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Siouan

Siouan

The Siouan (a.k.a. Siouan proper, Western Siouan) languages are a Native American language family of North America. The Siouan family is related to the Catawban family, together making up the Siouan-Catawban family. Some authors use the term Siouan to refer to the Siouan-Catawban family and the term Siouan proper to refer to the Siouan family. While the Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota comprise "the Great Sioux Nation", the language family is much broader and includes "the old speakers", the Ho-Chunk and their linguistic cousins, the Crow. The Siouan family also extends back East and down South. While social migrations have yet to be definitively worked out, linguistic and historical sitings indicate a southern origin of Siouan people, with migrations over a thousand years ago from North Carolina and Virginia to Ohio, then both down the Ohio River to the Mississippi and up to the Missouri, and across Ohio to Illinois, Wisconsin and Minnesota, home of the Dakota.

Family division

The Siouan family consists of 17 languages with various sub-languages: I. Missouri River Siouan (a.k.a. Crow-Hidatsa) : 1. Crow (a.k.a. Absaroka, Apsaroka, Apsaloka, Upsaroka) : 2. Hidatsa (a.k.a. Gros Ventre, Minitari, Minnetaree) II. Mandan Siouan : 3. Mandan :: a. Nuptare :: b. Neutare III. Mississippi Valley Siouan (a.k.a. Central Siouan) : A. Dakotan (a.k.a. Sioux-Assiniboine-Stoney) :: 4. Sioux ::: a. Santee-Sisseton (a.k.a. Santee, Eastern Sioux, Dakota) :::: i. Santee :::: ii. Sisseton ::: b. Yankton-Yanktoni (a.k.a. Yankton, Central Sioux) :::: i. Yankton :::: ii. Yanktoni ::: c. Teton (a.k.a. Lakhota, Lakota, Western Sioux) :::: i. Northern Teton :::: ii. Southern Teton :: 5. Assiniboine (a.k.a. Assiniboin) :: 6. Stoney (a.k.a. Alberta Assiniboine) : B. Chiwere-Winnebago (a.k.a. Chiwere) :: 7. Chiwere (a.k.a. Ioway-Otoe-Missouria, Ioway-Otoe) ::: a. Iowa (a.k.a. Ioway) ::: b. Otoe (a.k.a. Oto, Jiwere) ::: c. Missouria (a.k.a. Missouri) :: 8. Winnebago (a.k.a. Hocák, Hochunk, Hochank, Hocangara, Hotcangara, Hochangara) : C. Dhegiha (a.k.a. Dhegihan) :: 9. Omaha-Ponca ::: a. Omaha ::: b. Ponca (a.k.a. Ponka) :: 10. Kansa-Osage ::: a. Kansa (a.k.a. Kanza, Kaw) (†) ::: b. Osage :: 11. Quapaw (a.k.a. Kwapa, Kwapaw, Arkansas) (†) IV. Ohio Valley Siouan (a.k.a. Southeastern Siouan) : A. Virginia Siouan :: 12. Tutelo :: 13. Saponi (a.k.a. Saponey) (†) :: 14. Moniton :: 15. Occaneechi : B. Mississippi Siouan (a.k.a. Ofo-Biloxi) (†) :: 16. Biloxi (†) :: 17. Ofo (a.k.a. Ofogoula) (†) (†) - Extinct language Another view of both the Dakotan and Mississippi Valley branches is to represent them as dialect continuums.

Genetic relations

Some linguists associate Siouan languages with Caddoan and Iroquoian languages in a Macro-Siouan language family.

Bibliography

- Parks, Douglas R.; & Rankin, Robert L. (2001). The Siouan languages. In R. J. DeMallie (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Plains (Vol. 13, Part 1, pp. 94-114). W. C. Sturtevant (Gen. Ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-050400-7.

External links

- [http://puffin.creighton.edu/lakota/siouan_language.html The Siouan Languages Bibliography]
- [http://spot.colorado.edu/~koontz/faq/language.htm Siouan languages FAQ]
- [http://listserv.linguistlist.org/archives/siouan.html Siouan languages mailing list archive]
- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=91107 Siouan family] (Ethnologue)
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Language family

Most languages are known to belong to language families. An accurately identified family is a phylogenetic unit; that is, all its members derive from a common ancestor. This ancestor is very seldom known to us directly, since most languages have a very short recorded history. However, it is possible to recover many of its features by applying the comparative method — a reconstructive procedure worked out by 19th-century linguist August Schleicher. This can demonstrate the validity of many of the proposed families listed below. Language families can be divided into smaller phylogenetic units, conventionally referred to as branches of the family, because the history of a language family is often represented as a tree diagram. However, the term family is not restricted to any one level of this "tree"; the Germanic family, for example, is a branch of the Indo-European family. Some taxonomists do restrict the term family to a certain level, but there is little consensus in how to do this. Those who do affix such labels also subdivide branches into groups, and groups into complexes. They also aggregate families into phyla (also known as stocks, or superfamilies). Phyla are often used to aggregate American Indian language families. One method for doing all of this is called glottochronology. The common ancestor of a family is known as its protolanguage. For example, the reconstructible protolanguage of the well-known Indo-European family is called Proto-Indo-European. This is not known from written records, since it was spoken before the invention of writing, but sometimes a protolanguage can be identified with a historically known language. Thus, provincial dialects of Latin ("Vulgar Latin") gave rise to the modern Romance languages, so the Proto-Romance language is more or less identical with Latin (if not exactly with the literary Latin of the Classical writers), and dialects of Old Norse are the protolanguage to Norwegian, Swedish, Danish, Faroese and Icelandic. Languages that cannot be reliably classified into any family are known as language isolates. A language isolated in its own branch within a family, such as Greek within Indo-European, is often also called an isolate, but such cases are usually clarified. For instance, Greek might be referred to as an Indo-European isolate.

Largest families

According to the numbers in Ethnologue[http://www.ethnologue.com/web.asp], the largest language families in terms of number of languages are: # Niger-Congo (1514 languages) # Austronesian (1268 languages) # Trans-New Guinea (564 languages) (validity disputed) # Indo-European (449 languages) # Sino-Tibetan (403 languages) # Afro-Asiatic (375 languages) # Nilo-Saharan (204 languages) # Pama-Nyungan (178 languages) # Oto-Manguean (174 languages) (number disputed; Lyle Campbell includes only 27) # Austro-Asiatic (169 languages) # Sepik-Ramu (100 languages) (validity disputed) # Tai-Kadai (76 languages) # Tupi (76 languages) # Dravidian (73 languages) # Mayan (69 languages)

Language families (spoken)

In the following, each "bulleted" item is a known language family. The geographic headings over them are meant solely as a tool for grouping families into collections more comprehensible than an unstructured list of the dozen or two of independent families. Geographic relationship is convenient for that purpose, but these headings are not a suggestion of any "super-families" phylogenetically relating the families named.

Central America and South America

Language isolates (spoken)

Central & South America

# Aikaná (Brazil: Rondônia) # Alagüilac (Guatemala) # Andoque (Colombia, Peru) # Baenan (Brazil) # Betoi (Columbia) # Camsá (Columbia) # Canichana (Bolivia) # Cayubaba language (Bolivia) # Coahuilteco (US: Texas; northeast Mexico) # Cofán (Colombia, Ecuador) # Cotoname (northeast Mexico; US: Texas) # Cuitlatec (Mexico: Guerrero) # Culle (Peru) # Cunza (Chile, Bolivia, Argentina) # Gamela (Brazil: Maranhão) # Gorgotoqui (Bolivia) # Huamoé (Brazil: Pernambuco) # Huave (Mexico: Oaxaca) # Irantxe (Brazil: Mato Grosso) # Itonama (Bolivia) # Jotí (Venezuela) # Karirí (Brazil: Paraíba, Pernambuco, Ceará) # Koayá (Brazil: Rondônia) # Kukurá (Brazil: Mato Grosso) # Mapudungu (Chile, Argentina) # Maratino (northeastern Mexico) # Movima (Bolivia) # Munichi (Peru) # Nambiquaran (Brazil: Mato Grosso) # Naolan (Mexico: Tamaulipas) # Natú (Brazil: Pernambuco) # Omurano (Peru) # Otí (Brazil: São Paulo) # Pankararú (Brazil: Pernambuco) # Puelche (Chile) # Puinave (Columbia) # Puquina (Bolivia) # Quinigua (northeast Mexico) # Sabela (Ecuador, Peru) # Seri (Mexico: Sonora) # Solano (northeast Mexico; US: Texas) # Tarairiú (Brazil: Rio Grande do Norte) # Tarascan (a.k.a. Purépecha) (Mexico: Michoacán) # Taushiro (Peru) # Tequiraca (Peru) # Ticuna (Colombia, Peru, Brazil) # Tuxá (Brazil: Bahia, Pernambuco) # Warao (Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela) # Xokó (Brazil: Alagoas, Pernambuco) # Xukurú (Brazil: Pernambuco, Paraíba) # Yámana (a.k.a Yagan) (Chile) # Yuracare (Bolivia) # Yuri (Colombia, Brazil) # Yurumanguí (Columbia)
North America
# Adai (US: Louisiana, Texas) # Aranama-Tamique (US: Texas) # (US: Louisiana, Texas) # Beothuk (Canada: Newfoundland) # Calusa (US: Florida) # Cayuse (US: Oregon, Washington) # Chimariko (US: California) # Chitimacha (US: Lousiania) # Coahuilteco (US: Texas; northeast Mexico) # Cotoname (northeast Mexico; US: Texas) # Esselen (US: California) # Haida (Canada: British Columbia; US: Alaska) # Karankawa (US: Texas) # Karok (a.k.a. Karuk) (US: California) # Keres (US: New Mexico) # Konomihu (US: California) # Kootenai (Canada: British Columbia; US: Idaho, Montana) # Natchez (US: Mississippi, Louisiana) # Salinan (US: California) # Siuslaw (US: Oregon) # Solano (northeast Mexico; US: Texas) # Takelma (US: Oregon) # Timucua (US: Florida, Georgia) # Tonkawa (US: Texas) # Tunica (US: Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas) # Washo (US: California, Nevada) # Yana (US: California) # Yuchi (US: Georgia, Oklahoma) # Zuni (a.k.a. Shiwi) (US: New Mexico)
Asia
# Ainu language or languages (Russia, Japan) (like Arabic or Japanese, the diversity within Ainu is large enough that some consider it to be perhaps up to a dozen languages while others consider it a single language with high dialectal diversity) # Burushaski (Pakistan, India) (sometimes linked to Yeniseian) # Kalto or Nahali (India) [sometimes linked to Munda] # Korean (North & South Korea, China, USA) (sometimes linked to Altaic) # Nivkh or Gilyak (Russia) (sometimes linked to Chukchi-Kamchatkan) # Sumerian (Iraq) [extinct] # Elamite (Iran) [extinct] (sometimes linked to Dravidian) # Hattic (Turkiye) [extinct] (sometimes linked to Northwest Caucasian)
Africa
# Hadza (Tanzania) (sometimes included in Khoisan)
Europe
# Basque (Spain, France) # Etruscan (Italy) [extinct] # Iberian (Spain) [extinct] # Pictish (Scotland) [extinct] [disputed - possibly an Indo European Celtic - Brythonic language]
Sign languages
:See also List of sign languages. There has been very little historical linguistic research on sign languages, and few attempts to determine genetic relationships between sign languages, other than simple comparison of lexical data and some discussion about whether certain sign languages are dialects of a language or languages of a family. Auslan, NZSL and BSL are usually considered to belong to a language family known as BANZSL, and Japanese Sign Language, Taiwanese Sign Language and Korean Sign Language are thought to be members of a Japanese Sign Language family. There are a number of sign languages with strong links to French Sign Language, including Quebec Sign Language, American Sign Language, Irish Sign Language, Dutch Sign Language, Flemish Sign Language, and Belgian-French Sign Language. Bolivian Sign Language is sometimes considered a dialect of American Sign Language. Other languages, such as Nicaraguan Sign Language, Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language, and Providence Island Sign Language are known to be isolates.
Creole languages, pidgins, mixed languages, and trade languages

- American Indian Pidgin English
- Basque-Algonquian Pidgin (a.k.a. Micmac-Basque Pidgin, Souriquois)
- Bislamic languages
- Australian Creole (a.k.a. Kriol)
- Bislama
- Pijin
- Tok Pisin
- Torres Strait Creole (a.k.a. Broken, Cape York Creole, Lockhart Creole)
- Broken Oghibbeway (a.k.a. Broken Ojibwa)
- Broken Slavey (a.k.a. Slavey Jargon, Broken Slavé)
- Callahuaya (a.k.a. Machaj-Juyai, Kallawaya)
- Carib Pidgin (a.k.a. Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin, Ndjuka-Trio)
- Carib Pidgin-Arawak Mixed Language
- Catalangu
- Chabacano - A Spanish creole spoken in South of the Philippines.
- Chinook Jargon
- Delaware Jargon (a.k.a. Pidgin Delaware)
- Eskimo Trade Jargon (a.k.a. Herschel Island Eskimo Pidgin, Ship's Jargon)
- Greenlandic Eskimo Pidgin
- Guajiro-Spanish
- Güegüence-Nicarao
- Haida Jargon
- Haitian creole
- Hawaiian Creole English
- Hiri Motu
- Hudson Strait Pidgin
- International Sign or Gestuno - constructed language
- Inuktitut-English Pidgin
- Jargonized Powhatan
- Kutenai Jargon
- Labrador Eskimo Pidgin (a.k.a. Labrador Inuit Pidgin)
- Lingua Franca Apalachee
- Lingua Franca Creek
- Lingua franca
- Lingua Geral do Sul (a.k.a. Lingua Geral Paulista, Tupí Austral)
- Loucheux Jargon (a.k.a. Jargon Loucheux)
- Media Lengua
- Mednyj Aleut (a.k.a. Copper Island Aleut, Medniy Aleut, CIA)
- Michif (a.k.a. French Cree, Métis, Metchif, Mitchif, Métchif)
- Mobilian Jargon (a.k.a. Mobilian Trade Jargon, Chickasaw-Chocaw Trade Language, Yamá
- Montagnais Pidgin Basque (a.k.a. Pidgin Basque-Montagnais)
- Nheengatú (a.k.a. Lingua Geral Amazônica, Lingua Boa, Lingua Brasílica, Lingua Geral do Norte)
- Norfuk
- Nootka Jargon
- Ocaneechi
- Pitkern
- Pidgin Massachusett
- Portuguese Creole languages
- Rusnorsk
- Sango
Proposed language stocks

Other natural languages of special interest

- Endangered languages
- Extinct languages
- Constructed languages
External links

- http://www.ethnologue.com/web.asp
- http://gebaren.ugent.be
- http://www.elanguages.info - articles, products, & info about language learning online
- [http://www.nicemice.net/amc/tmp/lang-pop.var Number of speakers by language]
Bibliography

- Boas, Franz. (1911). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 1). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
- Boas, Franz. (1922). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 2). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
- Boas, Franz. (1933). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 3). Native American legal materials collection, title 1227. Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin.
- Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
- Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979). The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press.
- Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-1604-8774-9.
- Goddard, Ives. (1999). Native languages and language families of North America (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institute). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). ISBN 0-8032-9271-6.
- Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com).
- Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966). The Languages of Africa (2nd ed.). Bloomington: Indiana University.
- Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
- Ruhlen, Merritt. (1987). A guide to the world's languages. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
- Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978-present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1-20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1-3, 16, 18-20 not yet published).
- Voegelin, C. F.; & Voegelin, F. M. (1977). Classification and index of the world's languages. New York: Elsevier.
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- ja:言語の分類一覧 ko:어족 simple:Language families and languages th:ตระกูลของภาษา

North America

North America is a continent in the northern hemisphere bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the North Pacific Ocean. It covers an area of 24,497,994 km² (9,458,728 sq mi), or about 4.8% of the Earth's surface. As of July 2002, its population was estimated at more than 514,600,000. It is the third largest continent in area, after Asia and Africa, and is fourth in population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. Both North and South America are named after Amerigo Vespucci, who was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a previously undiscovered (by Europeans) New World. North America occupies the northern portion of the landmass generally referred to as the New World, the Western Hemisphere, the Americas, or simply America. North America's only land connection is to South America at the narrow Isthmus of Panama. (For geopolitical reasons, all of Panama – including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus – is often considered a part of North America alone.) According to some authorities, North America begins not at the Isthmus of Panama but at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, with the intervening region called Central America and resting on the Caribbean Plate. Most, however, tend to see Central America as a region of North America, considering it too small to be a continent on its own. Greenland, although a part of North America geographically, is not considered to be part of the continent politically.

Physical features

Greenland, plutonic, metamorphic rock types of North America. ]] Plate tectonics recognizes the vast majority of North America as being the surface of the North American Plate. Parts of California and western Mexico are known for being the edge of the Pacific Plate, with the two plates meeting along the San Andreas fault. The continent can be divided into four great regions (each of which contains many sub-regions): the Great Plains stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian Arctic; the geologically young, mountainous west, including the Rocky Mountains, the Great Basin, California and Alaska; the raised but relatively flat plateau of the Canadian Shield in the northeast; and the varied eastern region, which includes the Appalachian Mountains, the coastal plain along the Atlantic seaboard, and the Florida peninsula. Mexico, with its long plateaus and cordilleras, falls largely in the western region, although the eastern coastal plain does extend south along the Gulf. The western mountains are split in the middle, into the main range of the Rockies and the coast ranges in California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia with the Great Basin – a lower area containing smaller ranges and low-lying deserts – in between. The highest peak is Denali in Alaska. Since 1931, Rugby, North Dakota, has officially been recognized as being at the geographic center of North America. The location is marked by a 4.5 metre (15 foot) field stone obelisk. Image:North america terrain 2003 map.jpg|North America bedrock and terrain. Image:North america basement rocks.png|North American cratons and basement rocks. Image:North America Tectonic Elements.jpg|Tectonic elements of North America Image:North america craton nps.gif|North American craton.

Territories and regions

craton On the main continent landmass, there are three large and relatively populous countries:
- Canada - many large islands off the shore of North America belong to Canada, including Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands on the west, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Cape Breton Island on the east, and the Canadian Arctic islands (including Ellesmere Island, Baffin Island, and Victoria Island) in the north
- Mexico - the Revillagigedo archipelago and numerous smaller islands off its coast belong to Mexico
- The United States - the 48 contiguous states and Alaska are part of North America, while the state of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean is not; the Aleutian Islands south of Alaska also belong to the U.S. At the southern end of the continent, in a relatively small area known as Central America, are the countries of:
- Belize
- Costa Rica
- El Salvador
- Guatemala
- Honduras
- Nicaragua
- Panama ¹ At the southeastern end of the continent lies a chain of islands territories called the Antilles, the Caribbean or the West Indies, which include the countries:
- Antigua and Barbuda
- Bahamas
- Barbados
- Cuba
- Dominica
- Dominican Republic
- Grenada
- Haiti
- Jamaica
- Saint Kitts and Nevis
- Saint Lucia
- Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
- Trinidad and Tobago ¹ And the dependencies:
- Anguilla (British overseas territory)
- Aruba ² (part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
- Cayman Islands (British overseas territory)
- Guadeloupe (French région d'outre-mer)
- Martinique (French région d'outre-mer)
- Montserrat (British overseas territory)
- Navassa Island (U.S. territory)
- Netherlands Antilles ¹ (part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
- Puerto Rico (U.S. commonwealth)
- Turks and Caicos Islands (British overseas territory)
- British Virgin Islands (British overseas territory)
- U.S. Virgin Islands (territory of the USA) Lying in the Atlantic Ocean but considered part of the continent are the dependencies:
- Bermuda, a British overseas territory found about 1,072 km (670 mi.) southeast of New York City
- Greenland, the largest island in the world and a self-governing dependency of Denmark, which is located in the far north of the continent to the east of Nunavut.
- Saint Pierre and Miquelon, a French collectivité d'outre-mer off the south coast of Newfoundland, is the last of France's once vast possessions in America north of the Caribbean. ¹ These states and dependencies have territory both in North and South America.
² These dependencies lie in South America, but are considered North American because of cultural and historical reasons.
See here for details.

Usage

The United States, Canada, and the other English-speaking nations of the Americas (Belize, Guyana, and the Anglophone Caribbean) are sometimes grouped under the term Anglo-America, while the remaining nations of North and South America are grouped under the term Latin America. Alternatively, Northern America is used to refer to Canada and the U.S. together (plus Greenland and Bermuda), while Central America is mainland North America south of the United States. The West Indies generally include all islands in the Caribbean Sea. In this respect, Latin America generally includes Central America and South America and, sometimes, the West Indies. The term Middle America is sometimes used to refer to Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean collectively. The term "North America" may mean different things to different people. The term in common usage is often taken to mean "the United States and Canada, only" by some people of the United States and Canada, excluding Mexico and the countries of Central America, unless the context makes it clear that they are to be included (such as with specific reference to Mexico, when talking about NAFTA). For example, guides to wild flora and fauna published by the National Audubon Society for "North America" frequently include only species found in Canada and the U.S. This may be attributed to the fact that culturally and economically, the U.S. and Canada are more alike to each other than they are to the rest of North America. Mexicans, however, are acutely aware that Mexico is a part of North America and object to this usage. Central Americans, however, are generally content to be called Central Americans – largely because of their shared history, which includes several attempts at supranational integration in the region and in which Mexico, their much larger northern neighbor, was never involved.

Political divisions and regions

Notes:
¹ Continental regions as per UN categorisations/map.
² Depending on definitions, Aruba, Netherlands Antilles, Panama, and Trinidad and Tobago have territory in one or both of North and South America.
³ Due to ongoing activity of the Soufriere Hills volcano beginning 1995, much of Plymouth, Montserrat's de jure capital, was destroyed and government offices relocated to Brades.

External links

- http://www.america-norte.com/america-norte-mapa.htm Category:Continents Category:North America zh-min-nan:Pak Bí-chiu ko:북아메리카 ja:北アメリカ simple:North America th:ทวีปอเมริกาเหนือ

Catawban languages

The Catawban (also Eastern Siouan) languages form a small language family in east North America. The Catawban family is a sub-family of the larger Siouan-Catawban family.

Family division

The Catawban family consists of 2 languages: # Catawba (†) # Woccon (†) All Catawban languages are now extinct. Gordon (2005) reports that the last native speaker of Catawba died before 1960. An effort is now being made to revive the Catawba language.

Links

- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=chc Catawba] (Ethnologue)

Bibliography

- Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com).
- Parks, Douglas R.; & Rankin, Robert L. (2001). The Siouan languages. In R. J. DeMallie (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Plains (Vol. 13, Part 1, pp. 94-114). W. C. Sturtevant (Gen. Ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-050400-7.
- Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Southeast Category:Languages of the United States Category:Extinct languages

Siouan-Catawban languages

Siouan-Catawban (also Catawban-Siouan, Siouan) is a language family of North America that is located primarily in the Great Plains of North America with a few outlier languages in the east. Some authors call this family simply Siouan. Other writers favor the name Siouan-Catawaban so that Catawban is clearly indicated as a separate branch of the family and not under "Siouan Proper".

Family division

Siouan-Catawban consists of 19 languages with 2 main branches: : I. Siouan (a.k.a. Siouan proper, Western Siouan) :: 1. Mandan :: A. Missouri River (a.k.a. Crow-Hidatsa) ::: 2. Crow ::: 3. Hidatsa :: B. Mississippi Valley (a.k.a. Central Siouan) ::: 4. Sioux ::: 5. Assiniboine ::: 6. Stoney ::: 7. Chiwere ::: 8. Winnebago ::: 9. Omaha-Ponca ::: 10. Kansa-Osage ::: 11. Quapaw (†) :: C. Ohio Valley (a.k.a. Southeastern Siouan) ::: 12. Tutelo ::: 13. Saponi (†) ::: 14. Moniton ::: 15. Occaneechi ::: 16. Biloxi (†) ::: 17. Ofo (†) : II. Catawban (a.k.a. Eastern Siouan) (†) :: 18. Woccon (†) :: 19. Catawba (†) Quapaw, Saponi, Biloxi, Ofo, Woccon, and Catawba are now extinct. Some linguists group the Siouan-Catawaban languages together with the Caddoan and Iroquoian languages in a Macro-Siouan language family. However, this has not yet been demonstrated.

Links

- [http://listserv.linguistlist.org/archives/siouan.html Siouan languages mailing list archive]

Bibliography

Lakota

The Lakota (IPA: ) (also Lakhota, Teton, Titonwon) are a Native American tribe. They form one of a group of seven tribes (the Great Sioux Nation) that speak Lakota, one of the three major varieties of the Sioux language. The Lakota are the westernmost of the three Sioux groups, occupying lands in both North and South Dakota.

History

The Lakota are closely related to the western Dakota of Minnesota. After their adoption of the horse, šuƞkáwakháƞ () ('power/mystery dog') in the early 18th Century, the Lakota became part of the Great Plains culture with their eventual Algonkin-speaking allies, the Tsitsistas (Cheyenne), living in the northern Great Plains. Their society centered on the buffalo hunt with the horse. There were 20,000 Titonwan Lakota in the mid-18th century. The number has now increased to about 70,000, of whom about 20,500 still speak their ancestral language. (See Languages in the United States). After 1720, the Lakota branch of the Seven Council Fires split into two elements, the Saone who moved to the Lake Traverse area on the South Dakota-North Dakota-Minnesota border, and the Oglala-Brule who occupied the James River Valley. By about 1750, however, the Saone had moved to the east bank of the Missouri, followed 10 years later by the Oglala and Brule (Sicangu). The large and powerful Arikara, Mandan, and Hidatsa villages had prevented the Lakota from crossing the Missouri for an extended period, but when smallpox and other diseases nearly destroyed these tribes, the way was open for the first Lakota to cross the Missouri into the drier, short-grass prairies of the High Plains. These Saone, well-mounted and increasingly confident, spread out quickly. in 1765, an Saone exploring and raiding party led by Chief Standing Bear discovered the Black Hills (which they called the Paha Sapa Pahasapa). Just a decade later, in 1775, the Oglala and Brule also crossed the river, following the great small pox epidemic of 1772-1780, which destroyed 3/4 of the population of the Missouri Valley populations. In 1776, they defeated the Cheyenne as the Cheyenne had earlier defeated the Kiowa, and gained control of the land which became the center of the Lakota universe. Initial contacts between the Lakota and the United States, during the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804-06, were friendly. But as more and more settlers crossed Lakota lands, this changed. In Nebraska on September 3, 1855, 700 soldiers under American General William S. Harney avenged the Grattan Massacre by attacking a Lakota village, killing 100 men, women, and children. Other wars followed; and in 1862-1864, as refugees from the "Sioux Uprising" in Minnesota fled west to their allies in Montana and Dakota Territory, the war followed them. Because the Black Hills are sacred to the Lakota, they objected to mining in the area, which has been attempted since the early years of the 19th century. In 1868, the US government signed the Fort Laramie Treaty (1868) with them exempting the Black Hills from all white settlement forever. Four years later, gold was publicly discovered there, and an influx of prospectors descended upon the area, abetted by army commanders like General George Armstrong Custer. The latter tried to administer a lesson of noninterference with white policies, resulting in the Black Hills War of 1876-77. Black Hills War Initially, the Titonwan with their allies, the Arapaho and the Cheyenne, defeated the 7th U.S. Cavalry in 1876 at the Battle at the Greasy Grass/Battle of the Little Bighorn, known also as Custer's Last Stand, since he and all 200 of the troopers under his immediate command perished there. Some 60 troopers under the independent commands of Major Reno and Captain Benteen also died. But like the Zulu triumph over the British in Africa three years later, it was a pyrrhic victory. The Titonwan were defeated in a series of subsequent battles by the reinforced U.S. Army, and were herded back onto reservations, by preventing buffalo hunts and enforcing government food distribution policies to 'friendlies' only. A treaty in 1877 ceded the Black Hills to the United States, but a low-intensity war continued, culminating, fourteen years later, in the killing of Sitting Bull (December 15, 1890) at Standing Rock and the Massacre of Wounded Knee (December 29, 1890) at Pine Ridge. Today, the Lakota are found mostly in the five reservations of western South Dakota: Rosebud (home of the Upper Sicangu or Brule), Pine Ridge (home of the Oglala), Lower Brule (home of the Lower Sicangu), Cheyenne River (home of several other of the seven Lakota bands, including the Sihasapa and Hunkpapa), and Standing Rock, also home to people from many bands. But Lakota are also found far to the north in the Fort Peck Reservation of Montana, the Fort Berthold Reservation of northwestern North Dakota, and several small reserves in Saskatchewan and Manitoba, where their ancestors fled to "Grandmother's Land" (Canada) during the Minnesota or Black Hills War. Large numbers of Lakota also live in Rapid City and other towns in the Black Hills, and in Metro Denver.

Ethnonyms

The name Lakota comes from the Lakota autonym, lak^hóta "feeling affection, friendly, united, allied". The early French literature does not distinguish a separate Teton division, instead lumping them into a "Sioux of the West" group with other Santee and Yankton bands. The names Teton and Tintowan comes from the Lakota name t^hít^hųwą (the meaning of which is obscure). This term was used to refer to the Lakota by non-Lakota Sioux groups. Other derivations include: Ti tanka, Tintonyanyan, Titon, Tintonha, Thintohas, Tinthenha, Tinton, Thuntotas, Tintones, Tintoner, Tintinhos, Ten-ton-ha, Thinthonha, Tinthonha, Tentouha, Tintonwans, Tindaw, Tinthow, Atintons, Anthontans, Atentons, Atintans, Atrutons, Titoba, Tetongues, Teton Sioux, Teeton, Ti toan, Teetwawn, Teetwans, Ti-t’-wawn, Ti-twans, Tit’wan, Tetans, Tieton, Teetonwan, etc. As noted above, the early French sources call the Lakota Sioux with an additional modifier, such as Scioux of the West, West Schious, Sioux des prairies, Sioux occidentaux, Sioux of the Meadows, Nadooessis of the Plains, Prairie Indians, Sioux of the Plain, Maskoutens-Nadouessians, Mascouteins Nadouessi, and Sioux nomades. Today many of the tribes continue to officially call themselves Sioux which the Federal Government of the United States applied to all Dakota/Lakota/Yankton/Yanktonai people in the 19th and 20th centuries. However, some of the tribes have formally or informally adopted traditional names: the Rosebud Sioux Tribe is also known as the Sicangu Oyate (Brule Nation), and the Oglala often use the name Oglala Lakota Oyate, rather than the English "Oglala Sioux Tribe" or OST. (The alternate English spelling of Ogallala is not considered proper.) The Lakota have names for their own subdivisions.

Social divisions

The Lakota historically had 7 "sub-tribes": # Brule # Oglala # Sans Arcs # Hunkpapa # Minneconjou # Blackfeet # Two Kettles

Bands

Brule: # Isaⁿyati # Watchihoutairhe # Tcoka # Wajaja # Minishanan # Kiyuksa # Watceŭⁿpa # Iyak’oza # Wam-bi-li´-ne-ca # Si-ćá-wi-pi # Ciyo Tañka # Ho-mna # Ciyo Subula # Kañ-xi Yuha # Pispiza Witcaca # Walexa Uⁿ Wohaⁿ # Cawala # Ihañktoⁿwaⁿ # Naqpaqpa # Apewaⁿtañka # Sitcaⁿ-xwu # Kak’exa # Hiⁿnaⁿcuⁿ-wapa # Cŭñkaha Nap’iⁿ # Hi-ha Kaⁿhaⁿhaⁿwiⁿ # Hŭñku Wanitca # Miniskuya Kitc’ŭⁿ # Ti Glabu # Wagluqe # Wagmeza Yuha # Oglala Itc’itcaxa # Tiyotcesli # Ieska Tciⁿtca # Ohe Noⁿpa # Okaxa Witcaca # Waqna Oglala: # Oglala # She-o (aka. Chihaut) # Onkp’hatinas # K̄u-Inyan # Oyuqe (aka Oyuhpe) # Min-i-shá # Pe Cla Ptetcela # Payabya # Wajaja (aka Wajaje) # Kiyuksa (aka Kiyaksa) # Tapicletca # Ite Citca (aka Itesica) # Wagluqe (aka Wagluhe) # Wablenitca # Pe Cla # Tceq Huha Toⁿ # Tacnahetca # I Wayusota # Wakaⁿ # Iglaka Teqila # Ite Citca Etaⁿhaⁿ # Zuzetca Kiyaksa # Watceoⁿpe # Watcape # Tiyotcesli # Ieska Tciⁿtca Sans Arcs: # Ta-shunk´-e-o-ta # Itaziptco Qtca (aka Mini-ca-la) # Cina Luta Oiⁿ # Woluta Yuta # Maz Pegnaka # Tatañka Tcesli # Cikcitcela # Tiyopa Otcaⁿnŭⁿpa Hunkpapa: # Hunk´-pa-pa # Talo Nap’iⁿ # Tcegnake Okisela # Tce Oqba # Tcañka Oqaⁿ # Tinazipe Citca # Kiglacka # Cikcitcela # Wakaⁿ # Hŭⁿska Tcaⁿtojuha Minneconjou: # Min-i-kaŋ́-źu # Tar-co-eh-parh (aka Tacohiropapais) # Wakpokiⁿyaⁿ # Iⁿyaⁿ-ha Oiⁿ # Wagleza Oiⁿ # Cŭñka Yute Cni # Uñktce Yuta # Glagla hetca # Cikcitcela Blackfeet: # Siha Sapa Qtca # Ći-hú-pa # Pa-á-bi-a # Kaⁿxi Cŭⁿ Pegnaka # Glagla Hetca # Wajaje # Hohe # Wamnuxa Oiⁿ # Ti Zaptaⁿ Two Kettles: # Wah-nee-wack-ata-o-ne-lar (aka Waniwacteonilla) # Oohe Noⁿpa # Ma Waqota Notable persons include Tatanka Iyotake from the Hunkpapa band and Tasunka witko, Makhpyia-luta, Hehaka Sapa and Billy Mills from the Oglala band

Reservations

Today, one half of all Enrolled Sioux live off the Reservation. Lakota reservations recognized by the US government include:
- Oglala (Pine Ridge Indian Reservation)
- Brulé (Rosebud Indian Reservation)
- Hunkpapa (Standing Rock/Cheyenne River)
- Miniconju (Cheyenne River)
- Sans Arc (Cheyenne River)
- Two-Kettle (Cheyenne River)
- Santee
- Yanktonai (Yankton)
- Flandreau
- Sisseton-Wahpehton
- Lower Sioux
- Upper Sioux
- Shakopee
- Prairie Island

External links

- [http://curtis.library.northwestern.edu/viewPage.cgi?showp=1&size=2&id=nai.03.book.00000019&volume=3 The Teton Sioux] (Edward S. Curtis)
- [http://www.lakhota.org Lakota Language Consortium]
- [http://www.wintercounts.si.edu Lakota Winter Counts] a Smithsonian exhibit of the annual icon chosen to represent the major event of the past year

Bibliography

- Christafferson, Dennis M. (2001). Sioux, 1930-2000. In R. J. DeMallie (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Plains (Vol. 13, Part 2, pp. 821-839). W. C. Sturtevant (Gen. Ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-050400-7.
- DeMallie, Raymond J. (2001a). Sioux until 1850. In R. J. DeMallie (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Plains (Vol. 13, Part 2, pp. 718-760). W. C. Sturtevant (Gen. Ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-050400-7.
- DeMallie, Raymond J. (2001b). Teton. In R. J. DeMallie (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Plains (Vol. 13, Part 2, pp. 794-820). W. C. Sturtevant (Gen. Ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-050400-7.
- Parks, Douglas R.; & Rankin, Robert L. (2001). The Siouan languages. In R. J. DeMallie (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Plains (Vol. 13, Part 1, pp. 94-114). W. C. Sturtevant (Gen. Ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-050400-7. Category:Lakota tribe Category:Native American tribes ja:ラコタ

Nakota

History

Ethnonyms

Social divisions

The Lakota historically had 7 "sub-tribes": # Brule # Oglala # Sans Arcs # Hunkpapa # Minneconjou # Blackfeet # Two Kettles

Bands

Reservations

External links

Bibliography

Ho-Chunk

The Ho-Chunk or Winnebago (as they are commonly called) are a tribe of Native Americans, native to what are now Wisconsin and Illinois. The term "Winnebago" originally came from a name given to them by rival tribes, which meant something like "people of the stinking water", though the exact translation is disputed. The French called them the Puans, translated into English as "Stinkards", based on the information given by rival groups of natives. The more correct, but less common English name for the tribe is "Ho-Chunk". They call themselves Hotcâgara. The tribe changed its official name in 1994 to the Ho-Chunk Sovereign Nation (meaning People of the Big Voice). The Winnebago/Ho-Chunk occupied the area around Green Bay in Wisconsin, reaching beyond Lake Winnebago to the Wisconsin River and to the Rock River in Illinois. The influx of Native Americans fleeing eastern intertribal wars reduced their lands and brought European diseases which severely reduced the tribal population. The tribe traditionally practiced corn agriculture in addition to hunting. Through a series of moves imposed by the U.S. government in the 19th century, the tribe was moved to reservations in Wisconsin, Minnesota, South Dakota and finally in Nebraska. Through these moves, many tribe members returned to previous homes, especially to Wisconsin despite repeated roundups and removals. The U.S. government finally allowed the Wisconsin Winnebago to homestead land there. The Nebraska tribe members are today the separate Winnebago tribe. There are 6,159 tribe members as of 2001. The tribe does not have a reservation; however the tribe owns about 2000 acres and operates several casinos in Wisconsin: the Ho-Chunk Casino in Baraboo, Majestic Pines Casino in Black River Falls and the Rainbow Casino in Nekoosa. Additionally, the tribe owns and operates DeJope Bingo in Madison. The Ho-Chunk language is part of the Siouan language family, and is closely related to the languages of the Iowa, Missouri, and Oto. The tribe at one point asked to be moved near to the Oto tribe but were not accommodated. The Ho-Chunk were the first people to welcome French explorer Jean Nicolet when he arrived at what is now Green Bay, Wisconsin in 1634.

U.S. recognition

As of 2003 there are two Ho-Chunk/Winnebago tribes officially recognised by the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs:
- The Ho-Chunk Nation of Wisconsin (formerly the Wisconsin Winnebago Tribe)
- The Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska

External links

- [http://www.ho-chunknation.com/ Ho-Chunk Nation web site]
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15657b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry]
- [http://www.winnebagotribe.com/detail.htm Tribal history as told by the Nebraska tribe] Category:Native American tribes Category:Languages of the United States Category:Siouan languages Category:Native American tribes in Wisconsin Category:Indigenous languages of the North American eastern woodlands

Crow Nation

The Crow, also called the Absaroka or Apsáalooke, are a tribe of Native Americans who historically lived in the Yellowstone river valley and now live on a reservation south of Billings, Montana. The current chairman of the tribal council is Carl Venne. Noted writer Joe Medicine Crow is tribal historian. The tribal headquarters are located at Crow Agency, Montana. The tribe hosts a large Dance Celebration, rodeo, and parade annually; the 87th Crow Fair was held at Crow Agency from August 18 - August 22, 2005.

Language

The Crow language is a member of the Missouri Valley Siouan languages. They split from the Hidatsa tribe in present-day North Dakota either around 1400 to 1500 CE (according to cultural anthropologists) or 900 to 1000 CE (according to linguistic anthropologists).

Lifestyle

The traditional shelters of the Crow are tepees made with buffalo skins and wooden poles. They are known to contruct some of the largest tepees. Inside they have mattresses to sleep on along the borders of their shelters, and a fire place, which the smoke escapes from through a hole in the top of the tepee. Many Crow families still own and use the tepee, especially when traveling. Crow Fair has been described as the largest gathering of tepees in the world. buffalo Traditional clothing the Crow wore depended on gender. Women wouldn't dress very fancy because they were mostly around their shelters. They wore dresses made of mountain sheep or deer skins, decorated with elk teeth. They would cover their legs with leggings and their feet with moccasins. Crow women had short hair, unlike the men. The men dressed differently, with a shirt, trimmed leggings with a belt, a robe, and moccasins on their feet. Their hair was actually long, in some cases reaching or even dragging the ground, and sometimes decorated with certain items.

Crow Lineage

The Crow were a matrilineal (decent through the maternal line), matrilocal (husband moves in with wife's family), and matriarchal tribe (females obtaining high status, even chief). Women held a very significant role within the tribe. Crow kinship is a kinship system used to define family. Identified by Louis Henry Morgan in his 1871 work Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family, the Crow system is one of the six major kinship systems (Eskimo, Hawaiian, Iroquois, Crow, Omaha, and Sudanese).

Crow Scouts

On June 25, 1876, George Armstrong Custer, Commander of the US Seventh Cavalry led his troops to complete annihilation at the hands of Sioux and Cheyenne warriors. The site today, near Crow Agency, is marked as the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument. The Crow Nation was recruited to serve in the U.S. Army as Indian scouts. White Man Runs Him, Curley, Hairy Moccasin, and Goes Ahead were with Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer and the Seventh Cavalry in the Battle of the Little Big Horn, or Custer’s Last Stand. The Scout's only duties were to find the Indian encampments. Such was the case with Lt. Colonel Custer as he dismissed his Crow and Arikara Indian scouts.

Government

Prior to the 2001 Constitution, the Crow Nation was governed by a 1948 Constitution. The former constitution organized the tribe as a General Council (Tribal Council). The General Council in essence held the executive, legislative, and judicial powers of the government. The General Council was comprised of all enrolled members of the Crow Nation, provided that females 18 years or older and males 21 or older. The General Council was a direct democracy, coparable to that of ancient Athens. The Crow Nation, or Crow Tribe of Indians, established a three branch government at a 2001 Council Meeting. The new government is known as the 2001 Constitution. The General Council remains the governing body of the tribe, however, the powers were distributed to a three branch government. In theory, the General Council is still the governing body of the Crow Nation. However, in reality, the General Council has not convened since the establishment of the 2001 constitution. The Executive Branch has four officials known as the Chairman, Vice-Chairman, Secretary, and Vice-Secretary. The Executive Branch officials are also the officials within the Crow Tribal General Council, which has not met since July 15, 2001 that established the 2001 Constitution. The Legislative Branch consists of a Legislature. The Legislature has three members from each district on the Crow Indian Reservation. The Crow Indian Reservation is divided into six districts known as The Valley of the Chiefs, Reno, Black Lodge, Mighty Few, Big Horn, and Pryor Districts. The Valley of the Chiefs District is the largest district by population. A Judicial Branch of the Crow Tribal Government consists of all courts established by the Crow Law and Order Code and in accordance with the 2001 Constitution. The Judicial Branch shall have jurisdiction over all matters defined in the Crow Law and Order Code. The Judicial Branch shall be a separate and distinct branch of government from the Legislative and Executive Branches of Crow Tribal Government. The Judicial Branch consists of a Chief Judge and two Associate Judges. The Chief Justice of the Crow Nation is Angela Russell.

Constitution Controversy

According to the 1948 Constitution, all constitutional amendments must be voted on by secret ballot or referendum vote. The former Chairman Birdinground did not do either action. The quarterly council meeting on July 15, 2001 passed all resolutions, including the measure to repeal the current constitution and approve a new constitution, by voice vote. An opposition has arose to challenge the new constitution's validity; it is currently in Crow Tribal Courts awaiting a decision.

Chairmen of the Crow Nation

right 2002-2008 Carl Venne 2000-2002 Clifford Birdin Ground 1990-2000 Clara Nomee 1986-1990 Richard Real Bird Richard Real Bird Administration 1982-1986 Donald Stewart 1977-1982 Forest Horn 1974-1977 Patrick Stands Over Bull 1972-1974 David Stewart 1966-1972 Edison Real Bird Edison Real Bird Administration 1964-1966 John Wilson 1960-1964 John Cummings 1956-1960 Edward "Posie" Whiteman 1954-1956 William Wall 1946-1954 Robert "Robbie" Yellowtail 1941-1946 Henry Pretty On Top 1938-1941 Charles Yarlott 1934-1938 Hartford Bear Claw 1927-1934 William Bends 1921-1927 James Carpenter 1920-1921 Ralph Saco (Gets Down Often)

Crow Mythology

Crow mythology

External links

- [http://www.crownations.net Crow Tribal website]
- [http://tlc.wtp.net/crow.htm Crow Tribal Council Website]
- [http://www.montanaforum.com/documents/20010713crow.php?nnn=2 2001 Constitution]
- [http://lib.lbhc.cc.mt.us/about/government/1948.htm 1948 Constitution] Category:Native American tribes Category:Languages of the United States Category:Siouan languages Category:Montana landmarks Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Plains Category:Indian reservations in Montana

North Carolina

North Carolina is a Southern U.S. state in the United States, also considered a Mid-Atlantic state in some cases. North Carolina is one of the thirteen colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. It is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, and the Atlantic Ocean on the east. The state is named for King Charles I of England (in Latin, Carolus means Charles). The USS North Carolina was named in honor of this state. North Carolina has 3 metropolitan combined statistical areas with a population of over 1 million. As of July 1, 2004:
- Charlotte-Gastonia-Salisbury, NC-SC - population 2,067,810
- Raleigh-Durham-Cary - population of 1,467,434
- Greensboro/Winston-Salem/High Point - population of 1,335,217 Source: US Bureau of the Census Released April 2005

History

North Carolina was originally inhabited by a number of native tribes, including the Cherokee, Creek, Tuscarora, Lumbee, and Catawba. North Carolina was the first American territory the English attempted to colonize. Sir Walter Raleigh, for whom the state capital is named, chartered two colonies on the North Carolina (then Virginia) coast in the late 1580s, both ending in failure. The demise of one, the "Lost Colony" of Roanoke Island, remains one of the great mysteries of American history. Virginia Dare, the first English child to be born stateside, was born in North Carolina. Dare County is named for her. The first permanent European settlers of North Carolina were poor English and Scots-Irish settlers who had failed at establishing themselves in Barbados. By the late seventeenth century, several permanent settlements had taken hold in the Carolina territory, which encompassed present-day South Carolina and Tennessee as well. The Carolina territory was a gift from King Charles II of England to the so-called Lords Proprietors, a group of noblemen who had helped restore Charles to the English throne in 1660. In 1712, North Carolina became a separate colony. With the exception of the Earl Granville's holdings, it became a royal colony seventeen years later. According to legend, on May 20 1775, Mecklenburg County became the first North Carolina county to declare its independence from Great Britain. (No period documentation survives to verify this legend.) On April 12 1776, the colony became the first to instruct its delegates to the Continental Congress to vote for independence from the British crown. The dates of both of these independence-related events are memorialized on the state flag and state seal. On November 21, 1789, North Carolina ratified the Constitution to become the twelfth state in the Union. Between the American Revolutionary War and the American Civil War, North Carolina worked to establish its state and local governments. In 1840, it completed the state capitol building in Raleigh, still standing today. In mid-century the state's rural and commercial areas were further connected by construction of a 129 mile (208 km) wooden plank road, known as a "farmer's railroad," from Fayetteville in the east to Bethania (northwest of Winston-Salem). In 1860 North Carolina was a slave state, however according to the Museum of the Cape Fear, it was only two percent of the population that owned over 99 percent of the slaves in the state. There were also about 30,000 free blacks residing in the state. Somewhat divided on whether to support the North or the South in the Civil War, North Carolina was the last state to secede from the Union in 1861. Governor Ellis, leader of the state at the war's beginning in 1861, famously declared in response to President Lincoln's call for 75,000 troops to suppress the "rebellion" that "you can g

Siouan

Family division

Genetic relations

See also

Bibliography

External links

Language family

Largest families

Language families (spoken)

Africa and southwest Asia

Europe, and north, west, and south Asia

East and Southeast Asia and the Pacific

North America

Central America and South America

Language isolates (spoken)

Central & South America

North America

Asia

Africa

Europe

Sign languages

Creole languages, pidgins, mixed languages, and trade languages

Proposed language stocks

Other natural languages of special interest

External links

Bibliography

North America

Physical features

Territories and regions

Usage

Political divisions and regions

See also

External links

Catawban languages

Family division

See also

Links

Bibliography

Siouan-Catawban languages

Family division

See also

Links

Bibliography

Lakota

History

Ethnonyms

Social divisions

Bands

Reservations

See also

External links

Bibliography

Nakota

History

Ethnonyms

Social divisions

Bands

Reservations

See also

External links

Bibliography

Ho-Chunk

U.S. recognition

See also

External links

Crow Nation

Language

Lifestyle

Crow Lineage

Crow Scouts

Government

Constitution Controversy

Chairmen of the Crow Nation

Crow Mythology

Further reading

External links

North Carolina

History