clubs were formed to play games based on the Rugby School rules. One of these, Dublin University Football Club, founded in 1854, is probably the world's oldest surviving football club" in any code. The Blackheath Rugby Club, in London, allegedly founded in 1858, claim the longest continuous history of any non-university rugby club. However, research suggests that the Club probably started playing rugby football in 1862, whilst Liverpool (Rugby) Football Club were definitely playing rugby football from 1858 onwards. The Blackheath club also features in the history of association football (soccer): as Blackheath Football Club, it became a founder member of the Football Association (FA) in 1863. However, Blackheath withdrew from the FA just over a month after the initial meeting, when it became clear that the FA would not agree to rules which allowed running with the ball in hand (a fundamental part of rugby). Other rugby clubs followed this lead and did not join the FA. By 1870 about 75 clubs, including Blackheath, played variations of the Rugby School game in Britain. Clubs playing varieties of the Rugby School game also existed in Ireland, Australia, Canada and New Zealand. However, they had no generally accepted set of rules: the clubs continued to agree rules before the start of each game. On January 26, 1871, 22 clubs founded the Rugby Football Union (RFU), leading to the standardisation of the rules for all rugby clubs in England. Soon most countries with a sizeable rugby community had formed their own national unions. Games based on rugby football became immensely popular in North America. However, by the 1880s these games had rapidly diverged from the laws of rugby used in most countries, and they became instead the basis of both Canadian football and