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Newar

Newar

The Newar are the indigenous ethnolinguistic group of Nepal's Kathmandu valley. According to Nepal’s 2001 census, the 1,245,232 Newar in the country are the nation's sixth largest ethnic group, representing 5.48% of the population. The main Newar language, Nepal Bhasa, is of Tibeto-Burman origin and 825,458 Nepalis speak Newar languages as their mother tongue.

History

The Newar have a rich and highly developed culture due to their long history of urban social development. Newar inhabitation of the Kathmandu valley is so ancient that it extends beyond recorded history into the realm of legend. Historians believe the Newar settled the Kathmandu valley in the early 3rd or 4th century AD. According to popular legend, the Kathmandu valley was a giant lake until the Bodhisattva Manjushree, with the aid of a holy sword, cut open the hills that surround the valley and drained the giant lake, allowing the Newar to settle the valley land. This apocryphal legend is supported by some geological evidence of an ancient lakebed and it provides an explanation for the high fertility of Kathmandu valley soil. The earliest record of Newar rule from the 5th century AD Lichchhavi dynasty. The Lichchhavi dynasty ruled for at least 600 years, followed by the Malla dynasty in 12th century AD. Nepal Bhasa script is estimated to be at least 1200 years old. Nepal Bhasa inscriptions in an ancient manuscript, Nidan, from 901 AD and on a stone tablet from 1173 AD in the courtyard of Bajrayogini Temple at Sankhu, attest to the deep roots of Newar culture in the Kathmandu valley. Newar reign over the valley and their sovereignty and influence over neighboring territories ended approximately 250 years ago with the conquest of the Kathmandu valley in 1769 by the Gorkhali Shah dynasty founded by Prithvi Narayan Shah. Even after the consolidation of the nation-state, the Newar remained a pivotal force in Nepali society as merchants and government administrators, rivalling Brahmin influence in Shah courts. The Newar maintain a highly literate culture and their members are prominent in every sphere, from agriculture, business, education and government administration to medicine, law, religion, architecture, fine art, and literature. Newar architects are responsible for inventing Asia’s hallmark pagoda architecture. Newar devotional thangka painting, sculpture and metal craftsmanship are world-renowned for their exquisite beauty. The fine temples and palaces of Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur are largely the product of Newar architects, artisans, and sculptors.

Religion

Newar practice both Buddhism and Hinduism. It is believed that the Newar were originally Buddhists but the long historical process of Sanskritization (adoption of Hindu rituals), led to the development of the Newar’s unique syncretic tradition. The Newar are divided into hierarchical clan groups by occupational caste, readily identifiable by surname, such as Jyapu (farmers), Shrestha (administrators), Rajkarnikar halwai (confectioners), Bajracharya/Vajracharya (Buddhist priests), Tuladhar (weigher craftsmen), Tamrakar (copper craftsmen), Manandhar (oil pressers), Shakya (goldsmiths), Ranjitkar (dye related workers), Nakarmi (blacksmiths), Kulu (drum-makers), Chami (sweepers), etc.

Music, dance, and food

The Newar are noted for their enjoyment of music, dance, and feasting. They are accomplished musicians with a large assortment of ritual and traditional instruments and an immense repertoire of traditional love songs, mask dances, satirical performances, etc. Newar feasts are lavish and indulgent affairs, especially wedding feasts, featuring a spicy assortment of fried, roasted, jellied and curried meats (buffalo, mutton, and chicken), various rice dishes, soups, vegetable curries, sweet fruits, yoghurt, and large quantities of beer and rice liquor.

Festivals and rituals

Newar culture is very rich in pageantry and ritual throughout the year. Many festivals are tied to Hindu holidays, Buddha’s birth and the harvest cycle. For instance, an important Newar high holiday is Gunhu Punhi. During this nine-day festival, Newar men and women drink a bowl of sprouted mixed cereals, receive doro (a ritual protection cord tied on the wrist by a Brahman priest) and then offer food to frogs in the farmers’ fields. On the second day, Gai Jatra, people who have lost a family member in the past year dress up as cows and parade through town, in the belief that cows help souls enter heaven. The last day of Gunhu Punhi is Krishnastami, birthday of lord Krishna, an incarnation of lord Vishnu. Yanya Punhi is a holiday dedicated to the Hindu god king of heaven, Indra. The festival begins with the carnival-like erection of Yosin, a ceremonial pole, accompanied by the rare display of the deity Aakash Bhairab, represented by a massive mask spouting beer and liquor. Households throughout Kathmandu display images and sculptures of Indra and Bhairab only at this time of year. Finally, the Kumari, or virgin goddess, leaves the seclusion of her temple in a palanquin and leads a procession through the streets of Kathmandu to thank Indra the rain god. Many rituals are related to the stages of life stages from birth, first rice-feeding, childhood, puberty, marriage, seniority and death. The complexity and all-encompassing nature of these rituals cannot be exaggerated. For instance, Newar girls undergo a Bahra ceremony when they reach menarche. Because menstruation is considered ritually impure, girls undergo ritual confinement for 12 days. Girls are separated from all males and from sunlight for 12 days while they are doted upon by female relatives. On 12th day the girl must pay homage to the sun. Should a Newar man or women live long enough, there are five rituals, known as "junku" -which can be confusing, as the first rice feeding ceremony is referred to as "junku" as well-, performed between the age of 77 and 106. These at the age 77 years, 7 months, 7 days; 83 years, 4 months, 4 days (after one has seen 1000 full moons in one's life); 88 years, 8 months, 8 days; 99 years, 9 months, 9 days; and, finally, at 105 years, 8 months, 8 days. After these rituals are performed, the person will be regarded as a god. Husband and wife will perform their rituals together, as the events occur for the husband. Afterwards, the full complement of life cycle rituals will have been completed, until the death ceremony.

References

- [http://www.mope.gov.np/population/chapter5.php Nepal Population Report 2002]
- [http://www.jwajalapa.com A Window to Newar Culture]
- [http://www.newah.org/intro.htm Newah Organization of America]
- [http://kaladarshan.arts.ohio-state.edu/nepal/nepal.html Art of Newar Buddhism]
- [http://www.newah.org/newah.htm Journal of Newar Studies]
- [http://www.newapost.com.np/vijana.htm Newa Bigyan Journal of Newar Studies]
- [http://www.newapost.com.np Newa Post First Nepal Bhasha Web Magazine]
- [http://www.nepaldemocracy.org/ethnicity/nationalities_of_nepal.htm Rastriya Janajati Bikas Samiti]
- [http://www.welcomenepal.com/emuseum.asp Nepal Ethnographic Museum]
- Bista, Dor Bahadur. (2004). People of Nepal. Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar.
- Levy, Robert I. (1990). Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Berkeley: University of California Press. Category:Ethnic groups of Nepal

Indigenous

The word indigenous is an adjective derived from the Latin word indigena, meaning native, belonging to, aboriginal; and has several applications:
- Indigenous peoples, communities and cultures native or indigenous to a territory;
- Indigenous (band), a Native American blues-rock band;
- In biology, indigenous means native to a place or biota, in contrast to any one of several terms meaning not native to a place (nonnative, alien, adventive, introduced) and differentiated from endemic. A species that is endemic is unique to that place, found naturally nowhere else. A species that is indigenous is native, but not unique in the sense that it is also native to other locations as well. Thus, a species that is native to California but found naturally in Oregon and Washington as well (native to the West Coast of the United States) is indigenous to California. A species found only in the British Isles is endemic to those islands.

Kathmandu valley

The Kathmandu valley, located in the Kingdom of Nepal, lies at the crossroads of ancient civilizations of Asia, and has at least 130 important monuments, including several places of pilgrimage for the Hindus as well as the Buddhists. The cities of Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur, located in this valley, present a high style of Nepalese art and architecture. Kathmandu valley was accorded the status of a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in the year 1979.

Places

Important monuments of Kathmandu valley include:

- Kathmandu Durbar Square
- Patan Durbar Square
- Bhaktapur Durbar Square
- Changu Narayan
- Syambhunath Stupa
- Bouddhanath Stupa
- Pashupatinath

External link

- [http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=121 UNESCO - Kathmandu valley] Category:World Heritage Sites in Nepal ja:カトマンズの渓谷 ko:카트만두 계곡

Nepal Bhasa (language)

Nepal Bhasa (also known as Newari) is a language spoken by the Newar community in the Kathmandu Valley, as well as in other towns inhabitated by newar community Nepal. While in Kathmandu valley, it is widely spoken and understood, in other parts it is spoken within the community only. Also, outside Kathmandu valley, it has absorbed local dialects and hence sounds very different. It is one of the roughly five hundred Sino-Tibetan languages in the world, and belongs to the Tibeto-Burman branch of this family. It has the fourth-oldest literature of the Sino-Tibetan languages (the first, second and third being Chinese, Tibetan and Burmese respectively). Classical Newari is the name for the pre-1850 literary form of the language. It is no longer spoken or written, but it is an important source language for historians and philologists. Nepal Bhasa is the most Indicized of the Tibeto-Burman languages, and has had so many centuries of contact with neighboring Indo-Iranian languages that it has even developed noun inflection, a trait typical of the Indo-European family but extremely rare in Sino-Tibetan. It has absorbed other features of grammar as well, such as verb tenses. These influences are outstanding examples of funamental traits of a language being passed on through language contact.

External links

- Michael Noonan, [http://www.uwm.edu/~noonan/Recent%20Language%20Contact.pdf Recent Language Contact in the Nepal Himalaya (PDF)]. Category:Tibeto-Burman languages

Language

A language is a system of symbols, generally known as lexemes and the rules by which they are manipulated. The word language is also used to refer to the whole phenomenon of language, i.e., the common properties of languages. Though language is commonly used for communication, it is not synonymous with it. Human language is a natural phenomenon, and language learning is instinctive in childhood. In their natural form, human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for the symbols in order to communicate with others through the senses. Though there are thousands of human languages, they all share a number of properties from which there are no known deviations. Humans have also invented (or arguably in some cases discovered) many other languages, including constructed human languages such as Esperanto or Klingon, programming languages such as Python or Ruby, and various mathematical formalisms. These languages are not restricted to the properties shared by natural human languages.

Properties of language

Languages are not just sets of symbols. They also contain a grammar, or system of rules, used to manipulate the symbols. While a set of symbols may be used for expression or communication, it is primitive and relatively unexpressive, because there are no clear or regular relationships between the symbols. Because a language also has a grammar, it can manipulate its symbols to express clear and regular relationships between them. For example, imagine going on a walk with a person who only knew individual symbols, or words. If you saw a dog, he might say, "Dog scare" or "Scare Dog". Although any English speaker would have some notion of what he was talking about, the relationship between the words is unclear. Is he scared of dogs? Or just that dog? Or does he want to scare the dog off? Does he think the dog is scared? But if you respond, "I’m not scared of dogs," the relationship between dog and scare is quite apparent and hence the meaning of the utterance. Another important property of language is the arbitrariness of the symbols. Any symbol can be mapped onto any concept (or even onto one of the rules of the grammar). For instance, there is nothing about the Spanish word nada itself that forces Spanish speakers to use it to mean nothing. That is the meaning all Spanish speakers have memorized for that sound pattern. But for Croatian speakers nada means hope. However, it must be understood that just because in principle the symbols are arbitrary does not mean that a language cannot have symbols that are iconic of what they stand for. Words such as meow sound similar to what they represent, but they could be replaced with words such as jarn, and as long as everyone memorized the new word, the same concepts could be expressed with it.

Human languages

Human languages are usually referred to as natural languages, and the science studying them is linguistics. Making a principled distinction between one language and another is usually impossible. For example, the boundaries between named language groups are in effect arbitrary due to blending between populations (the dialect continuum). For instance, there are dialects of German very similar to Dutch which are not mutually intelligible with other dialects of (what Germans call) German. Some like to make parallels with biology, where it is not always possible to make a well-defined distinction between one species and the next. In either case, the ultimate difficulty may stem from the interactions between languages and populations. (See Dialect or August Schleicher for a longer discussion.) The concepts of Ausbausprache, Abstandsprache, and Dachsprache are used to make finer distinctions about the degrees of difference between languages or dialects.

Origins of human language

Scientists do not yet agree on when language was first used by humans (or their ancestors). Estimates range from about two million (2,000,000) years ago, during the time of Homo habilis, to as recently as forty thousand (40,000) years ago, during the time of Cro-Magnon man. The nature of speech means that there is almost no data on which to base conclusions on the subject.

Language taxonomy

The classification of natural languages can be performed on the basis of different underlying principles (different closeness notions, respecting different properties and relations between languages); important directions of present classifications are:
- paying attention to the historical evolution of languages results in a genetic classification of languages—which is based on genetic relatedness of languages,
- paying attention to the internal structure of languages (grammar) results in a typological classification of languages—which is based on similarity of one or more components of the language’s grammar across languages,
- and respecting geographical closeness and contacts between language-speaking communities results in areal groupings of languages. The different classifications do not match each other and are not expected to, but the correlation between them is an important point for many linguistic research works. (There is a parallel to the classification of species in biological phylogenetics here: consider monophyletic vs. polyphyletic groups of species.) The task of genetic classification belongs to the field of historical-comparative linguistics, of typological—to linguistic typology. See also: Taxonomy, Taxonomic classification—for the general idea of classification and taxonomies.

Genetic classification

The world’s languages have been grouped into families of languages that are believed to have common ancestors. Some of the major families are the Indo-European languages, the Afro-Asiatic languages, the Austronesian languages, and the Sino-Tibetan languages. The shared features of languages from one family can be due to shared ancestry. (Compare with homology in biology.)

Typological classification

An example of a typological classification is the classification of languages on the basis of the basic order of the verb, the subject and the object in a sentence into several types: SVO, SOV, VSO, and so on, languages. (, for instance, belongs to the SVO language type.) The shared features of languages of one type (= from one typological class) may have arisen completely independently. (Compare with analogy in biology.) Their cooccurence might be due to the universal laws governing the structure of natural languages—language universals.

Areal classification

The following language groupings can serve as some linguistically significant examples of areal linguistic units, or sprachbunds: Balkan linguistic union, or the bigger group of European languages; Caucasian languages. Although the members of each group are not closely genetically related, there is a reason for them to share similar features, namely: their speakers have been in contact for a long time within a common community and the languages converged in the course of the history. These are called areal features. NB. One should be careful about the underlying classification principle for groups of languages which have apparently a geographical name: besides areal linguistic units, the taxa of the genetic classification (language families) are often given names which themselves or parts of which refer to geographical areas.
Constructed languages
One prominent artificial language, called Esperanto, was created by L. L. Zamenhof. It is a compilation of various elements of different languages, and it is intended to be an easy-to-learn language. Another prominent artificial language, called Ido, is intended to be reformed Esperanto. Other constructed languages strive to be more logical than natural languages; a prominent example of this is Lojban. Other writers, such as J. R. R. Tolkien, have created fantasy languages, for literary, artistic, or personal reasons. One of Tolkien’s languages is called Quenya, which is a form of Elvish. It has its own alphabet, and its phonology and syntax are modelled on Finnish. Linguist Mark Okrand has devised Klingon and Vulcan for Star Trek, which have since been developed into full languages.
The study of language
The oldest surviving written grammar for any language is believed to be the Tolkāppiyam (தொல்காப்பியம்), a book on the grammar of the Tamil language, written around 200 BCE by Tolkāppiyar. Its classification of the alphabet into consonants and vowel was a breakthrough. The historical record of the study of language begins in North India with Pāṇini, the 5th century BCE grammarian who formulated 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology, known as the (अष्टाध्यायी). grammar is highly systematized and technical. Inherent in its analytic approach are the concepts of the phoneme, the morpheme, and the root; the phoneme was only recognized by Western linguists some two millennia later. In the Middle East, the Persian linguist Sibawayh made a detailed and professional description of Arabic in 760 CE in his monumental work, Al-kitab fi an-nahw (الكتاب في النحو, The Book on Grammar), bringing many linguistic aspects of language to light. In his book he distinguished phonetics from phonology. Later in the West, the success of science, mathematics, and other formal systems in the 20th century led many to attempt a formalization of the study of language as a "semantic code". This resulted in the academic discipline of linguistics, the founding of which is attributed to Ferdinand de Saussure.
Animal (nonhuman) language
While the term animal languages is widely used, most researchers agree that they are not as complex or expressive as human language; a more accurate term is animal communication. Some researchers argue that there are significant differences separating human language from the communication of other animals, and that the underlying principles are not related. In several widely publicised instances, animals have been trained to mimic certain features of human language. For example, chimpanzees and gorillas have been taught hand signs based on American Sign Language; however, they have never been taught its grammar. There was also a case in 2003 of Kanzi, a captive bonobo chimpanzee allegedly independently creating some words to mean certain concepts. While animal communication has debated levels of semantics, it has not been shown to have syntax in the sense that human languages do. Some researchers argue that a continuum exists among the communication methods of all social animals, pointing to the fundamental requirements of group behaviour and the existence of "mirror cells" in primates. This, however, may not be a scientific question, but is perhaps more one of definition. What exactly is the definition of the word "language"? Most researchers agree that, although human and more primitive languages have analogous features, they are not homologous.
Formal languages
Mathematics and computer science use artificial entities called formal languages (including programming languages and markup languages, but also some that are far more theoretical in nature). These often take the form of character strings, produced by some combination of formal grammar and semantics of arbitrary complexity.
See also

- Common phrases in different languages
- Computer-assisted language learning (a historical perspective)
- Deception
- Ethnologue, which provides a fairly complete list of languages, locations, population and genetic affiliation
- Extinct language
- FOXP2 (Language gene)
- ILR scale (defines five levels of language proficiency)
- ISO 639 (2- and 3-letter codes for language names)
- Language education
- Language reform
- Language policy
- Language school
- Linguistic protectionism
- Linguistics basic topics
- List of language academies
- List of languages
- List of official languages
- Naming
- Non-verbal communication
- Non-sexist language
- Official language
- Orthography
- Philology and Historical linguistics
- Philosophy of language
- Profanity
- Psycholinguistics
- Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
- Slang
- Symbolic communication
- Speech therapy
- Terminology
- Tongue-twister
- Translation
- Whistled language
References

- Crystal, David (1997). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
- Crystal, David (2001). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
- Katzner, K. (1999). The Languages of the World. New York, Routledge.
- McArthur, T. (1996). The Concise Companion to the English Language. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
- Kandel, Jessel, and Schwartz (1991). Principles of Neural Science. McGraw Hill (esp. p. 1173).
External links

- [http://www.zompist.com/ Mark Rosenfelder’s Metaverse] provides a useful listing of 5000 languages and dialects (grouped by their relationships), where the numbers one to ten in each language may be found
- [http://www.geocities.com/agihard/mohl/mohl_languages.html Museum of Languages]
- The [http://www.ethnologue.com/ Ethnologue], a catalog of the world’s languages
- [http://www.language-capitals.com Language Capitals] Guide to 8 major languages of the world with facts, characteristics and varieties
- [http://www.vistawide.com/languages/ World Languages and Cultures] — Practical information and resources on languages and language learning
- [http://www.georgetown.edu/faculty/ballc/animals/animals.html Animal sounds in different languages]
- [http://www.netz-tipp.de/languages.html Distribution of languages on the Internet]
- [http://classweb.gmu.edu/accent/ Speech accent archive]
- [http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/G_Kunkel/homepage.htm a collection of bird songs] provides many kinds of bird songs
- [http://acp.eugraph.com The Animal Communication Project]
- [http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/categories/lang.html Language Articles]
- [http://www.primitivism.com/language.htm Language: Origin and Meaning by John Zerzan] Category:Technology als:Sprache zh-min-nan:Gí-giân ko:언어 ms:Bahasa nb:Språk ja:言語 simple:Language th:ภาษา

3rd century

Overview

Events

- The Sassanid dynasty of Persia launches a war to reconquer lost lands in the Roman east, 230 - 232
- Crisis of the Third Century shakes Roman Empire
- Emperor Valerian I is taken captive by the Persian King of Kings Shapur I, 260
- End of Yayoi era and beginning of Kofun era, the first part of the Yamato period in Japan
- Sarnath becomes a center of Buddhist arts in India
- Diffusion of maize as a food crop from Mexico into North America begins
- Four bishoprics are established in Mauretania Tingitania
- The Kingdom of Funan reaches its zenith under the rule of Fan Shih-man
- The Goths move from Gothiscandza to Ukraine and shape the Chernyakhov culture

Significant persons

- Diocletian, Roman emperor
- Plotinus, ca. 204-270

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

- A primitive form of glasses were developed for a nearsighted princess in Syria.

Decades and years

Category:3rd century 03th century als:3. Jahrhundert ko:3세기 ja:3世紀 th:คริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 3

4th century

As a means of recording the passage of time, the 4th century was that century which lasted from 301 to 400.

Overview

Events

- Definitive declaration of biblical canon: Council of Carthage
- Demotic is replaced by Greek
- Constantine I ends persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. Christianity is made the official religion of the Empire. Constantinople becomes new seat of government of the Roman Empire. The Emperor Theodosius I bans pagan worship.
- Flowering of Christian desert monasticism in Egypt.
- Aksum is converted to Christianity by St. Frumentius of Tyre.
- Trade between Europe and Western Sahara.
- Destruction of the Roman Army at the Battle of Adrianople in 378

Significant persons

- Saint Ambrose, bishop of Milan
- Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman Historian
- Emperor Constantine I
- Saint Martin of Tours
- Saint Augustine of Hippo, theologian
- Ulfilas, apostle of the Goths

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

Decades and years

Category:4th century 04th century ko:4세기 ja:4世紀 simple:4th century th:คริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 4

5th century

Overview

Events

- Rome sacked by Visigoths in 410.
- Attila the Hun conquers large parts of Europe, threatens to attack Rome in 452
- Pope Leo I allegedly meets personally with Atilla and convinces him to leave Rome alone.
- Vandals conquer Carthage in 439, sack Rome in 455
- At some point after 440, the Anglo-Saxons settle in Britain. The traditional story is that they were invited there by Vortigern.
- Last Roman ruler of Western Roman Empire leaves in 476. Europe enters the Middle ages, beginning with the Dark Ages.
- Buddhism reaches Myanmar and Indonesia.
- According to the Book of Mormon, Moroni buries the Golden Plates and ends the record around 421.
- African and Indonesian settlers reach Madagascar.
- Augustine writes The City of God

Significant persons

- Augustine of Hippo, bishop, theologian
- Niall Noigiallach, founder of one of Ireland's greatest dynasties.
- St. Jerome hermit, cleric, Bible translator
- Bodhidharma
- Theoderic the Great, Ostrogothic king
- Attila the Hun
- St. Patrick, completed the conversion to Christianity in Ireland
- Alaric I, king of the Visigoths that sacked Rome
- Flavius Aëtius, last of the great Roman generals
- Pope Leo I

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

- stirrup invented in China
- heavy plow in use in Slavic lands
- metal horseshoes become common in Gaul
- Anglo-Saxon Futhorc alphabet used in England

Decades and years

Category:5th century 05th century ko:5세기 ja:5世紀 simple:5th century th:คริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 5

12th century

As a means of recording the passage of time, the 12th century was that century which lasted from 1101 to 1200. In the history of European culture, this period is considered part of the High Middle Ages. See also: Renaissance of the 12th century

Events

- The Song dynasty loses power over Northern China.
- The Kamakura Shogunate deprives the Emperor of Japan of political power.
- First, Second, and Third Crusades of western European kingdoms against Islam.
- Pope Adrian IV grants overlordship of Ireland to Henry II of England.
- Suger rebuilds the abbey church at St Denis north of Paris, regarded as the first major Gothic building.
- King Coloman unites Hungary and Croatia under the Hungarian Crown (1102)
- Portugal gains independence from the kingdom of León in 1128 (recognised by León in 1143).
- Nalanda, the great Indian Buddhist educational centre, is destroyed.
- Thomas Becket is murdered in 1170.
- The Toltec Empire collapses.
- Founding of the cathedral school (Katedralskolan) in Lund, Sweden, 1185. The school is the oldest in northern Europe, and one of the oldest in Europe as a whole.
- The medieval Serbian state formed by Stefan Nemanja and continued by the Nemanjić dynasty.

Significant people

- Genghis Khan, Great Khan of the Mongol Empire.
- Pierre Abélard, one of the first scholastic philosophers; author of "Historia calamitatum mearum", a description of his love affair with Héloïse.
- Bernard of Clairvaux, French abbot influential in church politics.
- Saladin, ruler of Egypt and Syria who resisted the Crusaders.
- Hugh of St. Victor, French scholar.
- Richard of St. Victor, theologian.
- Alfonso I Henriques, first King of Portugal.
- Maimonides, leading Jewish philosopher.
- Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury.
- Minamoto no Yoritomo, first shogun of Japan.
- Omar Khayyám, Persian poet and astronomer
- Eleanor of Aquitaine, queen consort of France and later England.
- Hildegard of Bingen, first Western musical composer known by name.

Inventions, discoveries and introductions

- Beginning of the Gothic architecture style.
- First European universities founded.
- Christian humanism becomes a self-conscious philosophical tendency in Europe.
- Earliest record of a miracle play, in Dunstable, England.
- Beginning of troubador and trouvère music in France.
- Earliest account of a mariner's compass, by Alexander Neckam is "De utensilibus".
- First fire and plague insurance (in Iceland).
- First authenticated influenza epidemics.
- Start of Middle English

Decades and years

Category:12th century Category:Centuries ko:12세기 ja:12世紀 simple:12th century th:คริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 12

Nepal Bhasa (language)

External links

- Michael Noonan, [http://www.uwm.edu/~noonan/Recent%20Language%20Contact.pdf Recent Language Contact in the Nepal Himalaya (PDF)]. Category:Tibeto-Burman languages

901

Events

- Mesoamerican ballgame court dedicated at Uxmal
- Kingdom of Taebong established in Korean peninsula
- Fuzhou city was expanded with construction of a new city wall ("Luo City").

Births

Deaths

- February 18 - Thabit ibn Qurra, Arab astronomer and mathematician Category:901 ko:901년

Kathmandu

This article is about the city. For the furry comic book, see Katmandu (comic). Kathmandu (Nepali: काठमाडौं) is the capital city of Nepal. It is also the largest city in Nepal. It is an urban and suburban area of about 3.2 million inhabitants in the tri-city area in the Kathmandu valley in central Nepal, along the Bagmati River. The two other cities are Patan and Bhaktapur. Kathmandu is located at 27°43' North, 85°22' East (27.71667, 85.36667). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html]

History

Bhaktapur Kathmandu is said to have been founded by king Gun Kamdev in AD 723. According to legend, the area was a lake in the past, but Manjushri, a disciple of the Shakyamuni Buddha, cut open a hill to the south and allowed the water to flow out, making the region habitable. The origin of the present name is unclear, but one of the more likely theories is that it was named after Kastha-Mandap ("temple of wood" in Sanskrit), after a pagoda carved from the single tree on the order of King Lakshmi Narasingha Malla in 1596.

Present

The old city is noted for its many Buddhist and Hindu temples and palaces, most dating from the 17th century. Many of these landmarks have been damaged by earthquakes and pollution. Seven UNESCO World Heritage Sites are in this valley. Kathmandu has been popular with western tourists since the 1960s when it became a key stop on the hippie trail. It is also the subject of a popular Bob Seger song, because of the same reason. It is the most densely populated city in Nepal. Image:Kathmandu signs.jpg|Street full of signs in Kathmandu Image:Small stupa in Kathmandu.jpg|Small stupa in Kathmandu Image:Stone carving in Kathmandu.jpg|Stone carving in Kathmandu street Image:DSCI0441.JPG|View over Kathmandu Image:Hashish-shop-Kathmandu-1973.jpg|Hashish-shop 1973 (pre-prohibition)

External links

- [http://www.kathmandu.gov.np: Kathmandu Metropolitan City]
- [http://www.nepalnews.com.np/ktmpost.htm The Kathmandu Post]
- Category:Capitals in Asia Category:Cities and towns in Nepal ko:카트만두 ja:カトマンズ

Kathmandu

History

Present

External links

1769

1769 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar).

Events

- Baron Wolfgang von Kempelen exhibits the "Mechanical Turk", a chess-playing machine
- May 14 - Charles III of Spain sends Spanish missionaries, who found California missions in San Diego, Santa Barbara, San Francisco and Monterey and begin the settlement of California.
- Famine in Bengal kills 10 million people, a third of the population, in the worst natural disaster in human history (in terms of lives lost).
- The Maharajah of Mysore forces the British to agree a treaty of mutual assistance in view of the famine, but the British East India Company increases its demands on the Bengali people to keep profits up.
- David Garrick holds the first Shakespeare Festival at Stratford-upon-Avon.
- June 7 - Frontiersman Daniel Boone first began to explore the present-day Bluegrass State, Kentucky.
- Richard Arkwright invents the spinning frame.
- April 13 - James Cook arrives in Tahiti on the ship HM Bark Endeavour, preparing to observe the solar eclipse of the planet Venus, which took place on June 3rd. After the voyage, the data was found to be inaccurate in determining the distance between the Sun and Earth.
- The city of Brescia, Italy is devastated when the Church of San Nazaro, near Venice, is struck by lightning. The resulting fire ignites 200,000 lb (90,000 kg) of gunpowder being stored there, causing a massive explosion which destroys one sixth of the city and kills 3,000 people. The disaster prompts the Roman Catholic Church to abandon their religious objection to using lightning rods to protect their property.

Births

- January 10 - Michel Ney, French marshal (d. 1815)
- March 1 - François Séverin Marceau-Desgraviers, French general (d. 1796)
- March 10 - Jospeh Williamson, philanthropist and builder of the Williamson's tunnels (d. 1840)
- March 23 - William Smith, English geologist and cartographer (d. 1839)
- March 29 - Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult, French marshal (d. 1851)
- April 3 - Christian Gunther von Bernstorff, Danish and Prussian statesman and diplomat (d. 1835)
- April 11 - Jean Lannes, French marshal (d. 1809)
- April 13 - Thomas Lawrence, English painter (d. 1830)
- May 1 - Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, British general and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1852)
- May 6 - Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 1824)
- June 18 - Viscount Castlereagh, British statesman, diplomat, and soldier
- August 15 - Napoleon Bonaparte, Emperor of France (d. 1821)
- September 14 - Karl Salomo Zachariae Von Lingenthal, German jurist (d. 1843)
- October 6 - Isaac Brock, British general and administrator (d. 1812)
- December 13 - James Scarlett Abinger, English judge (d. 1844)
- James Dadford, English canal engineer

Deaths

- February 2 - Pope Clement XIII (b. 1693)
- April 20 - Chief Pontiac, Ottawa chief (murdered)
- June 1 - Edward Holyoke, American President of Harvard University (b. 1689)
- August 2 - Daniel Finch, 8th Earl of Winchilsea, English politician (b. 1689)
- August 29 - Edmond Hoyle, English game expert (b. 1672)
- December 13 - Christian Fürchtegott Gellert, German poet (b. 1715)
- December 30 - Nicholas Taaffe, 6th Viscount Taaffe, Austrian soldier (b. 1685) Category:1769 ko:1769년 ms:1769 simple:1769 th:พ.ศ. 2312

Pagoda

, Malaysia]] A pagoda is the general term in the English language for a tiered tower with multiple eaves common in China, Japan, Korea, and other parts of Asia. Most pagodas were built to have a religious function, most commonly Buddhist, and were often located in or near temples. This term may refer to other religious structures in some countries. In Thailand, "pagoda" usually means the same as stupa while in Vietnam, "pagoda" is a more generic term referring to a place of worship. The modern pagoda is an evolution of the Indian stupa, a tomb-like structure where sacred relics could be kept safe and venerated. The architectural structure of the stupa has spread across Asia, taking on many diverse forms as details specific to different regions are incorporated into the overall design. Pagodas attract lightning strikes because of their height. This tendency may have played a role in their perception as spiritually charged places. Many pagodas have an antenna at the top of the structure known as a finial. This antenna is designed in such a way as to have symbolic meaning within Buddhism; for example, it may include designs representing a lotus. The finial also functions as a lightning rod, and thus helps to both attract lightning and protect the pagoda from lightning damage.

Functions of pagodas

While most pagodas were built for religious purposes, they can also be used for enjoying distant views, for military supervision (ie: use as watchtowers), or as navigational aids to travellers and ships. Some pagodas, such as the Three Pagodas in Dali, have also become symbols of their locality.

Derivation of word

Dali]] The earliest example in the Oxford English Dictionary of the use of the word pagoda in English is from 1634. According to Alain Rey's Dictionnaire historique de la langue française (rev. ed. 1995), the word first appeared in French as pagode in 1545, meaning "temple of an Eastern religion" and deriving from a Portuguese word dated from 1516. The derivation is uncertain. Possible roots are the Dravidian pagodi or pagavadi, a name of Kali derived from the Sanskrit bhagavati ("goddess"), and the Persian butkada ("temple"). According to Liang Ssu-Cheng's A Pictorial History of Chinese Architecture (MIT Press, 1984), the word pagoda is derived from the Chinese 八角塔 (in pinyin, bā jiǎo tǎ, hence "pagoda"), meaning literally "eight-cornered tower." Pagodas with an octagonal base were an extremely popular pagoda design in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty periods when Europeans were coming into contact with China. Other Buddhist sources (see also stupa for a similar explanation with more background) point to the evolution of the word 'pagoda' from the Sanskrit 'dhatu garba' meaning a womb containing magical sacred relics, via the Singhalese 'dagoba', meaning a stupa. The following is from the Subang Jaya Buddhist Association web text [http://www.webcastmy.com.my/bodhivision/Symb6.html Understanding Buddhist Symbols and Rituals]: "Pagoda – comes from Sanskrit "dhatu garba". From the harmika in the stupa, lies the anda (dome) or world egg. Here resides the sacred relic, with their dhatus (magic elements) which like the eggs, possess the power of life. The power of this womb and its world egg is transferred through the sacred altar that stands over the gharba (the womb), namely the harmika, and becomes a force for spiritual life and renewal. Therefore "dhatu" refers to the magical, sacred relics (i.e the Buddha’s) and "gharba" the womb. From dhatu gharba comes the Singhalese "dagoba". In Burma and other East Asian countries, the daoba becomes "pagoda"." For more detailed information on this explanation, see also 'Psycho-cosmic symbolism of the Buddhist stupa', under 'References' below as well as the link to '[http://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/stupa Exotic India Art]'. In the 18th century, Chinoiserie, a style based on Chinese and other Far East designs became popular in Europe, introduced by the burgeoning trade and travel routes. An example of this is the pagoda in Kew Gardens, England, which was completed in 1762 as a gift for Princess Augusta, the mother of George III. In an unexpected twist, a "pagod" became the English name in the luxury trade for a porcelain figure of a Chinese seated god.

Some famous pagodas

George III
- An Quang Pagoda, a meeting place for Vietnamese Buddhist leaders in Saigon, and site of the Institute for Dharma Propagation.
- Most pagodas with a religious function are Buddhist stupas; however, the Daqin Pagoda in China was an exception, being built by early Christians.
- Jade Chop Pagoda in the Three Gorges region of the Chang Jiang (Yangtze) river, China.
- Miruksa Temple Pagoda at Iksan of Chollabuk-do province in the Republic of Korea, a Paekche pagoda mid 5th century.
- Toji, the tallest wooden structure in Japan.
- The Porcelain Tower of Nanjing, a wonder of the medieval world in Nanjing, China.
- Phra Pathom Chedi the highest pagoda or stupa in the world Nakhon Pathom, Thailand.
- Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon, Myanmar
- Pha That Luang, the holiest wat, pagoda, and stupa in Laos, in Vientiane

External links

- http://www.sogang.ac.kr/~anthony/Korea/Pagodas.htm
- http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/kyongju/bulguksaindex.htm
- http://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/stupa

Reference

Psycho-cosmic symbolism of the Buddhist stupa, AB Govinda, 1976, Emeryville, Calif.: Dharma Pub
- ko:탑파 ja:仏塔

Kathmandu

History

Present

External links

Bhaktapur

Bhaktapur (27.67°N 85.43°E. Also Bhadgaon or Khwopa) is an ancient Newari town in East corner of the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. It is located in Bhaktapur District. From time immemorial it laid on the route between Tibet/China and India. This position on the main caravan route made the town rich and prosperous: each autumn the traders from Tibet came with sheep ("changra"), fitting nicely with main Nepali holidays 'Dasain' (hindi: Dussehra) when nearly everyone in Nepal sacrificed male animals to the goddess Durga. On the return trek the traders brought back to Tibet grains, sugar or Budhist scriptures... This prosperity fueled the cultural life: ie. the temple builders developed a Pagoda-style, spreading it through Tibet all the way to Japan. Finest of all is the seven-tiered, heaven piercing Nyatapole! Bhaktapur is a popular day-trip for tourists visiting Kathmandu. Lately, with the horrendous air-pollution of Kathmandu, more and more tourists are staying in B. for a few days, before arrangements for trekking are finished. For foreign tourists Entry fee is NPR750/$10, for SAARC-countries nationals and Chinese (sic!) NPR50. Category:Cities and towns in Nepal

Hinduism

:This article is about the Hindu religion; for other meanings of the word, see Hindu (disambiguation). Hinduism (हिन्दू धर्म; also known as Sanātana Dharma - सनातन धर्म, and Vaidika-Dharma - वैदिक धर्म) is a worldwide religious tradition that is based on the Vedas and is the direct descendent of the Vedic Indo-Iranian religion. It encompasses many religious traditions that widely vary in practice, as well as many diverse sects and philosophies. An array of deities are worshipped. Beliefs, codes and principles vary from region to region. It has proven impossible to trace the beginning of Vedic religion, although modern estimates of Hinduism's origin vary from 3102 BCE to 1300 BCE. It is also the third largest religion in the world with a following of approximately 1 billion people. Ninety-eight percent of Hindus can be found on the Indian subcontinent, chiefly in India. It is noteworthy however that the relatively small Himalayan kingdom of Nepal is the only nation in the world with Hinduism as its state religion. See Hindu for more about a Hindu and different communities of Hindus.
Core Concepts

The Eternal Way
"Sanātana Dharma" (सनातन धर्म, The Eternal Values ), Hinduism's traditional name, speaks to the idea that certain spiritual principles hold eternally true, transcending man-made constructs, representing a pure science of consciousness. This consciousness is not merely that of the body or mind and intellect, but of a transcendental state that exists within and beyond our existence, the unsullied Soul of all. Religion to the Hindu is the eternal search for the divine Brahman (ब्रह्मन्, pronounced as "brəhmən", nominative singular being ब्रह्म or "brəhmə"), the Supreme immanent and transcendent Reality or the Cosmic Spirit. Hinduism's aspiration is best expressed in the following mantra: :OM Asato mā sadgamaya, tamaso mā jyotirgamaya, mrityor māmritam gamaya :"OM Lead me from falsehood to truth, from darkness to light, from death to immortality." mantra
Basic beliefs
What can be said to be common to all Hindus is the belief in Dharma (duties and obligations), Reincarnation (rebirth), Karma ("actions", leading to a cause and effect relationship), and Moksha (salvation) of every soul through a variety of paths, such as Bhakti (devotion), Karma (action) and Jnana (knowledge), and of course, belief in God (Ishvara). Reincarnation or the soul's transmigration through a cycle of birth and death, until it attains Moksha, is governed by Karma. The philosophy of Karma lays forth the results of free-willed actions, which leave their imprint on the soul or the self, called as ātman. These actions determine the course of life and the life cycle for the soul in its subsequent life. Virtuous actions take the soul closer to the divine supreme and lead to a birth with higher-consciousness. Evil actions hinder this recognition of the divine supreme and the soul takes lower forms of worldly life. All existence, per Hinduism, from vegetation to mankind, are subjects to the eternal Dharma, which is the natural law. Even Heaven (svarga) and Hell (naraka) are temporary. Liberation from this material existence and cycle of birth and death, to join, reach or develop a relationship with the "universal spirit" (depending on belief), is known as moksha, which is the ultimate goal of Hindus. The other principles include the guru/chela dynamic, the Divinity of Word of OM and the power of mantras (religious hymn), manifestations of the divine's spirit in all forms of existence (pantheism); that is an understanding that the essential spark of the (Atman/Brahman) is in every living being, the concept that all human beings are divine.
Practice (Yoga Dharma)
Hinduism includes a variety of practices, primarily spiritual devotion (Bhakti Yoga), selfless service (Karma Yoga), knowledge and meditation (Jnana or Raja Yoga). These are described in the two principal texts of Hindu Yoga: The Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga Sutras. The Upanishads are also important as a philosophical foundation for these practices. The yogas provide a sort of alternate path (or faiths) that links together various Hindu beliefs and can also be used to categorize non-Hindu beliefs that are seen as paths to moksha, or nirvana.
The four objectives Of Life
Another major aspect of Hindu dharma that is common to practically all Hindus is that of the purusharthas, the "four objectives of life". They are kama, artha, dharma and moksha. It is said that all humans seek kama (pleasure, physical or emotional) and artha (material wealth), but soon, with maturity, learn to govern these legitimate desires within the higher framework of dharma (righteousness). Of course, the only goal that is truly ultimate, whose attainment results in ultimate happiness, is moksha (salvation), also known as Mukti (spiritual liberation), Samadhi, Nirvana, or escape from Samsara (the cycle of birth and death).
The four stages of Life
Ideally (though not feasible for most of today's lay Hindus), the human life is divided into four Ashramas ("phases" or "stages"). They are Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa. The first quarter of one's life, Brahmacharya ("meditation in Brahma") is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under a Guru, building up the mind for the realization of truth. Grihastya is the householder's stage, alternatively known as samsara, in which one marries and satisfies kama and artha within a married life and professional career. Vanaprastha is gradual detachment from the material world, ostensibly giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in contemplation of the Divine, and making holy pilgrimages. Finally, in sanyasa, the individual goes into seclusion, often envisioned as the renunciation, to find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for the next life. sanyasa]]
Nature of God
The Vedas depict Brahman as the Ultimate Reality, the Absolute or Universal Soul (Param-atman), One without form, shape, gender, begining or the end (Nirguna, Nirankara). In Hinduism God is a form of Cosmic Energy or Universal Power to create, to preserve and to destroy. To make it easily understandable to primitive people more than five thousand years ago, a concept of the Trinity - god of creation (Brahma), god of preservation (Vishnu) and god of destruction (Shiva) - gods with various human forms and symbols was introduced. To humanize it further and to emphasize the importance of righteous way of life, there is a feminine aspect to the Trinity (Sarswati, Lakshmi and Parpati, respectively) and even their offsprings (Ganesha and Kartikeya). Hinduism because of its very concept, even incorporated some the religious beliefs, gods and goddesses of native peoples conquered by early Hindus. Some people misunderstand Hinduism as multigod religion but that is absolutely untrue. There also exists the lord of the universe, whom some call as Vishnu and some as Shiva, and other devas as different aspects of the potency of one Brahman. Brahman is the indescribable, inexhaustible, incorporeal, omniscient, omnipresent, original, first, eternal, both transcendent and immanent, absolute infinite existence, and the ultimate principle who is without a beginning, without an end , who is hidden in all and who is the cause, source, material and effect of all creation known, unknown and yet to happen in the entire universe. Brahman (not to be confused with the deity Brahmā) is seen as a panentheistic "universal spirit". The personality behind Brahman is known as Parabrahman (The superior Brahman). Unlike Abrahamic religions which believe in a strictly personal God, Hindus believe in a both the personal and impersonal concept of God, usually called as Ishvara (ईश्वर, lit., the Supreme Lord). Hindus maintain that Ishvara is One and only One, although He can be viewed as having many manifestations such as Vishnu or transformations such as Shiva while Vaishnavites and Shaivites view Vishnu or Shiva respectively to be the same as Ishvara. The terms Ishvara and devas must not be confused. Devas could be as numerous as 330 million. These Devas may variously be translated into English as gods, demi-gods, deities, spirits or angels. Ishvara could be viewed in any way, as a non-corporeal, infinite, spiritual being, or as anthropomorphic deities such as Shiva and Vishnu, for the sake of devotional worship. Note that Brahmā, Vishnu and Shiva are not regarded as ordinary devas but as Mahadevas. Brahman is viewed as without personal attributes (Nirguna Brahman) or with attributes (Saguna Brahman, equated with Ishvara) as God. In Advaita Vedanta, Ishvara is simply the manifested form of Brahman upon the human mind. Thus according to Smarta views, the divine can be with attributes, Saguna Brahman, and also be viewed with whatever attributes, (e.g., a female goddess) a devotee conceives. In Vaishnavism and Shaivism, Saguna Brahman such Vishnu or Shiva is viewed as male. Vaishnavites consider Vishnu to be the source of Brahman. The divine power (or energy) of God is personified as female or Shakti. However, the Divine and divine energy are indivisible, unitary, and the same. The analogy is that fire represents the divine and the actual heat Shakti. Though all the different paths of Moksha (salvation) are, to various extents, acknowledged by all denominations, the actual conception of Brahman and its nature is what differentiates them. It is important to note that the contemporary perception of Hinduism, influenced by Smarta traditions, depicts an inclusively monotheistic religion, which accordingly holds that the different deities are simply different manifestations of the One God.
Denominations
Each of the Hinduism's four major denominations share rituals, beliefs, traditions and personal deities with one another, but each sect has a different philosophy on how to achieve life's ultimate goal (moksha, salvation) and on their concept of God (Ishvara). However, each denomination respects all others, and conflict of any kind is rare. In fact, many Hindus will not claim to belong to any denomination at all. Contemporary Hinduism is now divided into four major divisions, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. Just as Jews, Christians and Muslims differ on their view of God, Hindus believe in one God but differ in their views of God. The two primary form of differences are between the sects of Vaishnavism which conceives God as Vishnu, and Shaivism which conceives God as Shiva. Vaishnavas make up the majority of Hindus in India. Shaktism worships a female divine or goddess Devi or alternatively (where it is viewed as a sub sect of Shaivism) as the power of Shiva personified. Smartism, in contrast, believes in all religions being the same and leading to a pantheistic God. The Trimurti concept (also called the Hindu trinity) of Smartism denotes the three aspects of the divine as Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Shiva the Destroyer. A number of reform movements have also given rise to sects like Swami Dayananda Saraswati's Arya Samaj which condemns iconolatry, veneration of multiple deities and focuses on the Vedas and the Vedic fire-sacrifices (yajña).
Smārtism
Smārtas invariably follow Advaita (monist) philosophy, seeing multiple manifestations emanating from a single source called Brahman. It is seen as ultimate unity, with the personal gods (deities) being different manifestations of Brahman which can be called by different names. Smārtism is the only branch of Hinduism that adopts these ideas strictly. The Smārta perspective dominates the view of Hinduism in the West because of the influence of eminent Smārtins like Swami Vivekananda.
Vaishnavism
A Vaishnavite considers Vishnu (विष्णु) as the supreme being, and considers other deities as subordinate (like demi-gods). Accordingly, many Vaishnavites, for example, believe that Vishnu ultimately grants moksha. Vaisnavites, consider worship of other gods as secondary due to Krishna's (who is a form of Vishnu) sayings in the Gita : Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, their wishes are granted by Me (Gita: 7:21-22) O Arjuna, even those devotees who worship other subordinate deities (e.g., Devas, for example) with faith, they also worship Me, [but] following non-injunction (Gita: 9:23).
Shaivism
Vivekananda, the capital of Nepal. It is regarded by Hindus as one of the most sacred temples of Shiva.]] Similar to Vaishnavism, many Shaivites hold that Shiva (शिव) is the supreme being and all other deities sprung forth from him. They follow either monistic or dualistic philosophies.
Shaktism
Shaktas worship Shakti (or Devi) in all of her forms, whilst not rejecting the importance of masculine and neuter divinity. The "History of the Shakta Religion" explains that The Shaktas conceive their Great Goddess as the personification of primordial energy and the source of all divine and cosmic evolution. She is identified with the Supreme Being, conceived as the Source and the Spring as well as the Controller of all the forces and potentialities of Nature. It is associated with Vedanta, Samkhya and Tantra philosophies, is ultimately monist, and has a rich tradition of Bhakti yoga associated with it. Shaivite views often consider Shaktism to be sub-denomination of Saivism, arguing that Devi is worshipped as female in order to attain union with Siva, who in Saivism is the male counterpart of Devi and in Shaktism, is viewed as the formless Absolute.
Hindu sacred texts
The overwhelming majority of Hindu sacred texts are composed in the Sanskrit language. Indeed, much of the morphology and linguistic philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is sometimes claimed to be inextricably linked to study of the Vedas and relevant Hindu scriptures. The Bhagavad Gita, or Song Celestial, is one of three traditional epic books. The others are the Ramayana and the Maha Bharata. The Eighteen Puranas, or Ancients, are divided into three groups of six. The Vedas, the Bhagavad Gita, the Ramayana and the Maha Bharata, the Puranas, and the Manu Smiriti. The Vedas are books that tell about rules that all Hindus have to follow. The Puranas' groups and their contents are: 1) the Brahma Puranas: Brahma Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Markandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana, and the Vamana Purana; 2) the Vishnu Puranas: the Vishnu Purana, the Bhagavata Purana, the Naradeya Purana, the Garuda Purana, the Padma Purana, and the Varaha Purana; and 3) the Shiva Puranas: the Vayu Purana, the Lingu Purana, the Skanda Purana, the Agni Purana, the Matsya Purana, and the Karma Purana.
Shruti
The Vedas (वेद, literally, "Knowledge") are considered as Shruti by Hindus. They are said to have been revealed by the Brahman to the rishis while the latter were in deep meditation. While the overwhelming majority of Hindus may never read the Vedas, there prevails in them a reverence for this transcendental notion of "Eternal Knowledge". The four Vedas (the Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva Vedas) are various shakhas or branches of knowledge. Depending on the branch, different commentaries and instructions are associated with each Veda. The Vedas, apart from the hymn (mantra) or the Samhitā (संहिता) portion, also have three layers of commentaries integrally incorporated within them. These are the Brāhmaņas (ब्राह्मण, not to be confused with Brahman) containing prose commentaries on the rituals, the Āranyakas (आरण्यक) containing the mystical explanations of the mantras, and the Upanişhads (उपनिषद्) containing highly philosophical and metaphysical writings about the nature of, and the relationship between the soul (Atman) and the Brahman. Each Veda also has various law books and ritual manuals associated with like, like the Dharmashastras, Grihyasutras, etc but most people do not consider them as an integral part of the Shruti or Vedic literature. The Upanishads set Hindu philosophy apart with its embrace of transcendent and yet multiple immanent forces that is subjective to each man, seen by some as an identification of unity in diversity. Modern indology suggests that while early Hinduism is most reliant on the four Vedas, Classical Hinduism, from the Yoga and Vedanta to Tantra and Bhakti streams, was moulded around the Upanishads. The Vedas are full of mysticism and allegories. While many schools like Smartism and Advaitism encourage people to interpret the Vedas philosophically and metaphorically and not too literally, Vaishnavism stresses the literal meaning (mukhya vrtti) as primary and indirect meaning (gauna vrtti) as secondary: saksad upadesas tu srutih - "The instructions of the sruti-sastra should be accepted literally, without so-called fanciful or allegorical interpretations." (Jiva Gosvami, Krsna Sandarbha 29.26-27). The very sound of the Vedic mantras is considered as "purifying" by many Hindus, hence the rigour in learning pronunciation. The rigorous oral tradition of transmitting the Vedas has helped in its perfect preservation. Upanishads
Bhagavad Gita
A core sacred text of Hinduism and its philosophy, the Bhagavad Gita (भगवद् गीता), often referred to as the Gita, is a summation of the Vedic, Yogic, Vedantic and Tantric philosophies. The Bhagavad Gita, meaning "The Song Divine", refers to itself as a 'Yoga Upanishad' and is sometimes called Gītopanişad. It expounds on Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga and Jnana Yoga. It is an integral part of the epic Mahabharata. While technically it is considered as Smriti text, it has singularly achieved nearly the status of Shruti, or revealed knowledge. The Bhagavad-gita is described as the essence of the Vedas. This Gita is easy to follow and is also one of the most popular books in Hinduism. Unlike the Vedas, that are most esoteric and intricate, the Gita is read by many practicing Hindus.
Smriti
The other Hindu texts form the latter category, the most notable of which are the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, major epics considered sacred by all followers of Sanatana Dharma. Their stories are arguably familiar to the vast majority of Hindus. Other texts considered important by today's Hindus include the Shrimad Bhagavatam, described as the spotless epic detailing devotion to Vishnu as the highest goal, Devi Mahatmya, an ode to Devi, and the Yoga Sutras, a key meditative yoga text of Shri Patanjali. There are also a number of revered Hindu Tantras, the Manusmriti, the 18 Puranas which vividly describe later Hinduism's deities and mythology, and Sutras that command the respect of various Hindu sects of different persuasion, some including the Mahanirvana Tantra, Tirumantiram and Shiva Sutras. The Ramayana, Mahabharata and many Puranas are much more widely read by today's Hindus than the Vedas, and the temple and icon worship of modern Hinduism is attributable to them. Other important scriptures are the sectarian Hindu Agamas which are texts related to rituals and worship and is dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. The Shrutis take precedence over Smriti in any matter of apparent mutual dispute. Vaishnavas regard the Puranas to be as authoritative as the Vedas.
Origins and society

Origins of Hinduism
Devi, Orissa is one of the most famous stone monument in the world. The temple is conceived as a massive 24-wheel chariot of the Sun God Surya.]] Hinduism is the world's oldest major religion in existence. From a Hindu perspective, the Sanatana Dharma propounds eternal and universal principles with no beginning or end. Hindu puranas and astronomical evidence within place Lord Krishna's birth at a date of 3100 BCE Krishna's incarnation was preceded by Lord Rama's, sometimes dated at over 5,000 BCE, or even millions of years ago according to the Ramayana. It is believed by many Hindus that their religious tradition was fully formed by the time of Lord Rama, believed to be the seventh incarnation of Lord Vishnu. Modern indology, on the other hand, suggests that Hinduism only developed sometime between 1500-1300 BCE based on the linguistic and literary dating of the Rig Veda, the oldest of the Hindu spiritual texts. This, however, is based on the Aryan invasion theory, which has increasingly been doubted due to archaeological findings suggesting that there was never such an invasion. The origin of collective Hindu thought cannot be ascribed to any single founder (though most of its later schools of philosophy and belief can be), or associated with a specific time or a single place of foundation. The Vedas, the earliest Hindu scriptures, are the compilation of spiritual laws and truths binding upon all of creation. It is believed that each Veda was revealed to enlightened sages, called rişhis, over a long period of time. The Vedas are said to have been transmitted to Lord Brahma by Lord Vishnu via meditative trance at the beginning of each creation. The term 'Hindu' itself is a corrupt form of the word 'Sindhu', which literally means 'dwel