:: wikimiki.org ::
| Quirinal Palace |
Quirinal Palace
The Quirinal Palace (known in Italian as the Quirinale) is the official residence of the President of the Italian Republic upon the Quirinal Hill, one of the seven hills of Rome.
The palace, located on the Via del Quirinale and facing onto the Piazza del Quirinale, was built in 1573 by Pope Gregory XIII as a papal summer residence. It was also used as the location for many papal conclaves. It served as a papal residence until 1870 when what was left of the Papal States was overthrown and Rome became the capital of the new Kingdom of Italy. The palace became the official royal residence of the Kings of Italy, though in reality some monarchs, notably King Victor Emmanuel III (reigned 1900-1946) actually lived in a private residence elsewhere, the Quirinale being used simply as an office and for state functions.
The façade was designed by Domenico Fontana. Its 'Great Chapel' was designed by Carlo Maderno. It contains frescos by Guido Reni, but the most famous fresco is "Blessing Christ" by Melozzo da Forlì, placed over the stairs. Its grounds include a famous set of gardens laid out in the eighteenth century.
External links
- [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=rome&ll=41.900944,12.487153&spn=0.006584,0.010060&t=k&hl=en Satellite image of the palace and its garden]
Category:Palaces in Rome
Category:Official residences
Category:Royal residences
Official residence
An official residence is the residence at which head of governments or head of states officially reside. They may or may not be the same location where they conduct their work-related functions.
- El Mouradia (President)
- Government House (Governor General)
- Casa Rosada (presidential)
- Government House (Yarralumla), Canberra (governor-general)
- Admiralty House, Sydney (governor-general)
- The Lodge, Canberra (prime minister)
- Kirribilli House, Sydney (prime minister)
- Hofburg Palace (presidential)
- Government House (Governor-General)
- Rifa'a Palace (royal)
- Krupenino (President)
Belgium
- Palais de Bruxelles (royal, official)
- Château de Laeken (royal, at present receptions but not residential)
- Rue de la Loi-Wetstraat 16 (Prime Minister)
- Dechenchholing Palace (royal)
- Palácio do Planalto (presidential office)
- Palácio da Alvorada (presidential residence)
- Istana Nurul Iman (sultan)
- Khemarindra Palace (royal)
- 24 Sussex Drive, Ottawa (prime minister)
- Harrington Lake, Gatineau Park (prime minister's retreat)
- Rideau Hall, Ottawa (monarch/governor general)
- La Citadelle, Quebec City (governor general)
- Stornoway, Ottawa (leader of the opposition)
- The Farm, Gatineau Park (Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons)
- 7 Rideau Gate (foreign dignitaries visiting Canada)
- Government House (British Columbia), Victoria, British Columbia (lieutenant governor of British Columbia)
- Government House (Manitoba), Winnipeg, Manitoba (lieutenant governor of Manitoba)
- Old Government House, Fredericton, New Brunswick (lieutenant governor of New Brunswick)
- Government House (Newfoundland and Labrador), St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador (lieutenant governor of Newfoundland and Labrador)
- Government House (Nova Scotia), Halifax, Nova Scotia (lieutenant governor of Nova Scotia)
- Government House (Prince Edward Island), Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island (lieutenant governor of Prince Edward Island)
- Government House (Saskatchewan), Regina, Saskatchewan (lieutenant governor of Saskatchewan)
- Palacio de la Moneda (presidential)
- Palacio Presidencial (presidential, in Viña del Mar)
- Zhongnanhai (most top Communist Party of China leaders)
- Palacio de Nariño (President)
- Casa Republicana (President)
- Le Palais de la Présidence (President)
- Presidential Palace (President)
- Prague Castle
- Amalienborg Palace (royal)
- Fredensborg Palace (royal)
- Graasten Palace (royal)
- Marselisborg Palace (royal)
- Marienborg (summer residence of Prime Minister)
- Palacio Nacional (President)
- Palacio de Carondelet
- Abdin Palace (President)
- Ras Al-Teen Palace (President)
- Casa Presidencial or "Casa Blanca" (President)
- Kadriorg Palace (President)
- Paslepa (President)
- Presidential Palace, Helsinki (President)
- Mäntyniemi (Talluden) (President)
- Kultaranta (Gullranda) (President's summer residence)
- Palais de l'Élysée (President of France)
- Hôtel de Marigny official residence for State visitors
- Château de Rambouillet (President of France)
- Fort de Brégançon (Summer residence of the President)
- Domaine National de Marly (President of France)
- Domaine de Souzy-la-Biche (President of France)
- Hôtel Matignon (Prime Minister of France)
- Hôtel de Lassay (president [speaker] of the French National Assembly)
- Palace of Versailles (former residence of the Kings)
- State House (President)
- Schloss Bellevue, Berlin (presidential)
- Villa Hammerschmidt (former residence of the West German president)
- Bundeskanzleramt (chancellor)
- 6 Convent Place (Chief Minister)
- Maximos Mansion (Prime Minister)
- Presidential Mansion (President)
- Casa Presidencial (presidential)
- Apostolic Palace (Papal residence. The Papal Apartments and office are locate in the building called "Palace of Sixtus V")
- Castel Gandolfo (summer residence of the Popes, located outside Vatican City proper as an exclave in Italian territory)
- Lateran Palace (former Papal residence, now home of the Pontifical Museum of Christian Antiquities)
- Castel Sant'Angelo (former Papal residence, refuge of Pope Clement VII from the siege of Charles V Landsknecht during the Sack of Rome (1527), later used as a prison for the Papal state, currently hosts a museum, "Museo Nazionale di Castel Sant'Angelo")
- Palacio "José Cecilio del Valle"
- Government House (Chief Executive, formerly the Governor)
- Victoria House (15 Barker Road) (Chief Secretary)
- 45 Shouson Hill Road (Financial Secretary)
- Residence of Secretary for Justice (19 Severn Road) (Secretary for Justice)
- Chief Justice's House (Chief Justice of the Court of Final Appeal)
- Headquarters House (11 Barker Road) (Commander-in-Chief)
- Flagstaff House (formerly the residence of the commander of British forces in Hong Kong)
- Island House (formerly the residence of the District Officers (North) and later the District Commissioners for the New Territories)
- Sándor Palace (presidential)
- Bessastaðir (presidential)
- Rashtrapati Bhavan (presidential)
- Race Course Road (Prime Ministerial)
- Istana Negara, Jakarta (presidential)
- Istana Merdeka (presidential)
- Istana Bogor (president's retreat palace)
- Istana Cipanas,Puncak (president's retreat palace)
- Istana Tampak Siring, Bali (presidential)
- Gedung Agung, Jogjakarta (presidential)
- Wisma Negara (guest house of foreign dignitaries)
- Diponegoro House, Jakarta (vice president's official residence)
- Istana Wakil Presiden (vice president's office)
- Meligoe Aceh (Aceh' governor palace)
- Keraton Ngayokyakarto Hadiningrat (sultan of Jogja royal palace)
- Keraton Surakarta Hadiningrat (sunan of Surakarta royal palace)
- Keraton Kasepuhan, Cirebon (sultan of Kasepuhan royal palace)
- Keraton Kanoman, Cirebon (sultan of Kanoman royal palace)
- Istana Maimun, Medan (sultan of Deli royal palace)
- Istana Siak Seri Indera Pura (sultan of Siak royal palace)
- Istana Pagaruyung, West Sumatera (yang di-pertuan gadih of Pagaruyung palace)
- Istana Kadariyah
- Istana Amantubillah
- Istana Kutai Kertanegara
- Áras an Uachtaráin (presidential)
- Palazzo del Quirinale (presidential)
- Castelporziano (presidential)
- Villa Rosebery (presidential)
- Kokyo (imperial)
- Kantei (prime minister)
- Raghdan Palace (royal)
- Basman Palace (royal)
- Al Qasr al Sagheer (royal)
- Harambee House (President)
- Kumsusan Memorial Palace (possible former residence of Kim Il Sung)
- Pyongyang No. 15 (residence of Kim Jong Il?)
- Blue House (President)
- Sief Palace (amiri)
- Riga Castle
- Baabda Palace (President)
- Beit Eddine Palace (President)
- Royal Palace (royal)
- Executive Mansion (president)
- Schloss Vaduz (princely)
- Sanjika Palace (President)
- Istana Negara, Kuala Lumpur (DYMM Yang di Pertuan Agung)
- Istana Melawati, Putrajaya (DYMM Yang di Pertuan Agung)
- Seri Perdana, Putrajaya (Prime Minisiter)
- Theemuge (presidential)
- Le Réduit (President)
- Los Pinos (official residence)
- Palacio Nacional (president office)
- Palais de Monaco (princely)
- Palácio da Ponta Vermelha (presidential)
- State House (former presidential residence; site now an immigration detention center)
- Narayanhity Royal Palace (royal)
- Huis ten Bosch, The Hague (Royal)
- The Royal Palace, Amsterdam (Royal)
- Noordeinde Palace, The Hague (Royal)
- Catshuis, The Hague (Prime Minister)
- Government House (Governor-General)
- Premier House (Prime Minister)
- Turongo House, Turangawaewae, Ngaruawahia (Maori Queen)
- Aso Rock (President)
- Royal Palace, Oslo
- Bygdø Royal Estate (royal summer residence), Oslo
- Gamlehaugen (royal residence), Bergen
- Ledaal (royal residence), Stavanger
- Stiftsgaarden (royal residence), Trondheim
- Skaugum Estate (residence of the Crown Prince), Asker
- Parkveien 45 (foreign dignitary guest house), Oslo
- Aiwan-e-Sadr (presidential)
- Palacio de las Garzas (presidential)
- Palacio de López (presidential)
- Malacañan Palace (Official Presidential Residence)
- Mansion House, Baguio City (Summer Presidential Residence)
- Pałac Namiestnikowski (presidential)
- Palácio de Belém (presidential)
- Palácio de São Bento (prime minister)
- Cotroceni Palace (presidential)
- the Moscow Kremlin (presidential and prime ministerial)
- the Winter Palace, (former residence of the Russian Tsars, now part of a group of six buildings that is called the State Hermitage Museum)
- Government House (Governor General)
- Government House (chiefly)
- Vila Mir (Residence of President of Serbia and Montenegro)
- Federation Palace (Office of President of Serbia and Montenegro)
- Stari Dvor (Office of President of Serbia)
- Beli Dvor (former Serbian monarchy)
- State House (President)
- Istana (President and Prime Minister)
- Groote Schuur (President of South Africa)
- Palacio de la Zarzuela (royal residence)
- Palacio Real de Madrid (royal official residence)
- Palacio de la Moncloa (prime minister)
- The Royal Palace, Stockholm (The monarch's official residence)
- Drottningholm Palace (The Royal Family's home residence)
- Strömsholm Palace (royal)
- Rosersberg Palace (royal)
- Ulriksdal Palace (royal)
- Rosendal Palace (royal)
- Tullgarn Palace (royal)
- Gripsholm Palace (royal)
- Sager House (The Prime Minister's official residence)
- Harpsund (The Prime Minister's summer residence)
- Chitralada Villa (royal)
- Baan Phitsanulok (Prime Minister)
- Royal Palace (royal)
- President's House (President)
- Whitehall (Prime Minister)
- Turkmenbashi Palace (President)
- Amiti Palace (presidential)
- Buckingham Palace, London (royal)
- Windsor Castle (royal)
- Holyrood Palace, Edinburgh (royal)
- Hillsborough Castle, Northern Ireland (royal and Secretary of State for Northern Ireland)
- 10 Downing Street (First Lord of the Treasury, usually the Prime Minister)
- 11 Downing Street (Second Lord of the Treasury, usually the Chancellor of the Exchequer)
- Chequers Court (Prime Minister)
- Chevening House (Foreign Secretary)
- Carlton House Terrace (Foreign Secretary, or President of the Council)
- Dorneywood (in the gift of the Prime Minister; typically used by the Chancellor or Deputy Prime Minister)
- The Government House at Pimlico (shared by various senior ministers, including the Home Secretary)
- Admiralty House (shared by various senior ministers)
- Bute House, Edinburgh (First Minister of Scotland; before devolution, Secretary of State for Scotland)
- Lambeth Palace (Archbishop of Canterbury)
(See also: List of British Royal Residences)
- White House (presidential)
- Camp David (presidential country residence)
- Number One Observatory Circle (vice-presidential)
- White House of the Confederacy (Civil War-era residence of the Confederate president)
- Blair House (Guest house for foreign dignitaries)
- Western White House (any residence of the President located in the west is referred to as this)
U.S. states and territories
In nearly all of the states and territories, the governor has an official residence
- Iolani Palace (former Hawaiian monarchy)
- Minnesota Governor's Residence
- Georgia Governor's Mansion
- Jennings House, Maryland Governors' Residence
- Drumthwacket New Jersey's governor house
- Washington Place Hawaii's governor house
- La Fortaleza Puerto Rico's Governor's Residence
U.S. cities
- Gracie Mansion (New York City mayor)
- Oqsaroy (President)
- Palacio de Miraflores (presidential)
-
Category:Lists of structures
List of Presidents of the Italian Republic
This is the list of Presidents of the Italian Republic with the title Presidente della Repubblica since 1948.
Presidents of the Italian Republic
Temporary President of State.
Did not want to be called President of the Italian Republic, only Temporary Chief of State, as he had not been elected by the Republican Parliament that would to be first elected in 1948.
Resigned.
Interim.
Interim from June 23, 1985 to July 3, 1985.
The Quirinal Palace (known in Italian as the Quirinale) in Rome is the official residence of the President of the Italian Republic.
See also
Politics of Italy, List of Prime Ministers of Italy, Lists of incumbents
External link
30px [http://www.quirinale.it/ Presidenza della Repubblica] - official site of the President of Italian Republic
Italian Republic, Presidents of the
Presidents of the Italian Republic
-
Seven hills of Rome:For the film starring Mario Lanza, see Seven Hills of Rome (film).
The Seven Hills of Rome east of the Tiber form the heart of Rome. The Seven Hills of early-Rome were the Cermalus, Cispius, Fagutal, Oppius, Palatium, Sucusa, and Velia. They figure prominently into Roman mythology, religion, and politics; the original city was held by tradition to have been founded by Romulus on the Palatine Hill (Collis Palatinus). The other six of the Seven Hills of later-Rome are the Aventine Hill (Collis Aventinus), the Capitoline Hill (Collis Capitolinus), the Quirinal Hill (Collis Quirinalis), the Viminal Hill (Collis Viminalis), the Esquiline Hill (Collis Esquilinus), and the Caelian Hill (Collis Caelius).
The now-famous Vatican Hill (Collis Vaticanus) is northwest of the Tiber and is not one of the Seven Hills of Rome. Likewise, the Pincian Hill (Pincius Mons), to the north, and the Janiculum (Ianiculum), to the west, are not counted among the traditional Seven Hills.
Of the Seven Hills of later-Rome, five of them (in Italian) (Aventino, Celio, Esquilino, Quirinale, Viminale) are populated areas with monuments, buildings and parks; the Campidoglio (Capitol Hill) now hosts the Municipality of Rome; the Palatino is an archaeological area.
- Aventino
- Campidoglio (Capitolinus Mons)
- Celio
- Esquilino
- Palatino
- Quirinale
- Viminale
Biblical reference
One of the most famous references that possibly refers to the Seven Hills of Rome is the prophetic imagery of the Book of Revelation. Revelation 17 makes reference to the "great harlot" seated on "a scarlet beast that was covered with blasphemous names, with seven heads and ten horns," and the angel speaking to St. John says:
: Rev 17:9 (KJV) And here is the mind which hath wisdom. The seven heads are seven mountains, on which the woman sitteth.
: Rev 17:10 And there are seven kings: five are fallen, and one is, and the other is not yet come; and, when he cometh, he must continue a short space.
The angel adds that:
: Rev 17:18 (KJV) And the woman which thou sawest is that great city, which reigneth over the kings of the earth.
There remains considerable hermeneutic disagreement among Biblical scholars as to which city and which kings this passage refers to. Protestants have long considered Revelation 17 to identify the papacy and the Roman Catholic Church, as the Cathedra (seat) of the Bishop of Rome; the Pope, is located at the Lateran Cathedral, which is on one of the seven hills of Rome, the Celio. Today, Catholic apologists would counter that Jerusalem ("the Holy City") is just as likely, that it was also sited on seven hills.
See also
- List of cities claimed to be built on seven hills for other cities known for being built upon seven hills.
Category:Ancient Rome
Category:Rome
1573
Events
- January - articles of Warsaw Confederation signed, sanctioning religious freedom in Poland.
- July 6 - Córdoba, Argentina is founded by Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera.
- July 12 - Spanish forces under the Duke of Alva capture Haarlem after a seven month siege.
- August-October - Unsuccessful siege of Alkmaar by Alva
- November - Alva resigns as Spanish Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief in the Netherlands, and is succeeded by Luis de Requesens, who attempts to pursue a more conciliatory policy.
- End of the Fourth War of Religion in France.
- Oda Nobunaga drives the 14th Ashikaga shogun Ashikaga Yoshiaki out of Kyoto, effectively destroying the Ashikaga shogunate and historically ending the Muromachi period. The Azuchi-Momoyama period of Japan begins.
- Sarsa Dengel, emperor of Ethiopia, defeats the Oromo in a battle near Lake Zway.
Births
- January 10 - Simon Marius, German astronomer (died 1624)
- April 17 - Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria (died 1651)
- April 26 - Marie de' Medici, queen of Henry IV of France (d. 1642)
- July 15 - Inigo Jones, English architect (died 1652)
- July 25 - Christoph Scheiner, German astronomer and Jesuit (died 1650)
- September 28 - Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Italian artist (died 1610)
- October 6 - Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton, English patron of the theater (died 1624)
- October 7 - William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury (died 1645)
- Ambrosius Bosschaert, Dutch painter (died 1621)
- Pietro Carrera, Sicilian chess player, priest and painter (died 1647)
- Robert Catesby, English leader of the Gunpowder Plot (died 1605)
- Odoardo Farnese, Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church in Italy (died 1626)
- Ukita Hideie, Japanese daimyo (died 1655)
- Richard Johnson, English romance writer (died 1659)
- Johannes Junius, Burgomeister of Bamberg (died 1628)
- John Kendrick, English merchant (died 1624)
- Oeyo, wife of Tokugawa Hidetada
- Juan Pujol, Catalan composer and organist (died 1626)
- Charles de Valois, Duke of Angoulême, natural son of Charles IX of France (died 1650)
See also :Category: 1573 births.
Deaths
- March 13 - Michel de l'Hôpital, French statesman (born 1505)
- May 13 - Takeda Shingen, Japanese warlord (b. 1521)
- July 29 - John Caius, English physician (born 1510)
- August 14 - Saito Tatsuoki, Japanese warlord (born 1548)
- September 23 - Azai Hisamasa, Japanese warlord (born 1524)
- October 27 - Laurentius Petri, first Lutheran Archbishop of Sweden (b. 1499)
- December 30 - Giovanni Battista Giraldi, Italian novelist and poet (born 1504)
- Pieter Aertsen, Dutch historical painter (born 1507)
- Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, Spanish philosopher and theologian (born 1494)
- William Howard, 1st Baron Howard of Effingham, English Lord High Admiral (born 1510)
- Etienne Jodelle, French dramatist and poet (born 1532)
- Shimazu Katsuhisa, Japanese nobleman
- Michel de L'Hospital, Chancellor of France (born 1505)
- Takeda Nobutora, Japanese warlord
- Wigbolt Ripperda, Mayor of Haarlem
- Paul Skalic, Croatian encyclopedist (born 1534)
- Reginald Wolfe, English printer
- Murakami Yoshikiyo, Japanese warlord (born 1501)
See also :Category: 1573 deaths.
Category:1573
ko:1573년
Pope Gregory XIII
Gregory XIII, born Ugo Boncompagni (January 7, 1502 – April 10, 1585) was pope from 1572 to 1585. He was born in Bologna, where he studied law and graduated in 1530. Afterwards, he taught jurisprudence for some years; Alexander Farnese, Reginald Pole and Charles Borromeo being among his pupils.
At the age of thirty-six he was summoned to Rome by Paul III, under whom he held successive appointments as first judge of the capital, abbreviator, and vice-chancellor of the Campagna; by Paul IV he was attached as datarius to the suite of Cardinal Carafa; and by Pope Pius IV he was created cardinal priest and sent to the council of Trent.
Upon the death of Pius V in May 1572, the conclave chose Cardinal Boncompagni, who assumed the name of Gregory XIII. Once in the chair of Saint Peter, he put aside his rather worldly concerns and dedicated himself to reform of the Roman Catholic Church. He committed himself to putting into practice the recommendations of the Council of Trent. He allowed no exceptions for cardinals to the rule that bishops must take up residence in their sees, and designated a committee to update the Index of Forbidden Books.
The work with which the name of Gregory XIII is most honorably associated is that of the reformation of the calendar, producing the Gregorian calendar with the aid of priest/astronomer Christopher Clavius. He issued the papal bull Inter gravissimas to promulgate the new calendar on 1582 February 24. On 1582, October 15, this calendar replaced the Julian calendar, in use since 45 BC, and has become universally used today.
A new and greatly improved edition of the Corpus juris canonici was also due to his concerned patronage.
Though he expressed the conventional fears of the danger from the Turks, his attentions were more consistently directed to the dangers from the Protestants. He founded numerous seminaries for training priests, beginning with the German College at Rome, and put them in the charge of the Jesuits. He was a liberal patron of the Society of Jesus throughout Europe, for which he founded many new colleges.
His attempts to dethrone Elizabeth I of England succeeded in creating an atmosphere of subversion and imminent danger among English Protestants, who looked on any Catholic as a potential traitor. As early as 1578 Gregory outfitted Thomas Stukeley with a ship and an army of 800 men to land in Ireland to aid the Desmond Rebellions there. To his dismay Stukeley joined his forces with those of King Sebastian of Portugal against Emperor Abdulmelek of Morocco instead. Another papal expedition sailed to Ireland in 1579 under the command of James Fitzmaurice, accompanied by Nicholas Sander as papal nuncio, was equally unsuccessful. Gregory XIII had no connection with the plot of Henry, Duke of Guise, and his brother, Charles, Duke of Mayenne, to assassinate Elizabeth in 1582, and most probably knew nothing about it beforehand.
He celebrated the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacres in 1572 with a Te Deum and a commemorative medal, with his portrait and on the obverse a chastising angel, sword in hand and the legend UGONOTTORUM STRAGES ("Huguenots slaughtered") [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc7.ii.i.xi.html Note 53].
Huguenot]
In Rome he built the magnificent Gregorian chapel in the Basilica of St. Peter, and the Quirinal Palace in 1580. He also turned the Baths of Diocletian into a granary in 1575.
He appointed his illegitimate son Giacomo, born to his mistress at Bologna, castellan of St. Angelo and gonfalonier of the Church, and Venice, anxious to please, enrolled him among its nobles. The King of Spain appointed him general in his army.
In order to raise funds for these and similar objects, he confiscated a large proportion of the houses and properties throughout the states of the Church, — a measure which enriched his treasury, indeed, for a time, but by alienating the great body of the nobility and gentry, revived old factions, created new ones, and ultimately plunged his temporal dominions into a state bordering upon anarchy. Such was the position of matters at the time of his death, which took place on April 10, 1585.
Gregory XIII was succeeded by Sixtus V.
The oldest Papal tiara still in existence dates from the reign of Gregory XIII.
External links
- Catholic Encyclopedia: [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07001b.htm Pope Gregory XIII]
- [http://papal-library.saint-mike.org/GregoryXIII/Biography.html "Papal Library" website:] Gregory XIII
----
Initial text from the 9th edition (1880) of an unnamed encyclopedia.
Gregory 13
Gregory 13
Gregory 13
Gregory 13
ko:교황 그레고리오 13세
ja:グレゴリウス13世 (ローマ教皇)
Papal election artist Michelangelo.]]
A papal election is the method by which the Roman Catholic Church fills the office of Bishop of Rome, whose incumbent is known as the Pope, the head of the Church. An occasion steeped in centuries-old tradition, this meeting of clergymen held to select the Pope is referred to as a conclave. The term comes from the Latin phrase cum clave ("with a key"), referring to the "locking away" of the electors during the process. Conclaves have been employed since the Second Council of Lyons decreed in 1274 that the electors should meet in seclusion. They are now held in the Sistine Chapel in the Palace of the Vatican.
Since the year 1059, the College of Cardinals has served as the sole body charged with the election of the Pope, the source of the term Prince of the church for cardinals. In earlier times, members of the clergy and the people of Rome were entitled to participate, in much the same way as the laity helped determine the choice of bishops throughout the Catholic Church during this early period. Popes may make rules relating to election procedures; they may determine the composition of the electoral body, replacing the entire College of Cardinals if they were to so choose.
Historical development
The procedures relating to the election of the Pope have undergone almost two millennia of development. Procedures similar to the present system were introduced in 1274 with the Second Council of Lyons.
Electorate
The earliest bishops were most likely chosen by the founders of their communities. Later, however, this method was replaced in Rome and elsewhere with that of election by the clergy and laity of the community and the bishops of neighbouring dioceses. The true electoral body was the clergy, which did not cast votes, instead selecting the Pope by general consensus or by acclamation (with bishops supervising the process). The candidate would then be submitted to the people for their approbation; Romans typically signified approval (or disapproval) tumultuously. The lack of clarity in the election procedures often resulted in the election of rival Popes or antipopes.
The Lateran Synod held in 769 officially abolished the theoretical suffrage held by the Roman people, though in 862, a Synod of Rome restored it to Roman noblemen. A major change was introduced in 1059, when Nicholas II decreed that the cardinals were to elect a candidate, who would take office after receiving the assent of the clergy and laity. The most senior cardinals, the Cardinal Bishops, were to meet first and discuss the candidates before summoning the Cardinal Priests and Cardinal Deacons for the actual vote. A Synod of the Lateran held in 1139 removed the requirement that the assent of the lower clergy and the laity be obtained.
The cardinals' exclusive right to elect the Pope was questioned during the Papal Schism that began in 1378. After the death of the French-born Pope Gregory XI in that year, Romans rioted to ensure the election of an Italian; the cardinals complied by choosing Pope Urban VI. Later, in the same year, the cardinals moved to Fondi and elected another rival Pope. The Council of Pisa met in 1409 to resolve the conflict, but only managed to elect a third claimant. The conflict was only resolved by the Council of Constance (which met between 1414 and 1418), which received the abdication of one claimant and deposed the two others. The Council then proceeded to elect Pope Martin V, ending the Papal Schism. Since that election, the cardinals have remained the sole electors of Popes. Furthermore, it was declared that no council would have authority over the Pope, and that a papal election could not be undone.
Having fallen to as few as seven members in the 13th century, the College grew until in 1587, Sixtus V limited the cardinalate to 70 members (six Cardinal Bishops, 50 Cardinal Priests, and 14 Cardinal Deacons) but Popes since John XXIII have paid no heed to the guideline. In 1970, Paul VI decreed that cardinals over the age of eighty were ineligible to be part of the electorate, and also increased the limit on the number of cardinal electors to 120. Even this limitation was disregarded by John Paul II. John Paul II also changed the rule so that cardinals that were under eighty on the day the Holy See become vacant but turn eighty before the conclave start still have a vote. Of the Church's current 182 cardinals, 116 are under eighty years of age, and thus qualified to vote on a papal successor.
Choice of the electors
Originally, lay status did not bar election to the Bishopric of Rome. In 769, the candidate was required to be a clergyman; the requirements later became more stringent, with only cardinals being eligible to be elected. In 1179, the Third Council of the Lateran reversed these requirements, once more allowing laymen to be elected (this does not mean the person elected remains an unordained layman while serving as pope; see acceptance and proclamation below). In 1378, Urban VI became the last Pope who was not a cardinal at the time of his election. There is no requirement that a Bishop of Rome be Italian; the present incumbent, Benedict XVI, is German, and his predecessor, John Paul II, was Polish. Prior to Benedict and John Paul, the last Pope to hail from a nation outside Italy was the Dutchman (ethnically German) Adrian VI, elected in 1522. In the current day, any baptised male, except for a heretic or schismatic can be elected by the College of Cardinals.1 Women have never been eligible for the papacy; claims that there was a female Pope, including the supposed Pope Joan, are fictitious.
A simple majority sufficed for an election until 1179, when the Third Lateran Council increased the required majority to two-thirds. Cardinals were not allowed to vote for themselves; an elaborate procedure was adopted to ensure secrecy while at the same time preventing cardinals from voting for themselves2. In 1945, however, Pius XII dispensed with the procedure, compensating for the change by increasing the requisite majority to two-thirds plus one. In 1996, John Paul II restored the two-thirds majority requirement, but not the prohibition on cardinals voting for themselves. John Paul's constitution allows the electorate, by an absolute majority vote, to advise and change the election rules if deadlock still prevails seven ballots after the address by the senior Cardinal Bishop.
Electors formerly made choices by three methods: by acclamation, by compromise and by scrutiny. When voting by acclamation, the cardinals would unanimously declare the new Pope quasi afflati Spiritu Sancto (as if inspired by the Holy Spirit). When voting by compromise, the deadlocked College of Cardinals would select a committee of cardinals to conduct an election. When voting by scrutiny, the electors cast secret ballots. The last election by compromise was that of John XXII (1316), and the last election by acclamation was that of Gregory XV (1621). New rules introduced by John Paul II have formally abolished these long-unused systems; now, election is always by ballot.
Secular influence
For the greater part of its history, the Church has been influenced in the choice of its leaders by powerful monarchs and governments. For example, the Roman Emperors once held considerable sway in the elections of Popes. In 418, Honorius settled a controverted election, upholding Boniface I over the challenger Eulalius. He ordered that in future cases, controverted elections would be settled by fresh elections; the method was never applied before its lapse. After the demise of the Western Roman Empire, clout passed to the Ostrogothic Kings of Italy. In 532, John II formally recognised the right of the Ostrogothic monarchs to ratify elections. By the end of the 530s, the Ostrogothic monarchy was overthrown, and power passed to the Byzantine Emperors (who are known as the Eastern Roman Emperors). A procedure was adopted whereby officials were required to notify the Exarch of Ravenna (who would relay the information to the Byzantine Emperor) upon the death of a Pope before proceeding to the election. Once the electors arrived at a choice, they were required to send a delegation to Constantinople requesting the Emperor's consent, which was necessary before the individual elected could take office. Lengthy delays were caused by the sojourns to and from Constantinople; when Benedict II complained about them, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IV acquiesced, ending the confirmation of elections by the Emperors. Thereafter, the Emperor was only required to be notified; the requirement was dispensed with by Zacharias and by his successors.
In the 9th century, a new empire—the Holy Roman Empire, which was German, not Italian—came to exert control over the elections of Popes. While the first two Holy Roman Emperors, Charlemagne and Louis, did not interfere with the Church, Lothar claimed that an election could not be conducted except in the presence of imperial ambassadors. In 898, riots forced John IX to recognise the superintendence of the Holy Roman Emperor; the local secular rulers in Rome also continued to exert a great influence, especially during the tenth century period known as the pornocracy.
In 1059, the same papal bull that restricted suffrage to the cardinals also recognised the authority of the Holy Roman Emperor, at the time Henry IV, but only as a "concession" made by the Pope, thus establishing that the Holy Roman Emperor had no authority to intervene in elections except where permitted to do so by papal agreements. Gregory VII was the last to submit to the interference of the Holy Roman Emperors; the breach between him and the Holy Roman Empire caused by the Investiture Controversy led to the abolition of the Emperor's role. In 1119, the Holy Roman Empire acceded to the Concordat of Worms, accepting the papal decision.
From the sixteenth century, certain Catholic nations were allowed to exercise the so-called "right of exclusion" or "veto". By an informal convention, each nation was allowed to veto not more than one papal candidate; any decision made by a nation was conveyed by one of its cardinals. The power of exclusion was, by the same custom, only exercisable by any nation once. Therefore, the nation's cardinals did not announce the use of the power until the very last moment when the candidate in question seemed likely to get elected. No vetoes could be employed after an election. After the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806, its place was taken by Austria (which was a part of the Empire and whose ruler was also Holy Roman Emperor). Austria became the last nation to exercise the power in 1903, when Cardinal Puzyna de Kosielsko informed the College of Cardinals that Austria opposed the election of Mariano Cardinal Rampolla (who had received 29 out of 60 votes in one ballot). Consequently, the College chose Giuseppe Cardinal Sarto with 55 votes. St Pius X, as Cardinal Sarto came to be known, abolished the right of the veto. He declared that any cardinal who communicated his government's veto would suffer excommunication, or expulsion from Church communal life.
Conclaves
In earlier years, papal elections sometimes suffered prolonged deadlocks. To resolve them, authorities often resorted to the forced seclusion of the cardinal electors. The method was adopted, for example, in 1216 by the city of Perugia and in 1241 by the city of Rome. After the death of Clement IV in 1268, the city of Viterbo was also forced to resort to the seclusion of cardinals in the episcopal palace. When the cardinals still failed to elect a Pope, the city refused to send in any materials except bread and water. As a result, the cardinals soon elected Gregory X, ending an interregnum of almost three years.
To reduce further delays, Gregory X introduced stringent rules relating to the election procedures. Cardinals were to be secluded in a closed area; they were not even accorded separate rooms. No cardinal was allowed to be attended by more than one servant unless ill. Food was to be supplied through a window; after three days of the meeting, the cardinals were to receive only one dish a day; after five days, they were to receive just bread and water. During the conclave, no cardinal was to receive any ecclesiastical revenue.
Gregory X's strict regulations were later abrogated in 1276 by Adrian V, but after he was elected in 1294 following a two-year vacancy, Celestine V restored them. In 1562, Pius IV issued a papal bull that introduced regulations relating to the secrecy of the ballots and other procedural matters. Gregory XV issued two bulls that covered the most minute of details relating to the election; the first, issued in 1621, concerned electoral processes, while the other bull, issued in 1622, fixed the ceremonies to be observed. In 1904, Pius X issued a constitution consolidating almost all of the previous ones, making some changes. Several reforms were instituted by John Paul II in 1996.
The location of the conclaves was not fixed until the fourteenth century. Since the Western Schism, however, elections have always been held in Rome (except in 1800, when Neapolitan troops occupying Rome forced the election to be held in Venice), and normally in the Vatican City (which has, since the Lateran treaties of 1929, been recognised as an independent state). Within Rome and the Vatican City, different locations have been used for the election. Since 1846, when the Quirinal Palace was used, the Sistine Chapel has always served as the location of the election. Popes have often written "election constitutions" fine-tuning the rules for the election of their successors: Pope Pius XII's Vacantis Apostolicae Sedis of 1945 governed the conclave of 1958, Pope John XXIII's Summi Pontificis Electio of 1962 that of 1963, and Pope Paul VI's Romano Pontifici Eligendo of 1975 those of 1978.
Modern practice
In 1996, John Paul II promulgated a new Apostolic Constitution, called Universi Dominici Gregis (Shepherd of the Lord's Whole Flock), which, unless superseded by later regulations, now governs the election of the Pope's successor. The procedures outlined, however, in many cases date to much earlier times. Universi Dominici Gregis is the sole constitution governing the election; it abrogates all constitutions previously issued by Popes. Under Universi Dominici Gregis, the cardinals are to be lodged in a purpose-built edifice, the Domus Sanctæ Marthæ, but are to continue to vote in the Sistine Chapel.
Several duties are performed by the Dean of the College of Cardinals, who is always a Cardinal Bishop. If the Dean is not entitled to participate in the conclave due to age, his place is taken by the Sub-Dean, who is also always a Cardinal Bishop. If the Sub-Dean also cannot participate, the senior Cardinal Bishop participating performs the functions.
Since the College of Cardinals is a small body, some have suggested that the electorate should be expanded. Proposed reforms include a plan to replace the College of Cardinals as the electoral body with the Synod of Bishops, which includes many more members. Under present procedure, however, the Synod may only meet while called by the Pope. Universi Dominici Gregis explicitly provides that even if a Synod or ecumenical council is in session at the time of a Pope's death, it may not perform the election. Upon the Pope's death, either body's proceedings are suspended, to be resumed only upon the order of the new Pope.
It is considered poor form to campaign for the position of Pope. However, there is inevitably always much speculation about which Cardinals have serious prospects of being elected. Speculation tends to mount when a Pope is ill or aged and shortlists of potential candidates appear in the media. A Cardinal who is considered to be a prospect for the papacy is referred to informally as being papabile (plural noun: papabili), the term being coined by Vatican watchers in the mid-twentieth century.
Death of the Pope
twentieth century
The death of the Pope is verified by the Cardinal Camerlengo, or Chamberlain, who traditionally performed the task by gently striking the Pope's head with a small silver hammer and calling out his Christian (not papal) name three times. During the twentieth century the use of the hammer in this ritual has been abandoned; under Universi Dominici Gregis, the Camerlengo must merely declare the Pope's death by calling him three times by his Christian name in the presence of the Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations, and of the Cleric Prelates, Secretary and Chancellor of the Apostolic Camera. The Cardinal Camerlengo takes possession of the Fisherman's Ring worn by the Pope; the Ring, along with the papal seal, is later destroyed before the College of Cardinals. The tradition originated to avoid forgery of documents, but today merely is a symbol of the end of the pope's reign.
During the sede vacante, as the papal vacancy is known, certain limited powers pass to the College of Cardinals, which is convoked by the Dean of the College of Cardinals. All cardinals are obliged to attend the General Congregation of Cardinals, except those who are over eighty (but those cardinals may choose to attend if they please). The Particular Congregation, which deals with the day-to-day matters of the Church, includes the Cardinal Camerlengo and the three Cardinal Assistants—one Cardinal Bishop, one Cardinal Priest and one Cardinal Deacon—chosen by lot. Every three days, new Cardinal Assistants are chosen by lot. The Cardinal Camerlengo and Cardinal Assistants are responsible, among other things, for maintaining the election's secrecy.
The Congregations must make certain arrangements in respect of the Pope's burial, which by tradition takes place from four to six days of the Pope's death, leaving time for pilgrims to see the dead pontiff, and is to be followed by a nine-day period of mourning (this is known as the novemdiales, Latin for "nine days"). The Congregations also fix the date and time of the commencement of the conclave. The conclave normally takes place fifteen days after the death of the Pope, but the Congregations may extend the period to a maximum of twenty days in order to permit other cardinals to arrive in the Vatican City.
A vacancy in the papal office may also result from a papal abdication, though no pope has abdicated since Celestine V in 1294 and Gregory XII in 1409.
Beginning of the election
On the morning of the day designated by the Congregations of Cardinals, the cardinal electors assemble in St Peter's Basilica to celebrate the Eucharist. Then, they gather in the afternoon in the Pauline Chapel of the Palace of the Vatican, proceeding to the Sistine Chapel while singing the Veni Creator. The Cardinals then take an oath to observe the procedures set down by the apostolic constitutions; to, if elected, defend the liberty of the Holy See; to maintain secrecy; and to disregard the instructions of secular authorities on voting. The Cardinal Dean reads the oath aloud in full; in order of precedence, the other cardinal electors merely state, while touching the Gospels, that they "do so promise, pledge and swear."
After all the cardinals present have taken the oath, the Master of the Papal Liturgical Celebrations orders all individuals other than the cardinals and conclave participants to leave the Chapel. The Master himself may remain, as may one ecclesiastic designated by the Congregations prior to the commencement of the election. The ecclesiastic makes a speech concerning the problems facing the Church and on the qualities the new Pope needs to have. After the speech concludes, the ecclesiastic leaves. Following the recitation of prayers, the Cardinal Dean asks if any doubts relating to procedure remain. After the clarification of the doubts, the election may commence. Cardinals who arrive after the conclave has begun are admitted nevertheless. An ill cardinal may leave the conclave and later be readmitted; a cardinal who leaves for any reason other than illness may not return to the conclave.
Each cardinal elector may be accompanied by two attendants or conclavists (three if the cardinal elector is ill). The Secretary of the College of Cardinals, the Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations, two Masters of Ceremonies, two officers of the Papal Sacristy and an ecclesiastic assisting the Dean of the College of Cardinals are also admitted to the conclave. Priests are available to hear the confession in different languages; two doctors are also admitted. Finally, a strictly limited number of servant staff are permitted for housekeeping and the preparing and serving of meals3. Secrecy is maintained during the conclave; the cardinals as well as the conclavists and staff are not permitted to disclose any information relating to the election. Cardinal electors may not correspond or converse with anyone outside the conclave, by post, radio, telephone or otherwise. Universi Dominici Gregis specifically prohibits media such as newspapers, the radio, and television.
Voting
On the afternoon of the first day, one ballot may be held. If a ballot take place on the afternoon of the first day and no-one is elected, or no ballot had taken place, four ballots are held on each successive day: two in each morning and two in each afternoon. If no result is obtained after three vote days of balloting, the process is suspended for a maximum of one day for prayer and an address by the senior Cardinal Deacon. After seven further ballots, the process may again be similarly suspended, with the address now being delivered by the senior Cardinal Priest. If, after another seven ballots, no result is achieved, voting is suspended once more, the address being delivered by the senior Cardinal Bishop. After a further seven ballots, the cardinal electors may decide by an absolute majority, to advise and change the election rules. This includes the possibility of eliminating all candidates except the two who have received the greatest number of votes in the previous ballot and reducing the majority require for an election. However, there can be no waiving of the requirement that a valid election takes place only by an absolute majority of the votes.
The process of voting comprises three phases: the "pre-scrutiny," the "scrutiny," and the "post-scrutiny." During the pre-scrutiny, the Masters of the Ceremonies prepare ballot papers bearing the words Eligo in Summum Pontificem ("I elect as Supreme Pontiff") and provide at least two to each cardinal elector. As the cardinals begin to write down their votes, the Secretary of the College of Cardinals, the Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations and the Masters of Ceremonies exit; the junior Cardinal Deacon then closes the door. The junior Cardinal Deacon then draws by lot nine names; the first three become Scrutineers, the second three Infirmarii and the last three Revisers. New Scrutineers, Infirmarii and Revisers are not selected again after the first ballot.
Then the scrutiny phase of the election commences. The cardinal electors proceed, in order of precedence, to take their completed ballots (which bear only the name of the individual voted for) to the altar, where the Scrutineers stand. Before casting the ballot, each cardinal elector takes a Latin oath, which translates to: "I call as my witness Christ the Lord who will be my judge, that my vote is given to the one who before God I think should be elected." If any cardinal elector is in the Chapel, but cannot proceed to the altar due to infirmity, the last Scrutineer may go to him and take his ballot after the oath is recited. If any cardinal elector is by reason of infirmity confined to his room, the Infirmarii go to their rooms with ballot papers and a box. When the Infirmarii return to the Chapel, the ballots are counted to ensure that their number matches with the number of ill cardinals; thereafter, they are deposited in the appropriate receptacle. The oath is taken by all cardinals only at the first vote.
Once all votes have been cast, the first Scrutineer chosen shakes the container, and the last Scrutineer removes and counts the ballots. If the number of ballots does not correspond to the number of cardinal electors present, the ballots are burnt, and the vote is repeated. If, however, no irregularities are observed, the ballots may be opened and the votes counted. Each ballot is unfolded by the first Scrutineer; all three Scrutineers separately write down the name indicated on the ballot. The last of the Scrutineers reads the name aloud.
ChristOnce all of the ballots have been opened, the final post-scrutiny phase begins. The Scrutineers add up all of the votes, and the Revisers check the ballots and the names on the Scrutineers' lists to ensure that no error was made. The ballots are then all burnt by the Scrutineers with the assistance of the Secretary of the College and the Masters of Ceremonies. If the first election held in any given morning or afternoon does not result in an election, the cardinals proceed to the next vote immediately; the papers from both ballots are burnt together at the end of the second vote. The colour of the smoke signals the results to the people assembled in St Peter's Square. Dark smoke signals that the ballot did not result in an election, while white smoke signals that a new Pope was chosen. Originally, damp straw was added to the fire to create dark smoke; since 1958 chemicals have been used. In addition, bells ring after a successful election in case the white smoke is not unambiguously white.
Acceptance and proclamation
Once the election concludes, the junior Cardinal Deacon summons the Secretary of the College of Cardinals and the Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations into the hall. The Cardinal Dean then asks the Pope-elect if he assents to the election ("Do you accept your canonical election as Supreme Pontiff?"). If he does, and is already a bishop, he immediately takes office. If he is not a bishop, however, he must be first ordained as one before he can assume office. If a priest is elected, the Cardinal Dean ordains him bishop; if a layman is elected, then the Cardinal Dean first ordains him priest, and only then bishop. Only after becoming a bishop does the Pope-elect take office.
Since 533, the new Pope has also decided on the name by which he is to be called at this time. Pope John II was the first to adopt a new papal name; he felt that his original name, Mercurius, was inappropriate, as it was also the name of a Roman god. In most cases, even if such considerations are absent, Popes tend to choose new papal names; the last Pope to reign under his baptismal name was Pope Marcellus II (1555). After the papal name is chosen, the officials are readmitted to the conclave, and the Master of Pontifical Liturgical writes a document recording the acceptance and the new name of the Pope.
Later, the new Pope goes to the "Room of Tears," a small red room next to the Sistine Chapel. The origin of the name is uncertain, but seems to imply the commixture of joy and sorrow felt by the newly chosen holder of the monumental office. The Pope dresses by himself, selecting among the three sizes of white robes made available, and returns to the conclave, where the Cardinal Camerlengo places the Fisherman's Ring on his finger and each cardinal pays homage to the new Pope, who sits on a footstool near the altar.
Next, the senior Cardinal Deacon (the Cardinal Protodeacon) appears at the main balcony of the basilica's façade to proclaim the new pope with the Latin phrase:
Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum:
Habemus Papam!
Eminentissimum ac Reverendissimum Dominum,
Dominum [forename],
Sanctæ Romanæ Ecclesiæ Cardinalem [surname],
qui sibi nomen imposuit [papal name].4
|
("I announce to you a great joy:
We have a Pope!
The Most Eminent and Most Reverend Lord,
Lord [forename],
Cardinal of the Holy Roman Church [surname],
who takes to himself the name [papal name].")
|
It has happened in the past that the Cardinal Protodeacon has himself been the person elected Pope. In such an event the announcement is made by the next senior Deacon, who has thus succeeded as Protodeacon, and not by the new Pope himself. In 1903 Protodeacon Prospero Cardinal Caterini was physically incapable of completing the announcement, so another made it for him.
The new Pope then gives his first apostolic blessing, Urbi et Orbi ("to the City [Rome] and to the World"). Formerly, the Pope would be crowned by the triregnum or Triple Tiara at the Papal Coronation. John Paul I did not want the elaborate coronation ceremony for himself, choosing instead to be consecrated in a Papal Inauguration ceremony.
Historical voting patterns
The newly elected pope often contrasts dramatically with his predecessor, a tendency expressed by the Italian axiom "After a fat pope a lean pope". Past cardinals have often voted for someone radically different to the pope who appointed them. The controversial one-time populist turned conservative, long-lived Pope Pius IX (1846–1878) was succeeded by the aristocratic diplomatic Pope Leo XIII (1878–1903). He in turn was succeeded by the lower-class, bluntly outspoken Pope Pius X (1903–1914). Pius's rugged ultraconservatism contrasted with the low-key moderatism of Giacomo Cardinal della Chiesa, Pope Benedict XV (1914–1922), which again contrasted with the former librarian mountain-climber Achille Cardinal Ratti, Pope Pius XI (1922–1939), who led Roman Catholicism with an authoritarianism more akin to Pope Pius X, who also shared his temper. Pius XI was replaced in 1939 by the aristocratic ultra-insider Curialist, Pius XI's Secretary of State Eugenio Cardinal Pacelli, Pope Pius XII (1939–1958). Pius XII was seen as one of the great thinkers in the papacy in the 20th century. He was also the ultimate insider; his family were descended from the papal aristocracy, with his brother working as a lawyer for the Holy See. Pius was then replaced by the lower-class, elderly, popular, informal Pope John XXIII (1958–1963). The contrast between diffident, intellectual and distant Pius XII and the humble, in his own words "ordinary" Good Pope John was dramatic, with none more surprised at the election than Pope John himself, who had his own return rail ticket in his pocket when he was elected.
John proved to be a radical break with the two previous popes, and indeed with most of the popes of the 20th century. After a short but dramatic pontificate during which he convoked the Second Vatican Council which resulted in wide ranging changes in the church, the surprise John was replaced by the widely expected choice Giovanni Cardinal Montini, who many believed would have been elected in 1958, had he been a cardinal then. Montini, Pope Paul VI (1963–1978) like Pius XII, was a curialist. (He had worked with Pacelli in the 1930s and 1940s in the curia.) Yet Pope Paul was succeeded (albeit for a short time) by the non-Curialist Pope John Paul I (1978), who it was said was chosen not as an experienced insider nor administrator, but as a "simple, holy man". He in turn was succeeded by the non-Italian Pope John Paul II (1978–2005), who was an intellectual heavyweight unprecedented since Pope Pius XII. He was then replaced by the German Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Fatih and at the same time, the Dean of the College of Cardinals, Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, the future Pope Benedict XVI after more than a quarter of a century in 2005. He is the second non-Italian and the first German Pontiff to be elected since Pope Adrian VI (sources claim that Adrian was a Dutch living in an area occupied by Germany, so he is German in terms of his citizenship).
Notes
:1. Sedevacantists hold that the office of Pope was vacated either by the election of Pope John XXIII (whom they deem a heretic), or by the enactment of major reforms by the Second Vatican Council (support for which they deem heretical). Some factions of sedevacantism have held their own papal elections (such as the supporters of Lucian Pulvermacher), whilst others consider the papacy vacant, often since some date of a purported legitimate Pope's death, usually Giuseppe Cardinal Siri, whom some sedevacantists claim ruled in exile from 1958 to 1989 as Pope Gregory XVII. Siri never claimed to be Pope, served Popes John XXIII, Paul VI and both Popes John Paul, and died in full communion with Rome.
Popes John Paul
:2. Each ballot paper was divided into three parts; in the first was written the cardinal's name, in the second the name of the individual voted for, and in the third a motto and number of the cardinal's choice (which were to be used to verify that each cardinal wrote only his own name on the ballot). The first and third divisions were folded down and sealed, with the middle exposed; the back was heavily decorated so that the writing would not be visible (see illustration on right). Thus, when the Scrutineers (the vote counters) removed a ballot paper from the ballot box, they could see only the name of the candidate voted for. If the winning candidate received exactly two-thirds of the votes, the ballot papers were unsealed to ensure that the winning cardinal did not vote for himself. Modern ballots differ from the complicated older ballots in that the cardinals do not write anything other than the name of the individual voted for on them; furthermore, they are only folded once and need not be specially sealed.
:3. Formerly, cardinals regularly had meals sent in from their homes. Much pageantry accompanied the conveyance of food, which was taken from a cardinal's home to the Vatican in a state coach. An officer known as the Seneschal Dapifer was responsible for ensuring that the food was not poisoned. The dishes, in small boxes covered with green and violet drapery, were carried through the hall, preceded by an individual carrying the cardinal's ceremonial mace and by the Seneschal Dapifer bearing a serviette on the shoulder. Before the cardinals could receive them, the dishes were carefully inspected to make sure that no correspondence was enclosed in it. These ceremonies have not been observed since the nineteenth century.
:4. A WAV file of Albino Cardinal Luciani's announcement as Pope John Paul I is available [http://www.kensmen.com/catholic/habemuspapamJPI.wav here].
See also
- Elective monarchy
- Sede vacante
- Papal abdication
- List of papal conclaves
References
- Baumgartner, F. (2003). Behind Locked Doors: A History of the Papal Elections. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
- Burkle-Young, Francis A. (1999). Passing the Keys: Modern Cardinals, Conclaves, and the Election of the Next Pope. Madison Books: Lanham, Maryland.
- "Conclave." (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12270a.htm Dowling, A. (1908). "Conclave." The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume IV. New York: Robert Appleton Company]
- [http://www.osv.com/catholicalmanac/conclave.asp "Electing the Pope: The Conclave." (2002). Catholic Almanac.]
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11456a.htm Fanning, W. H. W. (1911). "Papal Elections." The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XI. New York: Robert Appleton Company]
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12270a.htm Joyce, G. H. (1911). "Election of the Popes." The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XII. New York: Robert Appleton Company]
- [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/11/1118_vaticanmain.html National Geographic. (2004). "Inside the Vatican."]
- [http://www.americamagazine.org/reese/america/a-papel2.htm Reese, T. J. (1996). "Revolution in Papal Elections." America. (Volume 174, issue 12, p. 4)]
- [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_constitutions/documents/hf_jp-ii_apc_22021996_universi-dominici-gregis_en.html Universi Dominici Gregis. (1996). Apostolic Constitution.]
- [http://www.hidden-knowledge.com/titles/magnificat/extras/papalelection/papal_election.html Wintle, W. J. (1903). "How the Pope is Elected." The London Magazine, June, 1903.]
- Scottish Catholic Media Office: [http://www.scmo.org.uk/_holy_father/Election.asp Election of a Pope]
- ReligionFacts.com: [http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/features/papal_elections.htm How the Pope is Elected]
-
ja:コンクラーヴェ
1870
1870 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar).
Events
January - April
- January 1 - Plans for the Brooklyn Bridge are done.
- January 2 - Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge begins.
- January 6 - The inauguration of the Musikverein (Vienna).
- January 10 - John D. Rockefeller incorporates Standard Oil
- January 15 - A political cartoon for the first time symbolizes the United States Democratic Party with a donkey ("A Live Jackass Kicking a Dead Lion" by Thomas Nast for Harper's Weekly).
- January 26 - American Civil War: Virginia rejoins the Union
- January 27 - First college sorority, Kappa Alpha Theta, is formed at DePauw University
- February - Vrain Denis-Lucas in sentenced for two years in prison for multiple forgery in Paris
- February 2 - It is revealed that the famed Cardiff Giant was just carved gypsum and not the petrified remains of a human.
- February 3 - The 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution is passed
- February 10 - Anaheim, California is incorporated.
- February 10 - The YWCA is founded (New York City)
- February 12 - Women gain the right to vote in Utah Territory.
- February 23 - Military control of Mississippi ends and it is readmitted to the Union.
- February 25 - Hiram Rhoades Revels, a Republican from Mississippi, is sworn into the United States Senate, becoming the first African American ever to sit in the U.S. Congress
- February 26 - In New York City, the first pneumatic-subway is opened.
- February 28 - The Bulgarian Exarchate is established by decree of Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz of the Ottoman Empire.
- March 2 - Francisco Solano López' last troops cornered by Triple Alliance troops at Cerro Cora. López refuses to surrender and is killed. Fighting ends in Paraguay - the War of the Triple Alliance is over
- March 30 - Texas is readmitted to the Union following Reconstruction.
- April 11 - Irish peer Lord Muncaster and his entourage kidnapped in Greece
- April 22 - Vladimir Lenin is born
May - August
- May 12 - The Canadian province of Manitoba is created in response to Louis Riel's Red River Rebellion
- May 14 - First rugby match to be played in New Zealand, between the Nelson Football Club and Nelson College.
- May 24 - The Port Adelaide Football Club play their first match of Australian rules football at Buck's Flat, Glanville, South Australia.
- June 22 - U.S. Congress created the Department of Justice.
- June 26 - Christmas is declared a federal holiday in the United States
- July 13 - The Emser Depesche serves as a reason for a war between Prussia and France
- July 15 - Reconstruction: Georgia becomes the last former Confederate states to be readmitted to the Union, and the CSA is dissoluted.
- July 19 - Franco-Prussian War: France declares war on Prussia.
September - December
- September 2 - Franco-Prussian War: Battle of Sedan - Prussian forces defeat the French armies and take emperor Napoleon III and 100,000 of his soldiers prisoner at Sedan.
- September 4 - Emperor Napoleon III of France is deposed and the Third Republic is declared. Empress Eugenie flees to England with her children.
- September 6 - Louisa Ann Swain of Laramie, Wyoming, votes in the morning, becoming the first woman in the United States to cast a vote legally after 1807.
- September 20 - With Bersaglieri soldiers entering Rome at Porta Pia, the unification of Italy is completed. End of the temporal power of Papacy.
- October 2 – Referendum in Rome supports joining the Italy with 133681 against 1500. Decision is made official October 6. Rome becomes the capital of unified Italy
- October 8 - Leon Michel Gambetta escapes the besieged Paris in a hot-air balloon
- November 1 - In the United States, the newly-created Weather Bureau (later renamed the National Weather Service) makes its first official meteorological forecast: "High winds at Chicago and Milwaukee... and along the Lakes".
- November 16 - Spanish Cortes proclaims Amadeo de Saboya as king Amadeus I of Spain.
- December – Assassination of | | |
