Nevsky Prospekt

Nevsky Prospekt, or the Neva Avenue (Russian: Невский проспект), is the main thoroughfare in the city of St Petersburg. Planned by Peter the Great as beginning the road to Novgorod and Moscow, the avenue runs from the Admiralty to the Moscow Railway Station and, after making a turn, to the Alexandro-Nevsky Lavra. The chief sights include Rastrelliesque Stroganov Palace, huge neoclassical Kazan Cathedral, the Art Nouveau Bookhouse, Merchants' Court, the monument to Catherine the Great, the Russian National Library, and the Anichkov Bridge with its horse statues. The feverish life of the avenue was described by Gogol in his story The Nevsky Prospect. During the early Soviet years (1918-44) it was known as the Avenue of the Twenty-Fifth of October, alluding to the day of October Revolution.

External links

- [http://nevsky-prospekt.com/ English site on the Nevsky Prospekt]
- [http://nevskypr.spb.ru/ Russian site on the Nevsky Avenue]
- [http://enlight.ru/camera/152/index_e.html Night views of the Nevsky Avenue]
- [http://enlight.ru/camera/102/index_e.html Foreign churches of the Nevsky]
- [http://nevsky-prospekt.com/palaces/thepalaces.html Palaces on the Nevsky Prospekt] Category:Streets and squares of Saint Petersburg ko:네프스키 대로

Peter I of Russia

] Peter I () (10 June 1672–8 February 1725 [30 May]] [[1672– 28 January 1725 O.S.] ) ruled Russia from 7 May (27 April O.S.) 1682 until his death. Known as Peter the Great (), he was at first a joint ruler with his weak and sickly half-brother, Ivan V, who died in 1696. Peter then ruled alone until 1724, whenceforth he ruled jointly with his wife, Catherine I. Peter carried out a policy of "Westernization" and expansion that transformed Russia into a major European power. Senate Chancellor Golovkin added "the Great, Father of His Country, Emperor of All the Russias" to Peter's traditional title Tsar following a speech by the archbishop of Pskov in 1721. Peter the Great was a striking figure, with an extremely tall build of over 2 meters (6 feet 7 inches), and large, green eyes.

Early life

Peter, the son of Aleksei Mikhailovich of Russia and his second wife, Nataliya Kyrillovna Naryshkina, was born in Moscow. Aleksei I had previously married Maria Miloslavskaya, having five sons and eight daughters by her, although only two of the sons—Fyodor and Ivan—were alive when Peter was born. Aleksei I went on to have two further daughters by Nataliya Naryshkina: Anna, who died in her twenties, and Elizabeth, who took the throne of Russia 1641-1661, before dying in 1676, to be succeeded by his eldest surviving son, who became Fyodor III. 1676Fyodor III's uneventful reign ended within six years; as Fyodor did not leave any children, a dispute over the succession between the Naryshkin and Miloslavskyi families broke out. Properly, Ivan was next in the line of succession, but he was an invalid and of infirm mind. Consequently, the Boyar Duma (a council of Russian nobles) chose the ten-year old Peter to become Czar, his mother becoming regent. But one of Aleksei's daughters by his first marriage, Sophia Alekseyevna, led a rebellion of the Streltsy (Russia's élite military corps). In the subsequent conflict, many of Peter's relatives and friends were murdered—Peter even witnessed the butchery of one of his uncles by a mob. The memory of this violence may have caused trauma during Peter's later years. Sophia insisted that Peter and Ivan be proclaimed joint Czars, with Ivan being acclaimed as the senior of the two. Sophia acted as Regent during the minority of the two Sovereigns and exercised all power. In addition, a hole was cut in the back of the dual-seated throne used by Ivan and Peter. Sophia would sit behind the throne and listen as Peter conversed with nobles, also feeding him information and giving him responses to questions and problems. This throne can be seen in the Kremlin museum in Moscow. For seven years, she ruled as an autocrat. Peter, meanwhile, was not particularly concerned that others ruled in his own name. He engaged in such pastimes as ship-building and sailing. The ships he built were used during mock battles. Peter's mother sought to force him to adopt a less unconventional approach and arranged his marriage to Eudoxia Lopukhina in 1689. The marriage was an utter failure, and ten years later Peter forced her to become a nun and thus freed himself from the marriage. By the summer of 1689, Peter had planned to take power from his half-sister Sophia, whose position had been weakened by the unsuccessful campaigns in The Crimea. When she learnt of his designs, Sophia began to conspire with the leaders of the streltsy. Unfortunately for Sophia, a rival faction of the streltsy had already been plotting against her. She was therefore overthrown, with Peter I and Ivan V continuing to act as co-Czars. Peter forced Sophia to enter a convent, where she gave up her name and position as a member of the royal family. Still, Peter could not acquire actual control over Russian affairs. Power was instead exercised by his mother, Nataliya Naryshkina. It was only when Nataliya died in 1694 that Peter became truly independent. Formally, Ivan V remained a co-ruler with Peter, although he was still ineffective. Peter became the sole ruler when Ivan died in 1696. 1696

Early reign

Peter implemented sweeping reforms aimed at modernizing Russia. Heavily influenced by his western advisors, Peter reorganized the Russian army along European lines and dreamt of making Russia a maritime power. He faced much opposition to these policies at home, but brutally suppressed any and all rebellions against his authority, including the greatest civil uprising of his reign, the Bulavin Rebellion. To improve his nation's position on the seas, Peter sought to gain more maritime outlets. His only outlet at the time was the White Sea. The Baltic Sea was at the time controlled by Sweden. Peter instead attempted to acquire control of the Caspian Sea, but to do so he would have to expel the Tatars from the surrounding areas. He was forced to wage war against the Crimean Khan and against the Khan's overlord, the Ottoman Sultan. Peter's primary objective became the capture of the Ottoman fortress of Azov, near the Don River. In the summer of 1695, Peter organized the Azov campaigns in order to take the fortress, but his attempts ended in failure. Peter returned to Moscow in November of that year, and promptly began building a large navy. He launched about thirty ships against the Ottomans in 1696, capturing Azov in July of that year. On September 12, 1698 Peter The Great officially founded the first Russian Navy base, Taganrog. Taganrog]] Peter knew that Russia could not face the mighty Ottoman Empire alone. In 1697, he traveled to Europe incognito with a large Russian delegation - the so-called "Grand Embassy"—to seek the aid of the European monarchs. Peter's hopes were dashed; France was a traditional ally of the Ottoman Sultan, and Austria was eager to maintain peace in the east whilst conducting its own wars in the west. Peter, furthermore, had chosen the most inopportune moment; the Europeans at the time were more concerned about who would succeed the childless Spanish King Charles II than about fighting the Ottoman Sultan. The "Grand Embassy", although failing to complete the mission of creating an anti-Ottoman alliance, still continued to travel across Europe. In visiting England, the Holy Roman Empire and France, Peter learnt much about Western culture. He studied shipbuilding in Deptford, Amsterdam and Zaandam, and artillery in Königsberg. Thanks to the mediation of Nicolaas Witsen, mayor of Amsterdam and expert on Russia par excellence, the Tsar was given the opportunity to gain practical experience in the largest private shipyard in the world, belonging to the Dutch East India Company in Amsterdam, for a period of four months. The Tsar helped with the construction of an Eastindiaman especially laid down for him: Peter and Paul. During his stay in the Netherlands the tsar engaged, with the help of Russian and Dutch assistants, many skilled workers such as builders of locks, fortresses, shipwrights and seamen. The best-known sailor who made the journey from the Netherlands to Russia was Cornelis Cruys (1655/57-1727). Cornelis Cruys accepted the Tsar's generous offer to enter into his service as vice-admiral. He emigrated to Russia in 1698 and became the Tsar's most important advisor in maritime affairs and the first mayor of Taganrog. The visit of Peter was cut short in 1698, when he was forced to rush home by a rebellion of the streltsy. The rebellion was, however, easily crushed before Peter returned; of the Tsar's troops, only one was killed. Peter nevertheless acted ruthlessly towards the mutineers. Over 1200 of them were tortured and executed, with Peter acting as one of the executioners. The streltsy were disbanded, and the individual they sought to put on the Throne—Peter's half-sister Sophia—was forced to become a nun. nun]] Also, upon his return from his European tour, Peter sought to end his unhappy marriage. He divorced the Tsaritsa, Eudoxia Lopukhina, whom he had deserted long earlier. The Tsaritsa had borne Peter three children, although only one—the Tsarevich Aleksei—had survived past his childhood. In 1698, Peter sent a delegation to Malta under boyar Boris Petrovich Sheremetyev, to observe the training and abilities of the Knights of Malta and their fleet. Sheremetyev also investigated the possibility of future joint ventures with the Knights, including action against the Turks and the possibility of a future Russian naval base. [http://www2.prestel.co.uk/church/oosj/timeline.htm] Peter's visits to the West impressed upon him the notion that European customs were in several respects superior to Russian traditions. He commanded all of his courtiers and officials to cut off their long beards and wear European clothing. Boyars who sought to retain their beards were required to pay an annual tax of one hundred rubles. In 1699, Peter also abolished the traditional Russian calendar, in which the year began on 1 September, in favor of the Julian calendar, in which the year began on 1 January. Traditionally, the years were reckoned from the purported creation of the World, but after Peter's reforms, they were to be counted from the birth of Christ. Russia moved to Julian calendar just as the rest of the world was moving to the Gregorian calendar. Russia would stay on the Julian calendar until the October Revolution in 1918.

Great Northern War

Peter made peace with the Ottoman Empire and turned his attention to Russian maritime supremacy. He sought to acquire control of the Baltic Sea, which had been taken by Sweden a half-century earlier. Peter declared war on Sweden, which was at the time led by King Charles XII. Sweden was also opposed by Denmark, Norway, Saxony and Poland. [http://www.sppiter.narod.ru/index1.html Bronze Horseman poem] Poland Russia turned out to be ill-prepared to fight the Swedes, and their first attempt at seizing the Baltic coast ended in disaster at the Battle of Narva in 1700. In the conflict, the forces of Charles XII used a blinding snowstorm to their advantage. After the battle, Charles XII, decided to concentrate his forces against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, giving Peter I time to reorganize the Russian army. As the Poles and Swedes fought each other, Peter founded the great city of Saint Petersburg (named for Saint Peter the Apostle) in Izhora (which he had re-captured from Sweden) in 1703. He forbade the building of stone edifices outside Saint Petersburg — which he intended to become Russia's capital — so that all the stonemasons could participate in the construction of the new city. He also took Martha Skavronskaya as a mistress. Martha converted to Orthodox Christianity and took the name Catherine, allegedly marrying Peter in secret in 1707. Following several defeats, the Polish King August II abdicated in 1706. Charles XII turned his attention to Russia, invading it in 1708. After crossing into Russia, Charles defeated Peter at Golovchin in July. In the Battle of Lesnaya, however, Charles suffered his first ever loss after Peter crushed a group of Swedish reinforcements marching from Riga. Deprived of this aid, Charles was forced to abandon his proposed march on Moscow. Moscow by Mikhail Lomonosov)]] Charles XII refused to retreat to Poland or back to Sweden, instead invading Ukraine. Peter withdrew his army southward, destroying any property that could assist the Swedes along the way. Deprived of local supplies, the Swedish army was forced to halt its advance in the winter of 1708–1709. In the summer of 1709, they nevertheless resumed their efforts to capture Ukraine, culminating in the Battle of Poltava on 27 June. The battle was a decisive defeat for Swedish forces, ending Charles' campaign in Ukraine and forcing him into exile in the Ottoman Empire. In Poland, August II was restored as King. Peter foolishly attacked the Ottomans in 1711. Normally, the Boyar Duma would have exercised power during his absence. Peter, however, mistrusted the Boyars; he abolished the Duma and created a Senate of ten members. Peter's campaign in the Ottoman Empire was disastrous; in the ensuing peace treaty, Peter was forced to return the Black Sea ports he had seized in 1697. In return, the Sultan expelled Charles XII from his territory. Peter's northern armies took the Swedish province of Livonia (the northern half of modern Latvia, and the southern half of modern Estonia), driving the Swedes back into Finland. Most of Finland was occupied by the Russians in 1714. The Tsar's navy was so powerful that the Russians could penetrate Sweden. Peter also obtained the assistance of Hanover and the Kingdom of Prussia. Still, Charles refused to yield, and not until his death in battle in 1718 did peace become feasible. Sweden made peace with all powers but Russia by 1720. In 1721, the Treaty of Nystad ended what became known as the Great Northern War. Russia acquired Ingria, Estonia, Livonia and a substantial portion of Karelia. In turn, Russia paid two million Riksdaler and surrendered most of Finland. The Tsar was, however, permitted to retain some Finnish lands close to Saint Petersburg, which he had made his capital in 1712.

Later years

1712 Peter's last years were marked by further reforms in Russia. In 1721, soon after peace was made with Sweden, he was acclaimed Emperor of All Russia. (Some proposed that he take the title Emperor of the East, but he refused.) His imperial title was recognized by Augustus II of Poland, Frederick William I of Prussia and Frederick I of Sweden, but not by the other European monarchs. In the minds of many, the word emperor connoted superiority or pre-eminence over "mere" kings. Several rulers feared that Peter would claim authority over them, just as the Holy Roman Emperor had once claimed suzerainty over all Christian nations. Peter also reformed the government of the Orthodox Church. The traditional leader of the Church was the Patriarch of Moscow. In 1700, when the office fell vacant, Peter had refused to name a replacement, allowing the Patriarch's Coadjutor (or deputy) to discharge the duties of the office. Twenty-one years later, in 1721, Peter followed the advice of Feofan Prokopovich and erected the Holy Synod, a council of ten clergymen, to take the place of the Patriarch and Coadjutor. In 1722, Peter created a new order of precedence, known as the Table of Ranks. Formerly, precedence had been determined by birth. In order to deprive the Boyars of their high positions, Peter directed that precedence should be determined by merit and service to the Emperor. The Table of Ranks continued to remain in effect until the Russian monarchy was overthrown in 1917. Peter also introduced new taxes to fund improvements in Saint Petersburg. He abolished the land tax and household tax, and replaced them with a capitation. The taxes on land on households were payable only by individuals who owned property or maintained families; the new head taxes, however, were payable by serfs and paupers. In 1724, Peter had his second wife, Catherine, crowned as Empress, although he continued to remain Russia's actual ruler. All of Peter's male children had died—the eldest son, Aleksei, had been tortured and killed on Peter's orders in 1718 because he had disobeyed his father and opposed official policies. Aleksei's mother Eudoxia had also been punished; she was dragged from her home and tried on false charges of adultery. A similar fate befell Peter's beautiful mistress, Anna Mons, in 1704. In 1725, construction of Peterhof, a palace near St Petersburg, was completed. Peterhof (Dutch for "Peter's Court") was a grand residence, becoming known as the "Russian Versailles" (after the great French Palace of Versailles).
Death
Versailles.]] Versailles A law of 1722 had allowed Peter to choose his own successor, but he failed to take advantage of it before he died from an illness in 1725. The lack of clear succession rules led to many succession conflicts in the subsequent "era of palace revolutions." Peter was succeeded by his wife Catherine, who had the aid of the imperial guards. Upon her death in 1727, the Empress Catherine was succeeded by Aleksei's son, Peter II, bringing the direct male line of Romanov monarchs to an end. Thereafter, inheritance of the Throne was generally chaotic—the next two monarchs were descendants of Peter I's half brother Ivan V, but the Throne was restored to Peter's own descendants through a coup d'état in 1741. No child would simply and directly succeed his or her parent until Paul followed Catherine the Great in 1796, over seventy years after Peter had died.

Legitimate issue

See also

- Peterhof - Peter the Great's summer palace
- Peter the Great and the Russian Empire
- Caesaropapism
Notes
#Dates indicated by the letters "O.S." are Old Style. All other dates in this article are New Style. #There is some general confusion over transliterations into the Latin alphabet from the Russian Cyrillic. Although the variant "Feodor" often appears as in the title of the referenced article, "Fyodor", as the name is rendered here, is a more accurate representation. The Russian Cyrillic equivalent is Фёдор, the second letter of which [ё] takes the sound "yo". It should be noted passim that one very rarely sees the form ё in print. The dieresis is almost always omitted leaving a bare e, unless the text is a primer with a target audience of young children who have not yet learned to read.
Reference
Peter I of Russia Peter I of Russia Category:Muscovites Category:Russian tsars Category:Russian emperors Category:Romanov Category:City founders ko:러시아의 표트르 1세 ja:ピョートル1世 (ロシア皇帝)

Moscow
Moscow (Russian: Москва́, Moskva, IPA: ) is the capital of Russia, located on the river Moskva. The urban area constitutes about 1/10 of the Russian population, thus making it the most populous city in Europe. The city is in the federal district located in the west of Russia. It was the capital of the former Soviet Union, and of Muscovite Russia, the pre-Imperial Russia. It is the site of the famous Kremlin, which serves as the center of the national government. Moscow is also well known as the site of the Saint Basil's Cathedral, with its elegant onion domes. The Patriarch of Moscow, whose residence is the Danilov Monastery, serves as the head of the Russian Orthodox Church.
History
Russian Orthodox Church at Red Square.]] The first reference to Moscow dates from 1147 when it was an obscure town in a small province inhabited mostly by Merya, speakers of a now extinct Finnic language. In 1156, Prince Yury Dolgoruky built a wooden wall and a moat around the city. After the sacking of 1237-1238, when the Mongols burned the city to the ground and killed its inhabitants, Moscow recovered and became the capital of an independent principality. Its favorable position on the headwaters of the Volga river contributed to steady expansion. Moscow was also stable and prosperous for many years and attracted a large numbers of refugees from across Russia. Under Ivan I the city replaced Tver as capital of Vladimir-Suzdal and became the sole collector of taxes for the Mongol rulers. By paying high tribute, Ivan won an important concession from the Khan. Unlike other principalities, Moscow was not divided among his sons but was passed intact to his eldest. In 1380, prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow led a united Russian army to an important victory over the Mongols in the Battle of Kulikovo. After that, Moscow took the leading role in liberating Russia from Mongol domination. In 1480, Ivan III had finally broken the Russians free from Tatar control and Moscow became the capital of an empire that would eventually encompass all of Russia and Siberia, and parts of many other lands. Siberia on the right]] Moscow ceased to be Russia's capital when in 1703 Peter the Great constructed St. Petersburg on the Baltic coast. When Napoleon invaded in 1812, the Moscovites burned the city and evacuated, as Napoleon's forces were approaching on September 14. Napoleon's army, plagued by hunger, cold, and poor supply lines, was forced to retreat. In January of 1905, the institution of the City Governor, or Mayor, was officially introduced in Moscow, and Alexander Adrianov became Moscow's first official mayor. Following the success of the Russian Revolution in 1917, Lenin, fearing possible foreign invasion, moved the capital from St. Petersburg back to Moscow on March 5, 1918. During the Great Patriotic War, the Soviet State Committee of Defence and the General Staff of the Red Army were located in Moscow. In 1941 16 divisions of the national volunteers (more than 160,000 people), 25 battalions (18,000 people) and 4 engineering regiments were formed among the Muscovites. In November 1941, German Army Group Centre was stopped at the outskirts of the city and then driven off in the course of the Battle of Moscow. Many factories were evacuated, together with much of the government, and from October 20 the city was declared to be in a state of siege. Its remaining inhabitants built and manned antitank defenses, while the city was bombarded from the air. On May 1, 1944 a medal "For the defence of Moscow" and in 1947 another medal "In memory of the 800th anniversary of Moscow" were instituted. On May 8, 1965 owing to the actual 20th anniversary of the victory in World War II Moscow was awarded a title of the Hero City. In 1980 it hosted the summer Olympic Games. In 1991 Moscow was the scene of a coup attempt by the government members opposed to the reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev. When the USSR was dissolved in the same year, Moscow became only a capital of the Russian Federation. Since then, the emergence of a market economy in Moscow has produced an explosion of Western-style retailing, services, architecture, and lifestyles.
Administrative divisions
:Main article: Administrative divisions of Moscow.
Culture

- (See also Moscow tourist attractions for links and Views of Moscow) Moscow and St. Petersburg have for centuries been the sites of much of the country's internationally known history and culture, and the residences of most of its famous personalities.
Architecture
The city was once known as 'sorok-sorokov' ('forty-times-forty'), in reference to the many Orthodox spires making up the city's skyline. The look of the city was changed drastically during Soviet times, mostly due to Stalin, who oversaw a large scale effort to modernize the city by, on the one hand, introducing very broad avenues and roadways, some of them over ten lanes wide, and on the other, destroying a great number of historically significant architectural works such as the Sukharev Tower and numerous mansions and stores lining the major streets, and various works of religious architecture, such as the Christ the Saviour Cathedral. The latter was demolished to make way for a huge skyscraper that was never built, and reconstructed in the mid to late 90s. Stalin did build seven other skyscrapers however, allegedly inspired by the Municipal Building in New York. They form a series of huge, cathedral-like structures with intricate exteriors, and are given various labels: 'The Seven Sisters', 'Stalinist Gothic', 'wedding cake architecture' and so on. They are among the tallest constructions in central Moscow and can all be seen together from most elevations in the city, apart from the Ostankino Tower which, when it was built in 1967, was the tallest free-standing structure in the world, before the title was taken by the CN Tower. The Soviet policy of providing mandatory housing for every citizen or their family, and the rapid growth of the huge Moscow population in Soviet times, also lead to the construction of large, monotonous housing blocks, which can often be differentiated in age, sturdiness of construction, or 'style' according to the neighbourhood and the materials used. Most of these date from the post-Stalin era and the styles are often named after the leader then in power - Brezhnev, Krushchev, etc, and they are usually ill-maintained. The Stalinist-era constructions, usually in the central city, are massive and usually ornamented with Socialist realism motifs that imitate Classical themes. However, small churches - almost always Orthodox - that hint on the city's past still dot various parts of the city. The Old Arbat, a popular tourist street that was once the heart of a bohemian area, preserves most of its 19th century or older buildings. Many buildings found off the main streets of the inner city (behind the Stalinist facades of Tverskaya Ulitsa, for example) are also examples of the bourgeois decadence in Tsarist times. Large estates just outside Moscow belonging to nobles from the Tsarist era, and some convents and monasteries both inside and outside the city, are open to Muscovites and tourists. Attempts are being made to restore many of the city's best-kept examples of pre-Soviet architecture, and these are easily spotted by their bright new colours and spotless facades. There are a few examples of notable, early Soviet avant-garde work too, such as the house of the architect Konstantin Melnikov in the Arbat area. Later examples of interesting Soviet architecture are usually marked by their impressive size and the semi-Modernist styles employed, such as the Novy Arbat project, designed by Mikhail Posokhin. Like in London, but on a broader scale, plaques on the house exteriors will inform passer-by that a well-known personality once lived there. Frequently the plaques are dedicated to Soviet celebrities not well-known to the outside world. There are also many 'house-museums' of famous Russian writers, composers, and artists in the city.
Views of Moscow
Image:sk334.jpg|Presidium of Russian Academy of Sciences. Image:sk331.jpg|Moscow International Music-Hall. Image:sk302.jpg|Paveletsky Tower Business Center. Image:sk328.jpg|Triumphal arch on Kutuzovsky prospekt. Image:sk280.jpg|Bogdan Khmelnitsky bridge. Image:sk388.jpg|Riverside building. Image:sk337.jpg|Old Andreevsky bridge. Image:sk345.jpg|Christ the Saviour Temple. Image:sk225.jpg|Ministry of foreign affairs. Image:sk55.jpg|Moscow International Business Center, Tower 2000. Image:eur.jpg|Square of Europe Image:Kotelincheskaya Naberezhnaja Moscow.hires.jpg|Stalinist Skyscraper at Kotelnicheskaya Naberezhnaja.
Visual, Performing and Other Arts
There are many museums and galleries in Moscow with collections that can be compared to those of the best museums in the West. Frequent art exhibitions thrive on both the new and the classic, as they once did in pre-Revolutionary times, and from their diversity in every branch of the arts - painting, photography, sculpture and so on - it would appear that the Muscovite art world is steeped in many traditions: Russian, Western, Oriental, both old and new. Two of the most notable art museums in Moscow are the Tretyakov Gallery, founded by Paul Tretyakov, a wealthy and generous patron of the arts who accumulated a very large private collection before donating it to the State, and the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts, which was founded, among others, by Marina Tsvetaeva's father. Currently there are two Tretyakovs. The Old Tretyakov, the original gallery in the Tretyakovskaya area on the south bank of the Moskva, houses the works of the classic Russian tradition, with famous pre-revolutionary painters such as Ilya Repin, going all the way back to early Russian icon painting with exhibits of rare originals by Andrei Rublev. The New Tretyakov, created in Soviet times, mostly houses the work of Soviet and a few contemporary artists, but there is some overlap between the two for early 20th century art. The latter includes a small reconstruction of Vladimir Tatlin's famous Monument to the Third International and a mixture of other avant-garde works by artists like Kazimir Malevich or Wassily Kandinsky, and Soviet propaganda. The Pushkin Museum is like The British Museum in that its halls are a cross-section of world civilizations, with many plaster casts of ancient sculptures, but it also hosts famous paintings from every major Western era of art - the work of El Greco, Monet, Cezanne and so on can all be sampled there. Moscow is also the heart of Russian performing arts, including ballet. Theatres and ballet studios are very common in Moscow. The most famous of these are the Bolshoi (Big) and Malyj (Small) theatres, a centerpiece of Moscow; the Bolshoi is usually closed during the summer, but in 2005 it closed semi-permanently for reconstruction work. Ticket prices were as low as $1 in the Soviet era, but have increased dramatically since. The repertories in a typical Moscow season are exhaustive and modern interpretations of classic works, whether operatic or theatrical, are quite common. Soviet films are integral to film history, and the Mosfilm studio was at the heart of many classics, both artistic and more mainstream productions. However, despite the continued presence and reputation of internationally renowned Russian filmmakers, the once prolific native studios are much quieter, and there are fewer independent cinema theatres in Moscow than there were around the end of the Soviet Union, having given way to multiplexes and recent Hollywood productions. The overall maintenance and condition of theatres has improved, though ticket prices are much higher and increase every year.
Everyday life
Although less than a quarter of Russians live in the countryside, Muscovites, like other urban dwellers, are still attached to the country. Many live in country homes (called dachas) over the weekend and over holidays, and retire to the country when they are old. Moscow contains many parks and gardens; see Sport. Huge shopping malls, both urban and suburban, with their multiplex theatres, department stores, grocery chains, food courts, and other common features are now very common in Moscow and they are very popular with the city's adolescents most of whom, like their Western counterparts, like to project themselves as trendy.
Education
dacha There are numerous large universities in Moscow, including the renowned Moscow State University housed in the 240m high tower on Vorobyovy Gory (Sparrow Hills). The university has over 30,000 undergraduates and 7,000 postgraduate students. Bauman Moscow State Technical University offers a wide range of technical degrees. Moscow State Institute of International Relations [http://www.mgimo.ru] is Russia's best known school of international relations and diplomacy. See Also: List of universities in Russia
Business and Trade
A major part of Russia's profits and development is concentrated in Moscow. Many multi-national corporations have branches and offices in the city. The plush offices and the lifestyles of the typical corporate employee in Moscow are practically indistinguishable from any other Western European city, although the average salary for the Russian is still lower here. After the financial crisis in the late 90s, various business sectors in Moscow have shown exponential rates of growth. However, while the overall stability has improved in the recent years, crime and corruption continue to remain a problem hindering business development. A recent study showed that far from decreasing, corruption in the Putin era has been on the rise, and large businesses can expect to pay an average of over a hundred thousand dollars a year in bribes to officials. The Mafia also runs extortion rackets in most parts of the city, though there are no reliable data to understand how large their influence is. According to a July 22, 2004 article in Forbes, Moscow became the city with the most billionaires. It had 33 billionaires, passing New York City by two. The nouveau-riche, also called the "New Russians", often pejoratively, have a reputation for flaunting their wealth; the avenues for doing so, and subtly, have also increased in recent times - a sense of fashion and self-consciousness has instilled itself through the many haute coutoure and haute-cuisine spots in Moscow.
Tourism
New York City Moscow has always been a popular destination for more adventurous tourists. The better known attractions include the UNESCO World Heritage sites of the Kremlin, Red Square and the Church of the Ascension at Kolomenskoye, all dating from between the 14th and 17th centuries. Other popular attractions include the Zoo, expanded in the 1990s. Moscow is also the western end of the 9 300 km Trans-Siberian railway to Vladivostok. The city presents a unique look in midwinter when the streets are cloaked in powdery snow and the dusky twilight of the continental winter. In winter the locals face the cold with the warm embrace of hospitality. However, as temperatures can often be below -25 °C (-13 °F), early summer or early autumn can offer a much more comfortable and lively visit. Russians like to have fun as much as anyone else, and the very short summer nights mean that one can find people involved in social events, or roving about, or drinking outside at very late hours. The abundant greenery of Moscow gives the city a semi-tropical feel that pleasantly surprises the visitor accustomed to stereotypes about the Russian cold. The long days will also afford one more time to cover the immense wealth of historical, cultural or simply popular sites in Moscow. Scenic vantage points include the Sparrow Hills, on the Moscow river to the south-west of the city. Moscow presents many obstacles to the independent foreign tourist without local contacts. While it is not hard to get a visa and enter the country, it is quite common to resort to somewhat expensive, semi-legal procedures to 'register' oneself. The registration process is deliberately bureaucratic, complicated and immensely time-consuming, if one is not staying at a hotel. New medical and work permit requirements have also been introduced by the government, which increases the stress and expenses involved for long-term visitors, who are already required to leave the country every six months and re-register upon entry. While excellent hotels are found all over Moscow, they are usually not for the budget traveller, and not for long-term visitors. Everyone is also required to carry their passport for identification and so that the registration can be checked by local militia, who also pose a problem. They are found all over the city but especially in and around Metro stations. Being underpaid, they frequently attempt to supplement their income by stopping people arbitrarily, checking their passports, and demanding bribes to prevent arrest over trivial reasons. Also, with the recent terrorist actions being associated with the darker-skinned Caucasian population, official police racism against all dark-skinned people is rife and the latter are likely to be stopped much more often, sometimes as much as thrice a week. Violent crime, especially but not only directed against foreigners, is also a frequent occurrence in Moscow. However, the average tourist making a brief visit on a package tour is not likely to encounter any of these problems. The general, educated section of the populace are open-minded and can be very helpful; and expatriates who like making Russian friends find their curiosity and enthusiasm reciprocated and usually have fond memories of their stay, once they understand the system. While customer service is still something new to many Russian vendors, burgeoning Westernization means that high-profile and tourist stores all over Moscow may give you special attention if you are a foreigner.
Moscow tourist attractions
Bolshoi Theatre | Kolomenskoye | Kremlin | Poklonnaya Hill | Kuskovo | Manege | Europe's tallest tower | Stalinist skyscrapers | Ostankino Palace | Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts | Red Square with Lenin's mausoleum, Monument to Minin and Pozharsky, and Lobnoye Mesto | Saint Basil's Cathedral | Novodevichy Convent | Donskoy Monastery | Simonov Monastery | Red Gate | Shukhov radio tower | Cathedral of Christ the Saviour | State Tretyakov Gallery | All-Russian Exhibition Center | Alexander Garden | Moscow Zoo | Patriarch's Ponds | Moscow State University | Krutitsy | Elokhovo Cathedral | Church of St. Nicholas of the Weavers | Church of St. John the Warrior | Menshikov Tower | Church of the Intercession at Fili
Costs
Some prices are considerably higher for the foreign visitor than for locals. A cost of living survey by Mercer Human Resource Consulting puts Moscow in second place after Tokyo, making it the most expensive city in Europe. For natives, small apartments bought or given by the state in the Soviet era, coupled with extremely low utility costs and easily avoidable income tax serve to lower the cost of living greatly. A look at transport prices offers a good illustration. A taxi from Sheremetyevo International Airport will cost the non-Russian speaking traveller upwards of $60; the Russian speaking foreigner will be charged $30-$40. The native Moscow dweller will negotiate the price to $15-20 or will avoid the taxi rank altogether and take a marshrutka (shuttle, shared taxi) to the nearest metro station for about 0.5 dollar.
Dining
In recent times there has been a large and quickly growing range of restaurants with a range of prices to match. The average cost, per person, for a meal in a middle to high class restaurant will be $30 to $200, especially if one orders vintage wines. Chain restaurants, such as "Moo-Moo," offer adequate quality canteen food – with English menus – for around five dollars per person. Although most Moscovites do not eat in even cheap restaurants very often, lately many new "middle-class" restaurants have opened, targeting families on weekends. A number of fast food restaurants have outlets near many metro stations. That includes the omnipresent McDonald's as well as other chains, notably Rostiks, which specializes on serving chicken, and Kroshka Kartoshka, serving traditional baked potato with numerous toppings, Danish-style Stardogs! and many others. Recently, a large number of coffee shops have sprouted up around the city; two of the best known ones are Coffee House and Coffee Mania, conceptually identical to the Starbucks model. Foreign cuisines, notably the Oriental ones - Japanese, Chinese and Indian - are growing in popularity all over the city. Georgian cuisine has always been a favourite, and 'shawarma' (usually 50 roubles each or about US$1.70) stalls are often found near most Metro stations. Popular and profitable chain restaurants, such as Il Patio (Italian cuisine), Sushi Planet (Japanese) and T. G. I. Fridays (American), all connected to the Rosinter group, are found in clusters in many parts of the city.
Transport
Moscow has five airports, Sheremetyevo International Airport, Domodedovo International Airport, Bykovo Airport, Ostafievo International Airport and Vnukovo International Airport. The city is also the main rail hub for Russia, with daily trains to diverse destinations such as Vladivostok (9 000 km) and Brussels (2 000 km) [http://www.seat61.com/Russia.htm#option%201,%20via%20the%20Brussels%20-%20Moscow%20sleeper]. Local transportation includes the Moscow Metro, an excellent metro (subway) system famous for its art, murals, mosaics, and ornate chandeliers. Begun in 1935, the system has 11 lines and more than 171 stations. The system is the world's busiest, with 9 million passengers every day and trains every 90 seconds at peak times. As Metro stations outside the city centre are far apart in comparison to other cities, up to 4 km, an extensive bus network radiates from each station to the surrounding residential zones. Suburbs and several city areas also connected with electric train (elektrichka) network. The buses are very frequent, often more than one a minute, and inexpensive at about $0.5. Every large street in the city is served by at least one bus route and none of the city's 13,000 apartment blocks are more than a few minutes walk from a stop. There are also tram and trolleybus networks. There are over 2.5 million cars in the city on a daily basis (2004). Recent years have seen explosive growth in the number of cars, which have caused traffic jams and the lack of parking space to become major problems. The road system is structured with sequences of radial and ring roads. The first and innermost, Bulvarnoe Koltso (Boulevard Ring), built at the former location of 16th century city wall around what used to be called Bely Gorod (White Town). Boulevard Ring is technically not a ring - it isn't connected and has a horseshoe-like shape. The second ring, Sadovoye Koltso (Garden Ring), follows the line of another 16th century wall - the Earth Wall encircling historic Earth Town. After the war of 1812 the Earth Wall was demolished and replaced by streets and gardens. During the reconstruction of 1930's the Garden Ring took its current shape - the streets were widened, and the gardens were gone. The Third Transport Ring was completed in 2003, and the Fourth Transport Ring is being constructed to reduce traffic congestion. The outer ring, a large road called MKAD, forms the approximate boundary of the city. MKAD, along with Third and future Fourth Transport Rings are the only freeways within city limits.
Sports
freeways freeways Soccer is an extremely popular spectator sport among the young. Clubs such as Dynamo, CSKA, Lokomotiv and Spartak are prominent on the European stage. Supporter violence has become a serious problem when international teams play in Moscow. In 2002, a dozen Irish fans in Moscow for a Russia-Ireland game were attacked by neo-Nazi groups. One later died of his injuries. That same year, when a Russia-Japan World Cup match, played in Japan but broadcast live to the crowds in Pushkinskaja Square, went badly for the Russians, the crowd turned violent and wrought havoc in the centre of the city, breaking windows, smashing and burning cars and looting several shops. A Chinese restaurant was incidentally attacked and five Japanese tourists were beaten. One policeman died (other sources say two) and about one hundred people were injured. Winter sports have a large following. Most Russians own cross-country skis and ice skates and there are many large parks with marked trails for skiers and frozen ponds and canals for skaters. Often parks will have small local businesses offering ski and skate rental. Prices range from $1 to $5 an hour for rental. Moscow was the host city of the 1980 Summer Olympics, although the yachting events were held at Tallinn. Huge new stadium and other athletic facilities were built especially for the occasion. The main international airport, Sheremetyevo Terminal 2, was also built at this time. Moscow has also made a bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics. However, when voting commenced on July 6 2005, Moscow was the first city to be eliminated from further rounds. The Games were finally awarded to London. London
Demographics
Although the population of the Russian Federation declines by about 700,000 (143.8 million
- 0.5% decline) every year due to low birth rates and early deaths, Moscow appears to be immune to these problems in recent years. Moscow has a very high population growth rate, largely due to migration (despite an internal passport system that makes it illegal for non-city residents to stay in the capital for more than 90 days without registration). These new Moscovites are attracted by the local economic growth rate of up to 20%, versus stagnation or even decline in most of Russia, the result of sharp polarization of the country in recent years. The city is home to small numbers of people of every racial and cultural group, from African students to Irish business people (there is an annual St. Patrick's Day Parade on the Novy Arbat avenue). However, the major part of the population are ethnic Russians, Tatars, Ukrainians and Belarusians. :See also History of Moscow for historical population growth
Terrorism
As with many cities, terrorism is a threat in Moscow. On February 6 2004 a bomb explosion in a subway car near the Avtozavodskaya metro station killed at least 40 and injured many. Other prominent acts of terror include the destruction of two apartment buildings in September 1999 (see Russian Apartment Bombings), an explosion in the pedestrian subway under the Pushkinskaya square in August 2000, and the capture of the theatre at Dubrovka in October 2002.
Media
Moscow is the headquarters of many Russian television networks, radio stations, newspapers and magazines. The following is a brief list, beginning with English-language sources, followed by Russian. Newspapers
- [http://www.themoscowtimes.com The Moscow Times] The largest English-language daily operating in Russia.
- [http://www.exile.ru The eXile] Alternative biweekly known for its irreverent style, pranks and club/restaurant reviews.
- [http://www.gazeta.ru/ gazeta.ru] Leading Russian web magazine. In Russian only.
- [http://www.vedomosti.ru/ Vedomosti with Financial Times] The leading Russian business newspaper. Radio
- [http://www.echo.msk.ru Echo Moskvy] "Echo of Moscow", The first Soviet and Russian private news radio and information agency. 91.2 FM in Moscow, in Russian only.
Bibliography

- Karel Neubert. "Portrait of Moscow". 1964
- Albert J. Schmidt. "The Architecture and Planning of Classical Moscow: A Cultural History". 1989
- Kathleen Berton. "Moscow: An Architectural History". St. Martin's, 1991
- Marcel Girard. "Splendours of Moscow and Its Surroundings", trans. from French. 1967
- John Bushwell. "Moscow Graffiti: Language and Subculture". Unwin Hyman, 1990
- S.S. Hromov et al. (eds.). "History of Moscow: An Outline", trans. from Russian. 1981
- Galina Dutkina. "Moscow Days: Life and Hard Times in the New Russia". Trans. Catherine Fitzpatrick. Kodansha America, 1995
Further reading

- Muscovy
- History of Russia
External links

- [http://www.mos.ru Official Moscow Administration site]
- [http://www.worldtimeserver.com/current_time_in_RU-MOW.aspx Current time in Moscow]
- [http://kursy.rsuh.ru/istoria/moseng/sod.asp History of Moscow]
- http://www.bestofrussia.ca
- [http://www.moscow-life.com Moscow Life] - Moscow Travel Guide
- [http://www.beeflowers.com/Metro/ Moscow Metro Photos] - Panoramic Virtual Tour
- [http://www.m2012.ru/en/ 2012 Olympics bid]
- [http://www.moscowcity.com/attractions/attractions.htm Moscow attractions] (travel company)
- [http://www.asinah.org/weather/UUEE.html Moscow Weather Forecast]
- [http://www.earthcam.com/russia/moscow/ Red Square, Moscow Webcams]
- [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=55.707550,37.704391&spn=0.482059,0.625568&t=k&hl=en Google Maps: Moscow] (satellite images)
- [http://www.reisebuero-welt.com/ Travel to Moscow] - Moscow hotels booking, webcams, photos. Category:Capitals in Europe Category:Cities and towns in Russia Category:Federal cities of Russia Category:Holy cities Category:Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games Category:Moscow neighborhoods als:Moskau zh-min-nan:Moskva ko:모스크바 ja:モスクワ simple:Moscow th:มอสโก

Alexandro-Nevsky Lavra

Alexander Nevsky Monastery was founded by Peter the Great in 1710 at the southern end of the Nevsky Prospect in St Petersburg to house the relics of Alexander Nevsky, patron saint of the newly-founded Russian capital. In 1797, it was raised to the rank of lavra, previously bestowed only upon Kiev Monastery of the Caves and the Trinity Monastery of St Sergius. The monastery premises contain two baroque churches, designed by father and son Trezzini and built in 1717-22 and 1742-50, respectively; a majestic Neoclassical cathedral, built in 1778-90 to a design by Ivan Starov and consecrated to the Holy Trinity; and numerous structures of lesser importance. It also contains the Lazarev and Tikhvin Cemeteries, where ornate tombs of Mikhail Lomonosov, Alexander Suvorov, Nikolay Karamzin, Modest Mussorgsky, Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Fyodor Dostoevsky, and other famous Russians are preserved.

External link

[http://lavra.spb.ru/ Official site of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra] Category:Buildings and structures in Saint Petersburg Category:Monasteries in Russia Category:Orthodox monasteries Category:Religion in Saint Petersburg Category:Visitor attractions in Saint Petersburg ja:アレクサンドル・ネフスキー大修道院

Stroganov

Stroganovs or Strogonovs (Строгановы, Строгоновы in Russian), also spelled in French manner as Stroganoffs, was a family of highly successful Russian merchants, industrialists, landowners, and statesmen of the 16th - 20th centuries that eventually earned nobility. The Stroganov family came from the rich Pomor peasants. Feodor Lukich Stroganov - the originator of the family - settled in Solvychegodsk in the late 15th century. Here, his son Akiney Fyodorovich Stroganov (1497-1570) opened the saltworks in 1515, which would later become a huge industry. In 1558, Ivan the Terrible granted big estates along the Kama and Chusovaya Rivers to Akiney Stroganov and his successors. In 1566, their lands were included into the oprichnina at their own request. Conquering the lands from local population and colonizing them with the arriving Russian peasants, the Stroganovs developed farming, hunting, saltworks, fishing, and ore mining in these areas. They were building towns and fortresses and, at the same time, suppressing local unrests with the help of their druzhinas and annexing new lands in the Urals and Siberia in favor of Russia. Semyon Anikeyevich Stroganov (? - 1609) and Anikey's grandsons Maksim Yakovlevich Stroganov (? - 1620s) and Nikita Grigoriyevich Stroganov (? - 1620) financed Yermak's Siberian campaign in 1581. During the times of Polish intervention of the early 17th century, the Stroganovs rendered humanitarian and military support to the Russian government (some 842,000 rubles just in terms of money), for which they would receive the title of distinguished people in 1610. In the 17th century, the Stroganovs invested heavily in the salt industry in Solikamsk. In the 1680s, Grigory Dmitriyevich Stroganov (1656 - 1715) united all the scattered lands of the heirs of the children of Anikey Stroganov. He also annexed the saltworks, which belonged to the Shustov and Filatiyev families. In the 18th century, the Stroganovs established a number of ironworks and copper-smelting factories in the Urals. During the Great Northern War of 1700–1721, the Stroganovs rendered big financial support to the government of Peter the Great, for which Alexander Grigoriyevich, Nikolay Grigoriyevich, and Sergei Grigoriyevich would be granted barony in 1722 and later – earldom. From then on, the Stroganovs became members of Russian aristocracy and held important government posts. Sergei Grigoriyevich (1707-1756) played a significant role during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna. His son Alexander Sergeyevich (1733-1811) was a member of the commission on elaborating the new code of laws during the reign of Catherine the Great. In the late 18th – early 19th century, he held different posts, such as president of the Russian Academy of Sciences, art director of the Public Library, and member of the State Council. Pavel Alexandrovich Stroganov (1772-1817) was a member of the Private Committee (Негласный комитет) of Alexander I and assistant to the minister of the interior. Sergei Grigoriyevich Stroganov (1794-1882) was the governor general of Moscow in 1859-1860. Alexander Grigoriyevich Stroganov was the minister of the interior in 1839-1841 and then a member of the State Council (since 1849). Most of the Stroganovs are known to have shown interest for art, literature, history, and archaeology. They used to own rich libraries, collections of paintings, coins, medals etc. Stroganov Palace (now one of the buildings of the State Russian Museum) is among the chief sights of Nevsky Prospect in St.Petersburg.

Neoclassicism

:For information about the economic theory, see neoclassical economics. Neoclassicism (sometimes rendered as Neo-Classicism or Neo-classicism) is the name given to quite distinct movements in the visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture. These movements were in effect at various times between the 18th and the 20th centuries. What could these "neoclassicisms" have in common? What any "neo"-classicism depends on most fundamentally is a consensus about a body of work that has achieved canonic status (illustration, below). These are the "classics." Ideally— and neoclassicism is essentially an art of an ideal— an artist, well-schooled and comfortably familiar with the canon, does not repeat it in lifeless reproductions, but synthesizes the tradition anew in each work. This sets a high standard, clearly; but though a neoclassical artist who fails to achieve it may create works that are inane, vacuous or even mediocre, gaffes of taste and failures of craftsmanship are not commonly neoclassical failings. Novelty, improvisation, self-expression, and blinding inspiration are not neoclassical virtues; neoclassicism exhibits perfect control of an idiom. It does not recreate art forms from the ground up with each new project, as modernism demanded. "Make it new" was the modernist credo of the poet Ezra Pound. Ezra Pound Speaking and thinking in English, "neoclassicism" in each art implies a particular canon of "classic" models. We recognize them, even if we struggle against their power: Virgil, Raphael, Nicolas Poussin, Haydn. Other cultures have other canons of classics, however, and a recurring strain of neoclassicism appears to be a natural expression of a culture at a certain moment in its career, a culture that is highly self-aware, that is also confident of its own high mainstream tradition, but at the same time feels the need to regain something that has slipped away: Apollonius of Rhodes is a neoclassic writer; Ming ceramics pay homage to Sung celadon porcelains; Italian 15th century humanists learn to write a "Roman" hand we call italic (a.k.a. Carolingian); Neo-Babylonian culture is a neoclassical revival, and in Persia the "classic" religion of Zoroaster, Zoroastrianism, is revived after centuries, to "re-Persianize" a culture that had fallen away from its own classic Achaemenean past. Within the direct Western tradition, the earliest movement motivated by a neoclassicial inspiration is a Roman style that was first distinguished by the German art historian Friedrich Hauser (Die Neuattische Reliefs Stuttgart 1889), who identified the style-category he called "Neo-Attic" among sculpture produced in later Hellenistic circles during the last century or so BCE and in Imperial Rome; the corpus that Hauser called "Neo-Attic" consists of bas reliefs molded on decorative vessels and plaques, employing a figural and drapery style that looked for its canon of "classic" models to late 5th and early 4th century Athens and Attica.

Neoclassic in architecture and the visual arts

:Main article: Neoclassical architecture. In the visual arts the European movement called "neoclassicism" began after ca 1765, as a reaction against both the surviving Baroque and Rococo styles, and as a desire to return to the perceived "purity" of the arts of Rome, the more vague perception ("ideal") of Ancient Greek arts (where almost no western artist had actually been) and, to a lesser extent, 16th century Renaissance Classicism. Renaissance Classicism Each "neo"- classicism selects some models among the range of possible classics that are available to it, and ignores others. The neoclassical writers and talkers, patrons and collectors, artists and sculptors of 1765 - 1830 paid homage to an idea of the generation of Pheidias, but the sculpture examples they actually embraced were more likely to be Roman copies of Hellenistic sculptures. They ignored both Archaic Greek art and the works of Late Antiquity. The Rococo art of ancient Palmyra came as a revelation, through engravings in Wood's The Ruins of Palmyra. Even in all-but-unvisited Greece, a rough backwater of the Ottoman Empire, dangerous to explore, neoclassicists' appreciation of Greek architecture was mediated through drawings and engravings, which subtly smoothed and regularized, "corrected' and "restored" the monuments of Greece, not always consciously. As for painting, Greek painting was utterly lost: neoclassicist painters imaginatively revived it, partly through bas-relief friezes, mosaics, and pottery painting and partly through the examples of painting and decoration of the High Renaissance of Raphael's generation, frescos in Nero's Domus Aurea, Pompeii and Herculaneum and through renewed admiration of Nicholas Poussin. Much "neoclassical" painting is more classicisizing in subject matter than in anything else. There is an anti-Rococo strain that can be detected in some European architecture of the earlier 18th century, most vividly represented in the Palladian architecture of Georgian Britain and Ireland, but also recognizable in a classicizing vein of architecture in Berlin. It is a robust architecture of self-restraint, academically selective now of "the best" Roman models. Berlin's pupil Antonio Rinaldi, 1770s]] Neoclassicism first gained influence in England and France, through a generation of French art students trained in Rome and influenced by the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, and it was quickly adopted by progressive circles in Sweden. At first, classicizing decor was grafted onto familiar European forms, as in the interiors for Catherine II's lover Count Orlov, designed by an Italian architect with a team of Italian stuccadori: only the isolated oval medallions like cameos and the bas-relief overdoors hint of neoclassicism; the furnishings are fully Italian Rococo (illustration, left). bas-relief But a second neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied (through the medium of engravings) and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the Napoleonic Empire. In France, the first phase of neoclassicism is expressed in the "Louis XVI style", the second phase in the styles we call "Directoire" or "Empire." Italy clung to Rococo until the Napoleonic regimes brought the new archeaological classicism, which was embraced as a political statement by young, progressive, urban Italians with republican leanings. Napoleonic Empire The high tide of neoclassicism in painting is exemplified in early paintings by Jacques-Louis David (illustration, right) and Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres' entire career. David's Oath of the Horatii was painted in Rome and made a splash at the Paris Salon of 1784. Its central perspective is perpendicular to the picture plane, made more emphatic by the dim arcade behind, against which the heroic figures are disposed as in a frieze, with a hint of the artificial lighting and staging of opera, and the classical coloring of Nicholas Poussin. Nicholas Poussin: low-relief that is as linear as a pencil drawing]] In sculpture, the most familiar representatives are the Italian Antonio Canova, the Englishman John Flaxman and the Dane Bertel Thorvaldsen. In the decorative arts, neoclassicism is exemplified in Empire furniture made in Paris, London, New York, Berlin; in Biedermeyer furniture made in Austria; in Karl Friedrich Schinkel's museums in Berlin, Sir John Soane's Bank of England in London and the newly built "capitol" in Washington, DC; and in Wedgwood's bas reliefs and "black basaltes" vases. The Scots architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine II the Great in Russian St. Petersburg: the style was international. Catherine II the Great's stanze decorated Mme de Sérilly's Paris boudoir (Victoria and Albert Museum, London)]] Indoors, neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum, which had started in the late 1740s, but only achieved a wide audience in the 1760s, with the first luxurious volumes of tightly-controlled distribution of Le Antichità di Ercolano. The antiquities of Herculaneum showed that even the most classicizing interiors of the Baroque, or the most "Roman" rooms of William Kent were based on basilica and temple exterior architecture, turned outside in: pedimented window frames turned into gilded mirrors, fireplaces topped with temple fronts, now all looking quite bombastic and absurd. The new interiors sought to recreate an authentically Roman and genuinely interior vocabulary, employing flatter, lighter motifs, sculpted in low frieze-like relief or painted in monotones en camaïeu ("like cameos"), isolated medallions or vases or busts or bucrania or other motifs, suspended on swags of laurel or ribbon, with slender arabesques against backgrounds, perhaps, of "Pompeiian red" or pale tints, or stone colors. The style in France was initially a Parisian style, the "goût Grèc" not a court style. Only when the plump, young king acceded to the throne in 1771 did his fashion-loving Queen bring the "Louis XVI" style to court. frieze octastyle portico]] From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to neoclassicism that is called the Greek Revival. Neoclassicism continued to be a major force in academic art through the 19th century and beyond— a constant antithesis to Romanticism or Gothic revivals— although from the late 19th century on it had often been considered anti-modern, or even reactionary, in influential critical circles. By the mid-19th century, several European cities - notably St Petersburg and Munich - were transformed into veritable museums of Neoclassical architecture. In American architecture, neoclassicism was one expression of the American Renaissance movement, ca 1890-1917; its last manifestation was in Beaux-Arts architecture, and its very last, large public projects were the Lincoln Memorial (highly criticised at the time), the National Gallery in Washington, D.C., and the American Museum of Natural History's Roosevelt Memorial. These were white elephants as they were built. In the British Raj, Sir Edwin Lutyens' monumental city planning for New Delhi marks the glorious sunset of neoclassicism. Soon World War II destroyed all illusions.

Covert neoclassicism in Moderne styles

Meanwhile, conservative modernist architects like Charles Perret in France kept the rhythms and spacing of columnar architecture even in factory buildings. Where a colonnade would have been decried as "reactionary," a building's pilaster-like fluted panels under a repeating frieze looked "progressive." Pablo Picasso experimented with classicizing motifs in the years immediately following World War I, and the Art Deco style that peaked in the 1925 Paris Exposition des Arts Décoratifs often drew on neoclassical motifs without expressing them overtly: severe, blocky commodes by E. J. Ruhlmann or Sue et Mare; crisp, extremely low-relief friezes of damsels and gazelles in every medium; fashionable dresses that were draped or cut on the bias to recreate Grecian lines; the art dance of Isadora Duncan; the Streamline Moderne styling of US post offices and county court buildings built as late as 1950; and the Roosevelt dime. Neoclassic themes can even be detected in the Smith Tower, Seattle.

Literary neoclassicism

Smith Tower (photo from 1910).]] The arts do not always march in step, and "neoclassicism" in English literature is associated with the "Augustan" writers of the early 18th century, all the heirs of John Dryden and Milton. The giant among their inspiring Latin classics was Virgil. Major writers of the period have included Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Swift, Alexander Pope. The ensuing period of "Romantic" writers had its origins at the height of neoclassicism in the visual arts, about 1800. In France, the hallmark of neoclassicism is the theater of Jean Racine, with his balanced lines of verse, restraint in emotion, refinement in diction, without excesses, his artistic consistency, so that the tragic tone was not offset by moments of realism or humor (as in Shakespeare), and his formal adherence to the "classical unities" extracted from Aristotle's Poetics. In 1786, the German literary master Goethe ended his proto-Romantic Sturm und Drang period with his trip to Italy (recounted in his 1817 work, Italienische Reise). Afterwards, he and colleague Schiller emulated the themes and sensibility of Greek tragedy in works like Iphigenia auf Tauris (Iphigenia at Tauris), Römische Elegien (Roman Elegies), and Faust. Neo-Classical themes also dominated the work of German poet Hölderlin.

Neoclassicism Part II: Between the Wars

There was an entire 20th century movement in the Arts which was also called Neo-classicism. It encompassed at least music, philosophy, and literature. It was between the end of World war I and the end of World war II. For information on the musical aspects, see 20th century classical music#Neoclassicism and Neoclassicism (music). For information on the philosophical aspects, see Great Books

Literary Neoclassicism, 20th-century style

The 20th Century literary movement termed neoclassicism is a movement that rejected the extreme romanticism of (for example) dada, in favour of restraint, religion (specifically Christianity) and a reactionary political programme. Although the foundations for this movement were laid by T.E. Hulme, the most famous neoclassicists were T.S. Eliot and Wyndham Lewis.

Kazan Cathedral

Kazan Cathedral is a name of several Russian churches dedicated to Our Lady of Kazan, a holy icon which the Russian Orthodox Church probably venerates the most. The principal of these are the Kazan Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow (1638, 1932, 1993) and the Kazan Cathedral on the Nevsky Prospect in St Petersburg (1810-11).

The icon

Our Lady of Kazan was discovered on July 8, 1579, underground in the city of Kazan, after the Blessed Virgin Mary herself reportedly revealed its location to a little girl. The icon is credited with helping Russia to survive the Time of Troubles, the Swedish invasion of 1709, and Napoleon's invasion of 1812. The original icon was kept in one of the monasteries in Kazan, whereas its ancient and venerated copies have been displayed at the Kazan Cathedrals of Moscow and St Petersburg (see below). In the night on June 29, 1904 the icon was stolen from a cathedral in Kazan where it had been kept for centuries. Thieves apparently coveted the icon's golden setting, which featured many jewels of highest value. When several years later Russian police finally apprehended the thieves and recovered the precious setting, they declared that the icon itself had been cut to pieces and burnt down. The Orthodox church interpreted disappearance of the icon as a sign of tragedies that would plague Russia after the Holy Protectress of Russia had been lost. 1904 After the Russian Revolution, there were plenty of theories speculating that the original icon was in fact preserved in St Petersburg and later sold by the Bolsheviks abroad. Although such theories were not given credit by the Russian Orthodox church, one of several reputed originals (dated by experts to ca. 1730) was acquired by a shrine in Fátima, Portugal in the 1970s. Pope John Paul II claimed that this icon saved his life during an assassination attempt on May 13, 1981. In 1993, the icon was given to the Pope, who took it to the Vatican and had it installed in his bedchamber, where it was venerated by him for 11 years. John Paul II wished to visit Moscow or Kazan in order to return the icon to the Russian Orthodox Church. When these efforts were blocked by the Moscow Patriarchy, the icon was presented to the Russian Church unconditionally in August 2004. On August 26, 2004 it was exhibited for veneration in the altar of St Peter's Basilica and then delivered to Moscow. On the next feast day of the holy icon, July 21, 2005, Patriarch Alexis II and the President of Tatarstan placed it at the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kazan Kremlin.

Cathedral in Moscow

Upon liberating Moscow from the Poles in 1612, Prince Dmitry Pozharsky attributed his success to the divine help of Our Lady of Kazan, whom he had prayed on several occasions. He financed from his private funds construction of a wooden church to the Virgin of Kazan on Red Square in Moscow. After the diminutive shrine was destroyed by fire in 1632, the Tsar ordered it to be replaced by a brick church. The one-domed edifice, featuring several tiers of kokoshniki, a wide gallery and a tented belfry, was consecrated in 1638. That its history was tempestous is evidenced by the fact that its archpriest Avvakum led the party of religious dissenters, or Old Believers. After numerous renovations of the cathedral undertaken in the imperial period, the original design was lost behind later additions. The distinguished Russian restorator Peter Baranovsky had the church's exterior completely reconstructed to its original design in 1929-32. Some specialists, however, criticised the accuracy of this reconstruction. In 1936, when Red Square was being prepared for holding military parades, Stalin ordered to clear the square from churches. Although Baranovsky managed to save Saint Basil's Cathedral from destruction, he could not prevent the Kazan Cathedral from being demolished. The Kazan Cathedral was the first church to be completely rebuilt after having been destroyed by the Communists. The cathedral's restoration (1990-93) was based on Baranovsky's detailed measurements and photographs of the original church. [http://img.photosight.ru/2005/10/13/1080069.jpg]

Cathedral in St Petersburg

Saint Basil's Cathedral Saint Basil's Cathedral The vast Kazan Cathedral on the Nevsky Prospect in St Petersburg was modelled by Andrey Voronikhin after St Peter's Basilica in Rome. Although the Russian Orthodox Church strongly disapproved of the plans to create a replica of the Popish cathedral in the Russian capital, several courtiers infatuated with Roman Catholicism supported Voronikhin's Empire Style design. The construction was started in 1801 and continued for 10 years. After Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812, and the commander-in-chief Mikhail Kutuzov asked Our Lady of Kazan for help, the church's purpose was to be altered. The Patriotic War over, the cathedral was perceived primarily as a memorial to the Russian victory against Napoleon. Kutuzov himself was interred in the cathedral in 1813; and Alexander Pushkin wrote celebrated lines meditating over his sepulchre. In 1815 keys to 17 cities and 8 fortresses were brought by the victorious Russian army from Europe and placed in the cathedral's sacristy. In 1837, they erected two magnificent bronze statues of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the cathedral. In 1876, the first political demonstration in Russia took place in front of the church. After the Russian Revolution, the cathedral was closed. In 1932 it was reopened as the Atheism Museum. Services were resumed in 1998; and four years later the cathedral was returned to the Russian Orthodox Church. Now it is the mother cathedral of the metropolis of St Petersburg. The cathedral's interior, with its endless columns, echoes a ponderous outward colonnade and reminds one of a sumptuous palacial hall (69 meters in length, 62 meters in height). The interior features numerous sculptures and icons executed by the best Russian artists of the day. A wrought iron grille, separating the cathedral from a small square behind, is sometimes cited as one of the finest ever created.

External links

- [http://www.kazansky.ru Official site of the Kazan Cathedral in St Petersburg]
- [http://www.pallasweb.com/ikons/theotokos2.html Ikons: Windows into Heaven]
- [http://www.orthodoxworld.ru/english/miracleicon/2/ The Miraculous Icons]
- [http://www2.orthodoxwiki.org/Our_Lady_of_Kazan OrthodoxWiki] Category:Cathedrals in Moscow Category:Cathedrals in Russia Category:Eastern Orthodox icons Category:Buildings and structures in Saint Petersburg Category:Religion in Saint Petersburg Category:Visitor attractions in Saint Petersburg

Catherine the great

Catherine the Great (April 21 1729—November 6 1796 (O.S.)), born Sophie Augusta Fredericka of Anhalt-Zerbst, reigned as Empress of Russia from June 28 1762 to her death. A cousin to Gustav III of Sweden and Charles XIII of Sweden, Catherine is referred to as an "enlightened monarch" (also referred to as an "enlightened despot"), though some argue that this title is exaggerated. A German Princess, Sophie Augusta Fredericka (nicknamed Figchen) was born in Stettin to Christian Augustus, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, and Elizabeth of Holstein. In 1744, Tsarina Elizabeth selected Sophie as the wife for her nephew, Peter of Holstein-Gottorp, her chosen successor. Sophie changed her name to "Catherine" (Yekaterina or Ekaterina) when she accepted the Russian Orthodox faith. The marriage was unsuccessful - it was not consummated for 12 years due to Peter III's impotence and mental immaturity. After Peter took a mistress, Catherine became involved with other prominent court figures. She soon became popular with several powerful political groups which opposed her husband. Well read, Catherine kept up-to-date on current events in Russia and the rest of Europe. She corresponded with many of the great minds of her era, including Voltaire and Diderot. In 1762, after moving into the new Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg, Peter succeeded to the throne as Peter III of Russia, but his eccentricities and policies, including an unusual fondness for Frederick the Great, ruler of neighboring power Prussia, with which Russia was at war at the time of his accession, alienated the same groups that Catherine had cultivated. Upon returning from the oversight of his unpopular war with Denmark, Catherine and her wide base of supporters refused him return to the ports of Russia until receiving word of his abdication of the throne. The result was a bloodless coup; Ekaterina Dashkova, confidante of Catherine, remarked that he seemed rather glad to be rid of the throne, and requested only a quiet estate and a ready supply of tobacco and burgundy in which to rest his sorrows. Six months after her ascension to the throne, on July 17, 1762, Peter III was killed by Alexei Orlov (younger brother to Gregory Orlov, then court favorite and a participant in the coup) in what was supposed to have been an accidental killing, the result of Alexei's overindulgence in vodka. During the Soviet period it was assumed proven that Catherine ordered the murder. Now, some historians tend to doubt her involvement because of the long-running tensions between Alexei Orlov and Catherine.

Internal policies

Soviet Drawing on writings by Denis Diderot, Catherine drew up a document to reform the code of laws. A legislative commission representing all class