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March 9th

March 9th

March 9 is the 68th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (69th in Leap years). There are 297 days remaining.

Events

- 1276 - Augsburg becomes an Imperial Free City
- 1765 - After a public campaign by the writer Voltaire, judges in Paris posthumously exonerate Jean Calas of murdering his son. Calas had been tortured and executed in 1762 on the charge, though his son had actually committed suicide.
- 1796 - Napoléon Bonaparte marries his first wife, Joséphine de Beauharnais.
- 1841 - The Supreme Court of the United States rules in the Amistad case, concerning captive Africans who seized control of the slave-trading ship carrying them: the court rules that they had been taken into slavery illegally.
- 1842 - Giuseppe Verdi's third opera Nabucco premieres in Milan; its success establishes Verdi as one of Italy's foremost opera writers.
- 1847 - Mexican-American War: United States forces under General Winfield Scott invade Mexico near Vera Cruz.
- 1862 - American Civil War: The first battle between two ironclad warships - In a five-hour battle near Hampton Roads, Virginia the USS Monitor fights the CSS Virginia to a draw.
- 1908 - Inter Milan was founded
- 1916 - Pancho Villa leads 1,500 Mexican raiders in an attack against Columbus, New Mexico, killing 17.
- 1924 - Italy annexes Fiume.
- 1932 - The Egyptian University rector "Ahmed Lotfy El-Said" resigned to protest against the transfer of Dr.Taha Hussein without the University permission. On 2003, an academic group called "march 9" was established in Egypt to defend academic rights and university independence.
- 1933 - Great Depression: The U.S. Congress begins its first 100 days of enacting New Deal legislation. President Franklin D. Roosevelt submits the Emergency Banking Act to Congress.
- 1945 - World War II: Bombing of Tokyo - American B-29 bombers attack Tokyo, Japan with incendiary bombs. The resulting fire storm kills over 100,000 people.
- 1954 - McCarthyism: CBS television broadcasts the See It Now episode, "A Report on Senator Joseph McCarthy," produced by Edward R. Murrow.
- 1957 - Aleutian Islands register a 9.1 magnitude earthquake
- 1959 - The Barbie doll debuts.
- 1964 - The first Ford Mustang rolls off the assembly line at Ford Motor Company.
- 1967 - Josef Stalin's daughter Svetlana Alliluyeva defects to the United States.
- 1975 - Construction of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System begins.
- 1976 - 42 people die in a Cavalese cable-car disaster, the worst cable-car accident to date.
- 1977 - Approximately a dozen armed Hanafi Muslims take over three buildings in Washington, DC, killing one person and taking more than 130 hostages. The hostage situation ends two days later.
- 1986 - United States Navy divers find the largely intact but heavily-damaged crew compartment of the Space Shuttle Challenger. The bodies of all seven astronauts were still inside.
- 1987 - Rock band U2 release the album The Joshua Tree.
- 1989 - A strike forces financially-troubled Eastern Airlines into bankruptcy.
- 1990 - Dr. Antonia Novello is sworn in as Surgeon General of the United States, becoming the first female and Hispanic American to serve in that position.
- 1990 - Newfoundland and Labrador Premier Clyde Wells confirms he will rescind Newfoundland's approval of the Meech Lake Accord, effectively killing the Accord.
- 1991 - Massive demonstrations are held against Slobodan Milošević in Belgrade. Two people are killed and tanks are in the streets.
- 1993 - Rodney King testifies at the federal trial of four Los Angeles, California police officers accused of violating King's civil rights when they beat him during an arrest.
- 1995 - Kappa Phi Lambda is founded at Binghamton University.
- 2004 - John Allen Muhammad is sentenced to death for his part in the Beltway sniper attacks of October 2002. Lee Boyd Malvo is sentenced to life in prison.
- 2004 - A terrorist attack on a restaurant in Istanbul kills one and injures 5.
- 2005 - Dan Rather presents his final broadcast of the CBS Evening News.

Births

- 1213 - Hugh IV, Duke of Burgundy, French crusader (d. 1271)
- 1285 - Emperor Go-Nijō of Japan (d. 1318)
- 1454 - Amerigo Vespucci, Italian explorer and cartographer (d. 1512)
- 1564 - David Fabricius, German astronomer (d. 1617)
- 1568 - Aloysius Gonzaga, Italian saint (d. 1591)
- 1629 - Tsar Alexis I of Russia (d. 1676)
- 1720 - Philip Yorke, 2nd Earl of Hardwicke, English politician (d. 1790)
- 1737 - Josef Mysliveček, Czech composer (d. 1781)
- 1749 - Honore Mirabeau, French writer and politician (d. 1791)
- 1753 - Jean-Baptiste Kleber, French general (d. 1800)
- 1758 - Franz Joseph Gall, German neuroscientist (d. 1828)
- 1763 - William Cobbett, English journalist and author (d. 1835)
- 1814 - Taras Shevchenko, Ukrainian poet (d. 1861)
- 1825 - Alexander F. Mozhaiski, Russian aviation pioneer (d. 1890)
- 1839 - Phoebe Knapp, American hymn writer (d. 1908)
- 1856 - Eddie Foy, American singer and dancer (d. 1928)
- 1887 - Phil Mead, English cricketeer (d. 1958)
- 1890 - Vyacheslav Molotov, Russian politician (d. 1986)
- 1892 - Vita Sackville-West, English writer and gardener (d. 1962)
- 1900 - Howard Aiken, American computing pioneer (d. 1973)
- 1902 - Will Geer, American actor (d. 1978)
- 1907 - Mircea Eliade, Romanian historian of religions and writer (d. 1986)
- 1910 - Samuel Barber, American composer (d. 1981)
- 1918 - George Lincoln Rockwell, American Nazi leader (d. 1967)
- 1918 - Mickey Spillane, American writer
- 1923 - Walter Kohn, Austrian-born physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
- 1929 - Desmond Hoyte, Prime Minister and President of Guyana (d. 2002)
- 1932 - Keely Smith, American singer
- 1933 - Mel Lastman, Canadian politician
- 1934 - Yuri Gagarin, cosmonaut (d. 1968)
- 1936 - Tom Sestak, American football player (d. 1987)
- 1937 - Mickey Gilley, American musician and singer
- 1940 - John Cale, Welsh composer and musician
- 1940 - Raúl Juliá, Puerto Rican actor (d. 1994)
- 1941 - Ernesto Miranda, American litigant (d. 1976)
- 1943 - Bobby Fischer, American chess player
- 1943 - Charles Gibson, American television journalist
- 1945 - Dennis Rader, American serial killer
- 1947 - Keri Hulme, New Zealand writer
- 1948 - Jeffrey Osborne, American singer
- 1950 - Doug Ault, baseball player (d. 2004)
- 1950 - Danny Sullivan, American race car driver
- 1951 - Michael Kinsley, American journalist and editor
- 1954 - Bobby Sands, Irish republican (d. 1981)
- 1960 - Linda Fiorentino, American actress
- 1964 - Juliette Binoche, French actress
- 1965 - Benito Santiago, baseball player
- 1968 - Johnny Kelly, American drummer (Type O Negative)
- 1971 - Emmanuel Lewis, American actor
- 1972 - Kerr Smith, American actor
- 1972 - Spencer Howson, Australian radio broadcaster
- 1973 - Aaron Boone, baseball player
- 1975 - Roy Makaay, Dutch footballer
- 1975 - Juan Sebastián Verón, Argentine footballer
- 1977 - Radek Dvořák, Czech hockey player
- 1978 - Lucas Neill, Australian footballer
- 1979 - Melina Perez, WWE Diva
- 1980 - Chingy, American rapper
- 1981 - Antonio Bryant, American football player
- 1987 - Bow Wow, American rapper and actor

Deaths

- 1202 - King Sverre of Norway
- 1440 - St Frances of Rome, Italian nun (b. 1384)
- 1566 - David Rizzio, Italian secretary of Mary I of Scotland (b. 1533)
- 1649 - James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Hamilton, Scottish statesman (b. 1606)
- 1649 - Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland, English soldier (executed) (b. 1590)
- 1661 - Jules Cardinal Mazarin, French cardinal and statesman (b. 1602)
- 1709 - Ralph Montagu, 1st Duke of Montagu, English diplomat
- 1808 - Joseph Bonomi the Elder, architect (b. 1739)
- 1937 - Paul Elmer More, American critic and essayist (b. 1864)
- 1954 - Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs, German astronomer (b. 1912)
- 1964 - Paul Erich von Lettow-Vorbeck, German general (b. 1870)
- 1974 - Earl Wilbur Sutherland Jr., American physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1915)
- 1983 - Faye Emerson, American actress (b. 1917)
- 1983 - Ulf von Euler, Swedish physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1905)
- 1981 - Max Delbrück, German biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1906)
- 1989 - Robert Mapplethorpe, American artist (b. 1946)
- 1992 - Menachem Begin, Prime Minister of Israel, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1913)
- 1993 - C. Northcote Parkinson, British historian and writer (b. 1909)
- 1994 - Charles Bukowski, American writer (b.1920)
- 1996 - George Burns, American actor and singer (b. 1896)
- 1997 - The Notorious B.I.G., American rapper (b. 1972)
- 2000 - Ivo Robić, Croatian singer and songwriter (b 1923)
- 2003 - Stan Brakhage, American filmmaker (b. 1933)
- 2003 - Bernard Dowiyogo, President of Nauru (b. 1946)
- 2004 - Albert Mol, Dutch actor (b.1917)
- 2004 - Robert Pastorelli, American actor (b. 1954)
- 2005 - István Nyers, Hungarian footballer (b. 1924)

Holidays and observances

- Catholicism - Feast day of St Frances of Rome.
- Belize - Baron Bliss Day
- United Kingdom - National No Smoking Day

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/9 BBC: On This Day] ---- March 8 - March 10 - February 9 - April 9 -- Listing of all days ko:3월 9일 ja:3月9日 simple:March 9 th:9 มีนาคม

March 9

March 9 is the 68th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (69th in Leap years). There are 297 days remaining.

Events

Births

Deaths

Holidays and observances

- Catholicism - Feast day of St Frances of Rome.
- Belize - Baron Bliss Day
- United Kingdom - National No Smoking Day

External links

Leap year

A leap year (or intercalary year) is a year containing an extra day or month in order to keep the calendar year in sync with an astronomical or seasonal year. Seasons and astronomical events do not repeat at an exact number of days, so a calendar which had the same number of days in each year would over time drift with respect to the event it was supposed to track. By occasionally inserting (or intercalating) an additional day or month into the year, the drift can be corrected. Leap years (which keep the calendar in sync with the year) should not be confused with leap seconds (which keep clock time in sync with the day).

Gregorian calendar

The Gregorian calendar, the current standard calendar in most of the world, adds a 29th day to February in all years evenly divisible by 4, except for century years (those ending in -00), which receive the extra day only if they are evenly divisible by 400. Thus 1996 was a leap year whereas 1999 was not, and 1600, 2000 and 2400 are leap years but 1700, 1800, 1900 and 2100 are not. The reasoning behind this rule is as follows:
- The Gregorian calendar is designed to keep the vernal equinox on or close to March 21, so that the date of Easter (celebrated on the Sunday after the 14th day of the Moon that falls on or after 21 March) remains correct with respect to the vernal equinox.
- The vernal equinox year is currently about 365.242375 days long.
- The Gregorian leap year rule gives an average year length of 365.2425 days. This difference of a little over 0.0001 days means that in around 8,000 years, the calendar will be about one day behind where it should be. But in 8,000 years' time the length of the vernal equinox year will have changed by an amount we can't accurately predict (see below). So the Gregorian leap year rule does a good enough job. Image:Gregoriancalendarleap.png

Which day is the leap day?

The Gregorian calendar is a modification of the Julian calendar first used by the Romans. The Roman calendar originated as a lunar calendar (though from the 5th century BC it no longer followed the real moon) and named its days after three of the phases of the moon: the new moon (calends, hence "calendar"), the first quarter (nones) and the full moon (ides). Days were counted down (inclusively) to the next named day, so 24 February was ante diem sextum calendas martii ("the sixth day before the calends of March"). Since 45 BC, February in a leap year had two days called "the sixth day before the calends of March". The extra day was originally the second of these, but since the third century it was the first. Hence the term bissextile day for 24 February in a bissextile year. Where this custom is followed, anniversaries after the inserted day are moved in leap years. For example, the former feast day of Saint Matthias, 24 February in ordinary years, would be 25 February in leap years. This historical nicety is, however, in the process of being discarded: The European Union declared that, starting in 2000, 29 February rather than 24 February would be leap day, and the Roman Catholic Church also now uses 29 February as leap day. The only tangible difference is felt in countries that celebrate feast days.

Julian calendar

The Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by 4. This rule gives an average year length of 365.25 days. The excess of about 0.0076 days with respect to the vernal equinox year means that the vernal equinox moves a day earlier in the calendar every 130 years or so.

Revised Julian Calendar

The Revised Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by 4, except for years divisible by 100 that do not leave a remainder of 200 or 600 when divided by 900. This rule agrees with the rule for the Gregorian calendar until 2799. The first year that dates in the Revised Julian calendar will not agree with the those in the Gregorian calendar will be 2800, because it will be a leap year in the Gregorian calendar but not in the Revised Julian calendar. This rule gives an average year length of 365.242222… days. This is a very good approximation to the mean tropical year, but because the vernal equinox tropical year is slightly longer, the Revised Julian calendar does not do as good a job as the Gregorian calendar of keeping the vernal equinox on or close to 21 March.

Chinese calendar

The Chinese calendar is lunisolar, so a leap year has an extra month, often called an embolismic month after the Greek word for it. In the Chinese calendar the leap month is added according to a complicated rule, which ensures that month 11 is always the month that contains the northern winter solstice. The intercalary month takes the same number as the preceding month; for example, if it follows the second month then it is simply called "leap second month".

Hebrew calendar

The Hebrew calendar is also lunisolar with an embolistic month. In the Hebrew calendar the extra month is called Adar Alef (first Adar) and is added before Adar, which then becomes Adar Sheni (second Adar). According to the Metonic cycle, this is done seven times every nineteen years, specifically, in years, 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19. In addition, the Hebrew calendar has postponement rules that postpone the start of the year by one or two days. The year before the postponement gets one or two extra days, and the year whose start is postponed loses one or two days. These postponement rules reduce the number of different combinations of year length and starting day of the week from 28 to 14, and regulate the location of certain religious holidays in relation to the Sabbath.

Hindu Calendar

In the Hindu calendar, which is a lunisolar calendar, the embolismic month is called adhika maas (extra month). It is the month in which the sun is in the same sign of the stellar zodiac on two consecutive dark moons.

Iranian calendar

The Iranian calendar also has a single intercalated day once in every four years, but every 33 years or so the leap years will be five years apart instead of four years apart. The system used is more accurate and more complicated, and is based on the time of the March equinox as observed from Teheran. The 33-year period is not completely regular; every so often the 33-year cycle will be broken by a cycle of 29 or 37 years.

Long term leap year rules

The accumulated difference between the Gregorian calendar and the vernal equinoctial year amounts to 1 day in about 8,000 years. This suggests that the calendar needs to be improved by another refinement to the leap year rule: perhaps by avoiding leap years in years divisible by 8,000. (The most common such proposal is to avoid leap years in years divisible by 4,000 [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22gregorian+calendar%22+error+%22leap+year%22+4000]. This is based on the difference between the Gregorian calendar and the mean tropical year. Others claim, erroneously, that the Gregorian calendar itself already contains a refinement of this kind [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mleapyr.html].) However, there is little point in planning a calendar so far ahead because over a timescale of tens of thousands of years the number of days in a year will change for a number of reasons, most notably: #Precession of the equinoxes moves the position of the vernal equinox with respect to perihelion and so changes the length of the vernal equinoctial year. #Tidal acceleration from the sun and moon slows the rotation of the earth, making the day longer. In particular, the second component of change depends on such things as post-glacial rebound and sea level rise due to climate change. We can't predict these changes accurately enough to be able to make a calendar that will be accurate to a day in tens of thousands of years.

Marriage proposal

There is a tradition, said to go back to Saint Patrick and Saint Bridget in 5th century Ireland, whereby women may only make marriage proposals in leap years.

Saint Patrick and the leap year

:Saint Patrick, having driven the frogs out of the bogs was walking along the shores of Lough Neagh, when he was accosted by Saint Bridget in tears, and was told that a mutiny had broken out in the nunnery over which she presided, the ladies claiming the right of popping the question. :Saint Patrick said he would concede them the right every seventh year, when Saint Bridget threw her arms round his neck, and exclaimed, "Arrah, Pathrick, jewel, I daurn't go back to the girls wid such a proposal. Make it one year in four." Saint Patrick replied, "Bridget, acushla, squeeze me that way again, an' I'll give ye leap-year, the longest of the lot." Saint Bridget, upon this, popped the question to St Patrick himself, who, of course, could not marry: so he patched up the difficulty as best he could with a kiss and a silk gown. (Source: Evans, Ivor H, Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, Cassell, London, 1988) According to a 1288 law in Scotland, fines were levied if the proposal was refused by the man; compensation ranged from a kiss to a silk gown to soften the blow. Because men felt that put them at too great a risk, the tradition was in some places tightened to restricting female proposals to 29 February.

Birthdays

A person who was born on 29 February may be called a "leapling". In non-leap years they usually celebrate their birthday on 28 February or 1 March. There are many instances in children's literature where a person's claim to be only a quarter of their actual age turns out be based on counting their leap-year birthdays. A similar device is used in the plot of the Gilbert and Sullivan operetta The Pirates of Penzance. Category:Calendars Category:Units of time als:Schaltjahr ko:윤년 ja:閏年 simple:Leap year th:ปีอธิกสุรทิน

1276

For broader historical context, see 1270s and 13th century.

Events

- February - The court of the Southern Song Dynasty of China and hundreds of thousands of its citizens flee from Hangzhou to Fujian and then Guangdong in an effort to escape an invasion by the Mongol Empire.
- March 9 - Augsburg becomes an Imperial Free City. Ravensburg also does in the same year.
- June - King Rudolph I of Germany declares war on King Otakar II of Bohemia, a political rival; by November, Otakar II is forced to cede four important territories as demanded by the diet of Nuremberg in 1274.
- Four different men are pope over the course of the year, as Popes Gregory X, Innocent V, and Adrian V all die in quick succession.
- The foundation stone of the Minorite Church in Vienna is laid by King Otakar II of Bohemia.
- Mamluk sultan Baibars conquers Al-Maris, previously part of Makuria, and annexes it into Egypt.
- A severe 23-year drought begins to affect the Grand Canyon area, eventually forcing the agriculture-dependent Anasazi culture to migrate out of the region.

Births

- October 19 - Prince Hisaaki, Japanese shogun (died 1328)
- Christopher II of Denmark (died 1332)
- Vakhtang III of Georgia (died 1308)
- Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford (died 1322)
- Yesün Temür Khan of the Mongol Empire (died 1328)
- Louis d'Évreux, son of King Philip III of France

Deaths

- January 10 - Pope Gregory X
- June 22 - Pope Innocent V
- July 27 - King James I of Aragon (born 1208)
- August 18 - Pope Adrian V
- Emperor Gong of Song China
- Guido Guinizelli, Italian poet
- Vasily of Kostroma, Grand Duke of Vladimir (born 1241)
- Kanezawa Sanetoki, Japanese member of the Hojo clan (born 1224)
- Ahmad al-Badawi, Sufi (born 1199) Category:1276 ko:1276년

Imperial Free City

In the Holy Roman Empire, an imperial free city (in German: freie Reichsstadt) was a city formally responsible to the emperor only — as opposed to the majority of cities in the Empire, which belonged to a territory and were thus governed by one of the many princes (Fürsten) of the Empire, such as dukes or prince-bishops. Free cities also had independent representation in the Reichstag of the Holy Roman Empire. To be precise, a distinction on paper was made between imperial cities (Reichsstädte) and free cities (freie Städte). The latter were each formerly governed by a prince-bishop and had managed to gain independence from their bishop during the High Middle Ages. They were Basel (date?), Strasbourg (1272), Speyer (1294), Worms (date?), Mainz (1244, revoked 1462), Cologne (1475) and Regensburg (1245). In practice, however, there was little distinction between the imperial cities and the free cities; the distinctions lay more between rich cities and poor: rich cities such as Lübeck or Augsburg, for examples, were genuinely self-ruling enclaves within the Empire, waging war and making peace, controlling their own trade and permitting little outside interference. The cities gained (and sometimes lost) their freedom among the vicissitudes of medieval power politics. Some favored cities gained a charter by gift and others were wealthy enough to purchase theirs from a prince in need of cash; some won it by force of arms, others usurped it during times of anarchy; a number of cities secured their freedom through the extinction of dominant families, like the Hohenstaufen. Free cities might lose their privileges. Some free towns placed themselves voluntarily once more under the protection of a territorial magnate. Some, like Donauwörth in 1607, were stripped of their privileges by the emperor on genuine or trumped-up offenses; others were separated from the Empire by conquest: Besançon passed into the possession of Habsburg Spain; Strasbourg, Colmar, Hagenau and other free cities were seized by the maréchals of Louis XIV. Others, such as Basel, left the Empire in order to join the Swiss Confederation. The most powerful Reichsstädte included Augsburg, Bremen, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Lübeck and Nuremberg. In the southwest, which had a more diverse and scattered political structure, many more free cities existed than in the north and in Bavaria, where larger territories had established themselves. In the later Middle Ages, many free cities formed alliances (Städtebünde); most notably the Hanseatic League. Free and imperial cities were only officially admitted as a Reichsstand to the Reichstag in 1489, and even then their votes were less significant compared to the Benches of the Kurfürsten (Electors) and the Princes. The leagues of cities divided themselves into two groups, or benches, in the Imperial Diet, the Rhenish and the Swabian. By the time of the Peace of Westphalia (1648), the cities constituted a formal third "college" in the Diet. The number of imperial free cities varied greatly over the centuries. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica mentions a list drawn up in 1422 with 75 free cities, and another drawn up in 1521 with 84, but at the 1792 Reichstag, a mere 51 cities were left bearing this status, most of them small towns in Swabia. During the reorganization of the Empire in 1803 (see German Mediatisation), all of the free cities but six — the Hanseatic cities of Hamburg, Bremen, and Lübeck, and the cities of Frankfurt, Augsburg, and Nuremberg — were eliminated. Napoléon dissolved the Empire in 1806. By 1811, all of the free cities had been eliminated — Augsburg and Nuremberg had been annexed by Bavaria, Frankfurt had become the center of the Grand Duchy of Frankfurt, a Napoleonic puppet state, and the three Hanseatic cities had been directly annexed by France as part of its effort to enforce the Continental Blockade against Britain. When the German Confederation was established in 1815, Hamburg, Lübeck, Bremen and Frankfurt were once again made free cities. Frankfurt was annexed by Prussia in consequence of the part it took in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. The three Hanseatic cities remained as constituent states of the new German Empire, and retained this role in the Weimar Republic and into the Third Reich, although under Hitler this status was purely notional. Due to Hitler's distaste for Lübeck, it was annexed by Prussia in 1937. In the Federal Republic of Germany which was established after the war, Bremen and Hamburg became constituent states (Länder), a status which they retain to the present day. Berlin also received the status of a state after the war.

External links

- [http://60.1911encyclopedia.org/I/IM/IMPERIAL_CITIES_OR_TOWNS.htm 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article: Imperial cities]

References

-
Category:Holy Roman Empire

1765

1765 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar).

Events

- March 9 - After a public campaign by the writer Voltaire, judges in Paris posthumously exonerate Jean Calas of murdering his son. Calas had been tortured and executed in 1762 on the charge, though his son had actually committed suicide.
- March 22 - The British Parliament passes the Stamp Act which is the first direct tax levied from England on the American colonies.
- March 24 - Great Britain passes the Quartering Act that requires the 13 American colonies to house British troops
- May 18 - Fire destroys one quarter of town of Montreal, Quebec.
- June 21 - The Isle of Man is brought under British control.
- November 1 - The British Parliament enacts the Stamp Act on the 13 colonies in order to help pay for British military operations in North America.
- The first true restaurant opens in Paris, where a tavern-keeper named Boulanger sells cooked dishes at an all-night place on the Rue Bailleul
- Nicholas Cugnot pioneers the automobile with a three-wheel gun tractor
- James Watt supersedes the 1705 Newcomen engine with a more effective steam engine
- In Lisbon, the auto-da-fe parade (often an excuse for violence against Jews or Christian 'heretics') is abolished
- Josef II becomes Holy Roman Emperor
- The Isle of Man comes under the British crown
- Horace Walpole publishes The Castle of Otranto

Births

- January 11 - Antoine Alexandre Barbier, French librarian (d. 1825)
- February 1 - Charles Hatchett, English chemist (d. 1847)
- March 7 - Nicéphore Niépce, French inventor (d. 1833)
- March 27 - Franz Xaver von Baader, German philosopher and theologian (d. 1841)
- April 1 - Luigi Schiavonetti, Italian engraver (d. 1810)
- April 6 - Duke Charles Felix of Savoy (d. 1831)
- April 26 - Emma, Lady Hamilton, English mistress of Horatio Nelson (d. 1815)
- June 15 - Henry Thomas Colebrooke, English orientalist (d. 1831)
- July 26 - Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Count d'Erlon, French marshal (d. 1844)
- August 21 - King William IV of the United Kingdom (d. 1837)
- September 18 - Pope Gregory XVI (d. 1837)
- October 8 - Harman Blennerhassett, Irish-American lawyer (d. 1831)
- October 17 - Henry Jacques Guillaume Clarke, duc de Feltre, French marshal and politician (d. 1818)
- October 24 - James Mackintosh, Scottish publicist (d. 1832)
- November 14 - Robert Fulton, American inventor (d. 1815)
- November 17 - Étienne-Jacques-Joseph-Alexandre MacDonald, French marshal (d. 1840)
- November 20 - Sir Thomas Fremantle, British captain and politician (d. 1819)
- December 8 - Eli Whitney, American inventor (d. 1825)
- James Smithson, English-born minerologist and chemist (b. 1829)
- Peter Bagration, Russian general (d. 1812)

Deaths

- March 3 - William Stukeley, English archaeologist (b. 1687)
- April 5 - Edward Young, English poet (b. 1683)
- April 15 - Mikhail Lomonosov, Russian author and scientist (b. 1711)
- April 20 - Abigail Williams, American accuser in the Salem witch trials (b. 1674)
- May 17 - Alexis Claude Clairault, French mathematician (b. 1713)
- July 15 - Charles-André van Loo, French painter (b. 1705)
- August 18 - Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1708)
- September 2 - Henry Bouquet, Swiss-born British army officer (b. 1719)
- October 10 - Lionel Sackville, 1st Duke of Dorset, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1688)
- October 21 - Giovanni Paolo Pannini, Italian painter and architect (b. 1691)
- October 31 - Prince William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, English military leader (b. 1721)
- November 30 - George Glas, Scottish merchant and adventurer (b. 1725)
- December 3 - Lord John Philip Sackville, English cricketer (b. 1713)
- December 25 - Vaclav Prokop Divis, Czech scientist (b. 1698) Category:1765 ko:1765년

Paris

Paris is the capital and largest city of France. Located on the river Seine in the country's north, it is a major cultural and political centre of Europe and the world's most visited city. The area's first inhabitants, a Celtic tribe named the "Parisii" give Paris its name. Its eponym, "the City of Lights" (la Ville Lumière), dates from 1828 when it became the first city in Europe to light its main boulevards with gas street lamps along its Champs-Élysées. The city of Paris is also widely referred to as the "most romantic city in the world." As a cultural and political centre for Europe since the early Middle Ages, Paris preserves many vestiges of its past. While hosting numerous art galleries, museums and theatres, it has grown into a significant centre of international trade with ever-growing modern business districts, including La Défense, the de facto city centre built for the purpose. In addition to the head offices of nearly half of all France's companies and the offices of many major international firms, Paris hosts the headquarters of many international trade and social organisations, including the OECD and UNESCO. The city of Paris proper has 2.1 million inhabitants , but its centre of influence extends to cover a "Greater Paris" metropolitan area that has a population of 11.1 million , over one sixth of the French population. Paris is the third largest metropolitan area in Europe (after Moscow and London), and approximately the 22nd most populous metropolitan area in the world. Paris is also the centre of an economic network that, within the limits of its Île-de-France région (of which it is also the capital), with a GDP of nearly €450 billion , is alone the producer of over one quarter of France's wealth. Because of its financial, business, political, and tourism activities, Paris today is one of the world's major transport destinations. Along with New York, London and Tokyo, it is often listed as one of the four major global cities.

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Name of Paris and its Inhabitants

Paris is pronounced (RP) or in English, and Image:ltspkr.png in French. The original Latin name of Paris was Lutetia (), or Lutetia Parisiorum, known in French as Lutèce (). Lutetia was later dropped in favor of only Paris, based on the name of the Gallic Parisi tribe, whose name perhaps comes from the Celtic Gallic word parios, meaning "caldron", but this is not certain. Traditionally, Paris was known as Paname () in French slang, but this vulgar appellation is gradually losing currency. (.) The inhabitants of Paris are known as Parisians in English, as Parisiens (Image:ltspkr.png ) in French. The pejorative term Parigot (Image:ltspkr.png ) is sometimes used in French slang. Locally, inhabitants of the Paris suburbs are known as banlieusards (Image:ltspkr.png ). Inhabitants of the whole Paris metropolitan area are known as Franciliens (Image:ltspkr.png ), i.e. from Île-de-France.

Geography

Coordinates

Paris is located at (48.866667, 2.333056). The city straddles a north-bending arc of the river Seine. This waterway is dotted with a few islands along its path through the city, and the largest and most central of these, the Île de la Cité, is the Capital's heart and origin.

Area

The city (commune) of Paris proper has an area of 105.398 km² (40.69 mi², or 26,044 acres). Excluding the outlying parks of Bois de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes, the actual area of the city is only 86.928 km² (33.56 mi², or 21,480 acres), being in the form of an almost regular oval, with a circumference of 35.5 km (22 miles). This oval extends 9.5 km (6 miles) from north to south, and 11 km (7 miles) from east to west. circumference This is not a very large area, and in fact the commune of Paris is only the 113th largest commune of France (out of 36,782 communes). By comparison, Greater London has an area of 1,572 km² (607 mi²), and New York City has an area of 786 km² (303 mi²). This peculiar fact arises because, unlike other large western cities such as New York, London, or Berlin, whose territories were enlarged in the 20th century, the borders of Paris have not been changed since 1860 when Napoleon III and the prefect Haussmann annexed the then suburban communes surrounding Paris, such as Montmartre and Auteuil, more than doubling the the city's area to 78 km² (30.1 mi²), and creating the 20 arrondissements of Paris. Since 1860, the limits of Paris have only marginally changed, reaching the 86.9 km² figure indicated above. In 1929, the Bois de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes were officially incorporated into the city of Paris. Thus, the Brooklyn, Greenwich, or Charlottenburg of Paris are still outside the city of Paris proper, and it can be more accurately compared to the borough of Manhattan (59.5 km²/23 mi²) or to Inner London (319 km²/123 mi²). Even the largest business and financial district of Paris, known as La Défense, is outside the city boundary. The urban area (unité urbaine) of Paris, i.e. the contiguous built-up area, extends past the administrative city limits to cover 2,723 km² (1,051.4 mi²) (INSEE 1999), or an area about 26 times larger than the city itself. The metropolitan area (aire urbaine) of Paris, i.e. the built-up area plus the commuter belt, reaches in part beyond the surrounding Île-de-France administative région to cover 14,518 km² (5,605.5 mi²) (INSEE 1999), or an area 138 times larger than the city of Paris. région]]

Altitude

The altitude of Paris varies, with several prominent hills, of which the highest is Montmartre at 130m about sea level. The highest elevation in the urban area of Paris is in the Forest of Montmorency (Val-d'Oise département), 19.5 km. (12 miles) north-northwest of the center of Paris as the crow flies, at 195 metres (640 ft) above sea-level.

Temperatures

The lowest temperature recorded in central Paris (since 1873) was –23.9 °C (–11.0 °F) and –25.6 °C (–14.1 °F) in the southeastern suburb of Saint-Maur-des-Fossés on December 10, 1879 . The highest temperature was recorded on July 28, 1947 when the temperature in central Paris (Parc Montsouris) reached 40.4 °C (104.7 °F). During the European heat wave of 2003, which caused the death of many elderly people in France, the temperature in central Paris reached 38.1 °C (100.6 °F) (Parc Montsouris) and 40.2 °C (104.4 °F) at Le Bourget Airport in the northern suburbs. A record high night-time minimum of 25.5 °C (77.9 °F) in Parc Montsouris was set on August 11 and August 12, 2003.

History

Paris was occupied by a Gallic tribe until the Romans arrived in 52 BC. The invaders referred to the previous occupants as the Parisii, but called their new city Lutetia, meaning "marshy place". About 50 years later the city had spread to the left bank of the Seine, now known as the Latin Quarter (Le Quartier latin), and was renamed "Paris". Roman rule had ceased by 508, when Clovis the Frank made the city the capital of the Merovingian dynasty of the Franks. In 845, Paris was sacked by Viking raiders, probably under Ragnar Lodbrok, who collected a huge ransom in exchange for leaving. Thereafter the weakness of the late Carolingian kings of France led to the gradual rise in power of the Counts of Paris; Odo, Count of Paris was elected king of France by feudal lords while Charles III was also claiming the throne. Finally, in 987 Hugh Capet, count of Paris, was elected king of France by the great feudal lords after the last Carolingian king died. Hugh Capet, 1789]] In the 12th and 13th centuries the city grew strongly. Main thoroughfares were paved, the first Louvre was built as a fortress, and several churches, including the Cathedral of Notre-Dame, were constructed or begun. Several schools on the Left Bank were grouped together into the Sorbonne, which counts Albertus Magnus and St. Thomas Aquinas among its early scholars. In the Middle Ages, Paris prospered as a trading and intellectual nucleus, interrupted temporarily when the Black Death struck in the 14th century, and again in the 15th century when urban revolts drove the royal court to abandon the city for almost 100 years. In the 18th century, the royal residence was moved from Paris to nearby Versailles. The French Revolution began with the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789. From the establishment of the French Second Empire in 1852 until 1914, Paris experienced the largest development in its history. The famous Parisian Haussmann Style dates back to this period, during which much of the Paris known today was planned and constructed. For the World's Fair of 1889 which commemorated the 100th anniversary of the French Revolution, the Eiffel Tower was built, the best-known landmark in Paris and tallest structure in the world until 1930. The large scale display of electricity and light bulbs at the world's fairs of 1889 and 1900, which was a first in the world, earned Paris the nickname "City of Lights". During World War I, Paris was at the forefront of the war effort, having been spared invasion by the German Army due to the French and English victory at the First Battle of the Marne in 1914. In the Interwar period, Paris was famed for its cultural and artistic life, as well as its nightlife. From Russian exiled artists fleeing the Bolsheviks (such as composer Igor Stravinsky), to Spanish painters (such as Picasso or Dalí), to US writers (such as Hemingway), Paris became a melting pot of artists from all around the world. In June 1940, five weeks after the start of the German attack on France, a partially-evauated Paris fell to German occupation forces, who remained there until late August 1944. Paris was fortunate to be the one of the few large cities in Europe that suffered almost no destruction from the war, preserving its 19th century architecture intact. In the post-war period, Paris experienced its largest development since the end of the Belle Époque in 1914. The suburbs around the city proper (commune) of Paris began to expand considerably, with the construction of large social estates known as cités and the beginning of the business district La Défense. In the late 1960s, the Tour Montparnasse, a large, modern skyscraper, was built just south of the Jardin du Luxembourg. Its controversial height and location sparked immediate changes in zoning and administrative rules that now restrict skyscrapers to La Défense. Since the mid-1980s, there has been periodic unrest, sometimes degenerating into riots, in the poor immigrant neighbourhoods of the outer suburbs of Paris, especially in the cités, which have gradually become ghettos. In late 2005 a wave of riots erupted in the Paris suburbs, with thousands of cars and tens of public buildings burnt.

Demographics

wave of riots erupted in the Paris suburbs.]]

Density

At the 1999 French census the population density in the city of Paris was 20,164 inh. per km² (52,225 inh. per sq. mile). Excluding the outlying parks of Bois de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes, the density in the city was actually 24,448 inh. per km² (63,321 inh. per sq. mile). As a matter of comparison, the density in Manhattan at the 2000 US census was 25,846 inh. per km² (66,940 inh. per sq. mile), and the density in Inner London at the 2001 UK census was 8,663 inh. per km² (22,438 inh. per sq. mile). The population density in the city of Paris is very high compared to those of most western cities, which are rarely as crowded as Paris (except for Manhattan). The density in Paris is comparable to the densities met within Asian cities. In many western cities, people have left the city center in the 20th century to relocate to the distant suburbs, leaving the city center as a business district dead at night. Although the city of Paris has also experienced a decline in population since the 1920s, it has nonetheless seen fewer inhabitants relocating to the suburbs than has occurred in other western cities. More precisely, people relocating to the suburbs were for the most part replaced by new people attracted to an urban lifestyle, and buildings were not converted into offices as systematically as has happened elsewhere, such as in London where the inhabitants have left the city center since the Second World War, and the density of Inner London is now much lower than that of Paris. This is most striking in the medieval heart of both metropolises: the City of London and the four first arrondissements of Paris were the medieval heart of each metropolis, with densities reaching 75,000 to 100,000 inh. per km² before the Industrial Revolution. Today, the City of London is almost empty, with a population density of only 2,478 inh. per km² (6,417 inh. per sq. mile) in 2001, whereas the four first arrondissements of Paris still have a density of 18,139 inh. per km² (46,979 inh. per sq. mile) in 1999, seven times more dense than in the City of London. Today, the most crowded arrondissement in the city of Paris is the 11th arrondissement, with a density reaching 40,672 inh. per km² (105,339 inh. per sq. mile) in 1999. Some neighborhoods in the east of this arrondissement are known to have densities of almost 100,000 inh. per km² (260,000 inh. per sq. mile).

Population Growth

At the 1999 census, the population of the city of Paris (excluding suburbs) was 2,125,246. The population of the metropolitan area of Paris was 11,174,743. Historically, the population of the city of Paris peaked in 1921, when it reached 2.9 million. However, there has been since then a movement toward living in suburbs, as well as the gentrification of many areas of inner Paris, and the use of available space for offices rather than dwellings, although this phenomenon was not as massive as happened in London or in American cities. These tendencies are controversial, and the current city administration is trying to reverse them. As a matter of fact, as of February 2004 estimates, the population of the city reached 2,142,800 inhabitants, increasing for the first time since 1954. As for the metropolitan area, it reached approximately 11.5 million inhabitants in 2004, growing twice as fast in the 2000s as it did in the 1990s. The metropolitan area of Paris has been in continuous expansion since the end of the French Wars of Religion at the end of the 16th century (with only brief setbacks during the French Revolution and World War II). As can be seen from the figures, only 18.5% of the inhabitants of the metropolitan area of Paris live inside the city of Paris, while 81.5% live in the suburbs. Visitors to Paris, who mostly stay inside the city, are usually not aware that 81.5% of "Parisians" actually live outside of the city itself, in its very extended suburbs. A majority of Parisians also work outside of the city proper: at the 1999 census, there were 5,089,179 jobs in the metropolitan area of Paris, 32.5% of which were located in the city of Paris proper, while 67.5% were located outside of the city. These peculiar facts are due to the conservativeness of French administrative limits (see Geography section above). For comparisons, in the metropolitan area of London, approximately 60% of people live inside Greater London proper (2001 census), while in the New York-Newark-Bridgeport metropolitan area, 37.8% of people live inside New York City (2000 census). Even in the Los Angeles-Riverside-Orange County metropolitan area, 22.6% of people live inside the city of Los Angeles proper. Paris can be more rightly compared to the San Francisco Bay Area, where only 11% of inhabitants live inside the city of San Francisco proper. However, unlike in the San Francisco Bay Area, there is no city inside the metropolitan area of Paris that rivals Paris, the largest city (commune) after Paris being Boulogne-Billancourt, with only 108,300 inhabitants in 2004. :See also: Historical population tables

Muséification

As a result, a so-called "muséification" (museumification) of the city of Paris is feared. Already, all airports, the largest financial and business district (La Défense), the main food wholesale market (Rungis), major renowned schools (École Polytechnique, HEC, ESSEC, INSEAD, etc.), research laboratories (in Saclay or Évry), the largest sport stadium (Stade de France), and even some ministries (Ministry of Transportation) are now located outside of the city of Paris. Similarly, the National Archives of France are due to relocate to the northern suburbs before 2010. It is feared that the city of Paris is turning into a museum for tourists and Amélie nostalgists, while the real economic activity and 21st century development take place elsewhere in the metropolitan area. With some of the most stringent protection laws in the world, it is virtually impossible to build new buildings inside the city. Recent proposals by Paris' new mayor, Bertrand Delanoë to gather renowned architects to build skyscrapers on the outskirts of the city center, have been met with strong opposition on all sides. Delanoë wished to scrap the building height limit dating back to Haussmann in the