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Sirkap

Sirkap

Sirkap is the name of an archeological site on the bank opposite to the city of Taxila, in today's Pakistan. The city of Sirkap was built by the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius after he invaded India around 180 BC. Demetrius founded in the northern and northwestern Indian subcontinent an Indo-Greek kingdom that was to last until around 10 BC. Sirkap is also said to have been rebuilt by king Menander I.

A Greek city

Menander I (r.c. 200-180 BC), founder of Sirkap.]] 180 BC sea-monster, stone palette, Sirkap, 2nd century BC.]]. The site of Sirkap was built according to the "Hippodamian" grid-plan characteristic of Greek cities (See: [http://www.livius.org/a/1/iran/taxila.jpg Sky view of Sirkap]). It is organized around one main avenue and fifteen perpendicular streets, covering a surface of around 1200x400 meters, with a surrounding wall 5-7 meters wide and 4.8 kilometers long. The ruins are Greek in character, similar to those of Olynthus in Macedonia. Numerous Hellenistic artifacts have been found, in particular coins of Greco-Bactrian kings and stone palettes representing Greek mythological scenes. Some of them are purely Hellenistic, others indicate an evolution of the Greco-Bactrian styles found at Ai-Khanoum towards more indianized styles. For example, accessories such as Indian ankle bracelets can be found on some representations of Greek mythological figures such as Artemis. Following its construction by the Greeks, the city was further rebuilt during the incursions of the Indo-Scythians, and later by the Indo-Parthians after an earthquake in 30 BC.

Religious buildings

30 BC 30 BC 30 BC, in perfect Hellenistic style.]] Buddhist stupas with strong Hellenistic decorative elements can be found throughout the Sirkap site, as well as a Hindu temple, indicating a close interaction of religious cultures. A Greek religious temple of the Ionic order is also visible at the nearby site of Jandial (650 meters from Sirkap), but there is a possibility that it may have been dedicated to a Zoroastrian cult. The site of Sirkap bears witness to the city-building activity of the Indo-Greeks during their occupation of the Indian territory for close to two centuries, as well as their integration of other faiths, especially Buddhism.

See also

Greco-Buddhism
History of Buddhism

External links


- [http://www.livius.org/a/pakistan/taxila/sirkap.html The Sirkap archeological site] Category:Ancient Greeks in Asia

Pakistan

:See 2005 Kashmir earthquake for the 8 October 2005 earthquake in Pakistan-administered Kashmir. The Islamic Republic of Pakistan (Urdu: اسلامی جمہوریۂ پاکستان, islāmī jamhūriya i pākistān), or Pakistan (Urdu: پاکستان, pākistān) is a country located in South Asia that overlaps onto the Greater Middle East and Central Asia. The country borders India, Afghanistan, Iran (Persia), China and the Arabian Sea. The name of the country "Pakistan" in Urdu and Persian means Land of the Pure. With around 163 million inhabitants, it is the sixth most populous country with the second largest Muslim population. It is a member of the UN, Commonwealth of Nations, South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the Organization of the Islamic Conference.

History

See main article for detailed information: History of Pakistan (Including pre-history, civilizations of the region, and modern events to date) Related articles: History of South Asia, History of Iran, History of India, History of Afghanistan History of Afghanistan, was center of Indus Valley Civilization, 2600 BCE – 1800 BCE]] Pakistan is the birthplace of some of the most ancient civilizations and a strategic center of historic trade routes, including the Silk Road. It exists in a region whose history has overlapped that of many empires (e.g Mughals) and also of countries including India, Afghanistan and Persia (Iran). As one of the cradles of human civilization, the Pakistani region has long been at the crossroads of history. Pakistan was the site of the Indus Valley civilization and was subsequently conquered by many groups, including Aryans, Persians, Greeks, Greco-Bactrians, Kushans, White Huns, and Scythians. This period saw the country advance in trade and culture to a level where the Gandhara region and the great city of Taxila (Takshashila) became a great center of learning and development.

Ancient History

Nearly all of ancient Pakistan was ruled by the Persian Achaemenid dynasty for over two hundred years beginning in 540 BCE. In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great defeated the Punjabi king Porus (Paurava) at the Hydaspes near Jhelum. After Alexander's death and brief Seleucid control, Chandragupta Maurya gained control of the territory. His grandson Ashoka is known as to have been one of the major proselytizers of Buddhism which spread in the region. After the last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty was overthrown in 185 BCE, 185 BCE-171 BCE), founder of the Indo-Greek kingdom]] Demetrius of Bactria conquered Gandhara and Punjab in 184 BCE, establishing an Indo-Greek kingdom that lasted nearly two centuries, until around 10 BCE. To the south, this kingdom captured Sindh and extended to the coast of the Arabian Sea. One of the prominent Greco-Bactrian kings was Menander, who ruled from 155 to 130 BCE and is believed to have been a convert to Buddhism. His territories covered the eastern dominions of the divided Greek empire of Bactria (from the areas of the Panjshir and Kapisa, now in Afghanistan) and extended to the Pakistani province of Punjab with diffuse tributaries to the south and east, possibly even as far as Mathura in modern India. Sagala (modern Sialkot) became his capital and propered greatly under Menander's rule. The last Greek king to rule independently was probably Strato II, whose reign ended about 10 CE. Various Greek kings ruled into the beginning of the 1st century CE, as petty rulers (such as Theodamas) and as administrators, after the area was conquered by various Central Asian groups, most notably the Tocharian Kushans. The Kushan kingdom stretched from modern-day Uzbekistan to northwestern India. The kingdom was founded by King Heraios, and greatly expanded by his successor, Kujula Kadphises. Kadphises' son Vima Takto conquered territory now in India, but lost much of the western parts of the kingdom, including Gandhara, to the Parthian king Gondophares. Later invaders included the Scythians, and White Huns. While the Punjab remained under the Huns and Scythians, the Sassanian Persian Empire then came to control most of western Pakistan and parts of Sind came under the rule of Hindu rajas.

Arrival of Islam

In the eighth century CE, the arrival of the Arab Muslims to the provinces of Sindh and Punjab set the stage for the geographic boundaries of the modern state of Pakistan and formed the foundation for Islamic rule which quickly spread across much of South Asia. Following the rule of various Islamic empires, including the Ghaznavid Empire, the Ghorid kingdom, and the Delhi Sultanate, the region was controlled by the Mughals from 1526 until 1739. From 1739 until the early 19th century the entire area was ruled briefly by Nadir Shah and then by the Afghans and then later the Baluchis and Sikhs came to control Sind and the Punjab.

British rule

To the east, the British had arrived and formed the British East India Company which would eventually spearhead a colonial dominion over South Asia. The Mughal Empire was then at a decline and the eventual collapse of the anti-British struggle by the Muslim leader Tipu Sultan from 1749 to 1799 left the remnants of the Mughal Empire vulnerable. The British did not gain strong footholds in the Pakistani region until the early 19th century and annexed the entire area during the Great Game rivalry with the Russian empire. The Indian War of Independence in 1857 was the last South Asian armed struggle against the British, while the Anglo-Afghan wars continued into the 20th century. After crushing the struggle the British dubbed the event the "Sepoy Mutiny". Even though the War of Independence was a joint Muslim-Hindu struggle to oust the British, the brunt of British retaliation was directed at the Muslim population of the empire employing the infamous "Divide and rule" policy. This suppression and subjugation helped set the stage for the creation of Pakistan - an Islamic state for the Muslims of British India. The greatest proponent of this became Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who later earned the title of Quaid-e-Azam (Urdu: قائد اعظم) meaning "great leader" and founder of Pakistan.

Independence and After Independence

After a 60 year formal and generally unarmed struggle for independence, Pakistan came into existence on 14th August 1947 from the British Empire. The British divided up the Indian empire into three parts: the central part, with a Hindu majority, became modern-day India, the western part along with parts of the Punjab became West Pakistan, while East Bengal (the Muslim majority part of Bengal) became East Pakistan. The Partition of India is believed by many to have been mishandled by the British since it resulted in the worst ever recorded communal riots in the region and perhaps one of the worst in modern history. An estimated 1 to 5 million Muslims, Sikhs, Hindus and others in former British India lost their lives as a direct consequence and millions more became refugee migrants to the newly formed Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Due to a hasty British retreat and mishandling of the independence of its former colonies, various disputes would remain between India and Pakistan involving Kashmir and the Rann of Kutch (Sir Creek) regions. Both nations have fought three all out wars due to these unsettled issues. Other inherited legacies of British rule included the Durand Line debate regarding the border with Afghanistan. In 1971, economic and political discontent in East Pakistan – geographically separated from West Pakistan by India – and violent political repression escalated into a civil war (see Bangladesh Liberation War) in East Pakistan and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, resulting in the secession of East Pakistan, which formed the independent state of Bangladesh. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 created a large influx of refugees fleeing to Pakistan from Afghanistan; the largest in the world. In one of the largest covert operations in history, Pakistan and the United States supported anti-Soviet freedom fighters in Afghanistan, and the Soviets withdrew in the late 1980s. Politically since its formation, Pakistan has oscillated between democratic and military rule, while making some impressive recent economic strides.

Origin of the name

The name was coined by Cambridge student and Muslim nationalist Choudhary Rahmat Ali. He devised the word and first published it on January 28, 1933 in the pamphlet Now or Never [http://www.zyworld.com/slam33/non.htm]. He saw it as an acronym formed from the names of the "homelands" of Muslims in South Asia. (P for Punjab, A for the Afghan areas of the region, K for Kashmir, S for Sindh and tan for Baluchistan, thus forming 'Pakstan.' An 'i' was later added to the English rendition of the name to ease pronunciation, producing Pakistan.) The word also captured in the Persian language the concepts of "Pak" meaning "Pure" and "stan" for "land" or "home" (as in the names of Central Asian countries in the region; Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, etc), thus giving it the meaning Land of the Pure. All Arabic-speaking countries refer to Pakistan as باکستان (Bakstaan), as the Arabic alphabet lacks the letter "P."

Politics

Domestic Politics

Main article: Politics of Pakistan

Form of Government

Politics of Pakistan Constitutionally a federal republic, with considerable autonomy to the four Provinces – Sindh, Balochistan, Punjab, and NWFP (North West Frontier Province) (Sarhad) and the state of [http://www.ajk.gov.pk Azad Kashmir] (Azad meaning Free in Urdu). The upper house is called the Senate, which has 100 seats equally distributed among the four provinces of Pakistan, with reserved seats for women and religious minorities, who may also contest the general seats. The lower house is called the National Assembly of Pakistan and has 342 seats including reserved seats for religious and ethnic minorities and women. National Assembly elections were held in October 2002, and Senate elections in February 2003. One notable outcome was the election of 91 women to Parliament – the largest number (and the largest percentage) of women in the parliament of any Muslim-majority country, according to data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union. [http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm] Members of the National Assembly are elected for five-year terms. The National Assembly elects the Prime Minister of Pakistan, who then appoints selected members of the National Assembly and Senate as federal ministers in the cabinet. The Electoral College of Pakistan – consisting of the Senate, National Assembly, and the provincial assemblies – elects the President of Pakistan, who is the Head of State and Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. The President’s appointment and term are constitutionally independent of the Prime Minister’s term. Each province has a Provincial Assembly which is elected for five year terms through competitive multi-party elections, and which in turn elects a Chief Minister – the executive head of the province. Provinces also have governors who are appointed by the Federal Government.

Political Parties

Commander in Chief Before and during the creation of Pakistan in 1947, the secular and centrist Pakistan Muslim league supported the creation of Pakistan while the far-right religious parties such as the Shia Conference , Jamiat-e-Ulema-e-Hind and leaders such as Maulana Azad opposed the creation of Pakistan and supported a united India. The liberal, leftist Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) emerged as a major political player during the 1970s. During 80s, a new political anti-feudal movement started by unorthodox and educated urban dwellers of Sindh, specially Karachi, now known as MQM. Currently, the largest party in Parliament is the Pakistan Muslim League (Q) (PML-Q) and the second largest is the Pakistan Peoples Party Parliamentarians (PPPP). The PML-Q obtained a plurality in the October 2002 elections. Besides these major players, there are several other political parties active in Pakistan. See also: List of political parties in Pakistan

Foreign Relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Pakistan Foreign relations of Pakistan Pakistan was an ally of the United States for much of its early history as a modern nation-state, from the 1950s and as a member of CENTO (Central Treaty Organisation) and SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation). However, it all changed from 1965 when Pakistan went to war with India during the height of the Cold War. The US placed heavy military sanctions on Pakistan during the war forcing Pakistan to agree to the cease fire and pulling out of the war that was heading for a stalemate. After the 1965 war Pakistan had moved away from the US and its relations with China became stronger and soon both nations declared their alliance. Their relations have gone so far that it concerns the Western Super Powers. Despite US opposition, Pakistan dropped out of CENTO and SEATO, and established better relations with China and supported the resolution to move official recognition for the Chinese seat from the Taiwan-based Republic of China to the Beijing government. United States maintained a lukewarm relationship until the 1970s. In 1971, Pakistan was involved in a civil war which led the breaking away of East Pakistan, now Bangladesh. China supported Pakistan and did not accept the new nation of Bangladesh for over 3 years, even though in 1973 Pakistan itself had. The US also did not accept Bangladesh in favor of Pakistan until after the Shimla Accord. The Soviet involvement in the war and the Chinese influence on Pakistan prompted USA to bolster ties with a lost ally and the alliance would not be strengthened until the Afghan war. In the 1980s Pakistan was supplied by the US with necessary arms and helped in training supporting anti-Soviet militia in Afghanistan. US promised to provide Pakistan with F-16 fighter jets though only a few were eventually supplied due to the Pressler amendment. China however chose to remain out of this alliance, instead providing moral support. After the Afghan war, which ended in favor of the anti-Soviet Alliance, the relationship with the US deteriorated when sanctions were imposed on Pakistan along with India for their nuclear program. All military equipment aid was again barred. China came to Pakistan's aid and helped them establish ground force and aviation infrastructures. Prior to the US-Led coalition war in Afghanistan, China remained the main exporter and trader with Pakistan. After September 11th, 2001, and the subsequent American-led assault on Afghanistan, current Pakistani president Pervez Musharraf aligned his government again with the US and attempted to seal borders with Afghanistan and silence Islamic radicals along it (especially in the NWFP and other rural, fronteir provinces). Since this strategic re-alignment towards US policy, the economic and military aid has been flowing from the US to Pakistan in large numbers. Besides the US and China, Pakistan enjoys alliances with some Middle Eastern countries like Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. PAF pilots fly fighters for these two countries. Libya and Syria are the only two middle eastern countries with whom Pakistan enjoys great relations even though they were once Soviet allies. Pakistan is also an important member of the OIC, which brings it closer to every Muslim country. Besides OIC, Pakistan is a member of the South Asian union of SAARC. Pakistan is the second largest Muslim country in terms of population and its status as a declared nuclear power—the only Islamic nation—also plays into its role on the international scene.

Political History

Pakistan has been ruled by both democratic and military governments. General Ayub Khan was the president from 1958 to 1969, and General Yahya Khan from 1969 to 1971. Civilian rule continued from 1971 to 1977 under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, but he was deposed by General Zia-Ul-Haq. General Zia was killed in a plane crash in 1988, after which Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was elected as the Prime Minister of Pakistan. She was the youngest woman to ever be elected the Head of Government and the first woman to be elected as the Head of Government of a Muslim country. Her government was followed by that of Nawaz Sharif, and the two leaders alternated until the military coup by General Pervez Musharraf in 1999. Since the resignation of President Rafiq Tarar in 2001, Musharraf has been the President of Pakistan. Pakistan's first decade was marred with political unrest and instability resulting in frequent collapses of civilian democratic governments. From 1947 to 1958 as many as seven Prime Ministers of Pakistan either resigned or were ousted. This political instability paved the way for Pakistan’s first military take over. On October 7th 1958 Pakistan’s civilian and first President Iskander Mirza in collaboration with General Mohammad Ayub Khan abrogated Pakistan’s constitution and declared Martial Law. Nation-wide parliamentary elections were held in October 2002, with the PML-Q winning a plurality of seats in the National Assembly of Pakistan, and Zafarullah Khan Jamali of that party emerging as Prime Minister. Jamali resigned on June 26, 2004. PML-Q leader Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain became interim PM, and was succeeded by Finance Minister and former Citibank Vice President Shaukat Aziz, who was elected Prime Minister on August 27, 2004 by a National Assembly vote of 191 to 151.

Geography

:Main article: Geography of Pakistan Geography of Pakistan Pakistan has a total area of 803,940 square kilometers, over three times the size of the United Kingdom. It has a land area of 778,720, slightly less than the combined land areas of France and the United Kingdom put together. To the south is the Arabian Sea, with 1,046 km (650 mile) of Pakistani coastline. To Pakistan's east is India, which has a 2,912 km (1,809 mile) border with Pakistan. To its west is Iran, which has a 909 km (565 mile) border with Pakistan. To Pakistan's northwest lies Afghanistan, with a shared border of 2,430 km (1,510 miles.) China is towards the northeast and has a 523 km (325 mile) border with Pakistan. The northern and western areas of Pakistan are mountainous. Pakistani administered areas of Kashmir contain some of the highest mountains in the world, including the second tallest — K2 — and has areas of preserved moist temperate forest. K2]In the southeast, Pakistan's border with India passes through a flat desert, called the Cholistan or Thar Desert. West-central Balochistan has a high desert plateau, bordered by low mountain ranges. Most areas of the Punjab, and parts of Sindh, are fertile plains where agriculture is of great importance. Pakistan is also the home of some of the world's most ancient civilizations. Places like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kot Diji, Thatta, Bhambore, Gandhara, Mehrgarh, Dir are all sites that came into existance near the dawn of civilization several thousand years ago.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Pakistan

Overview

Pakistan, a developing country, is the sixth most populous in the world and has faced a number of challenges on the political and economic fronts. Although a very poor country when it became independent in 1947, in the 1960s Harvard economists proclaimed it to be a model of economic development. In each of its first four decades, Pakistan's economic growth rate was better than the global average, but imprudent policies led to a slowdown in the late 1990s. Since then, the Pakistani government has instituted wide-ranging reforms, and economic growth has accelerated in the current century. Pakistan's economic outlook has brightened and its manufacturing and financial services sectors have experienced rapid expansion. The growth of the non-agricultural sectors has changed the structure of the economy, and agriculture now only accounts for roughly one-fifth of the GDP. There has been a great improvement in its foreign exchange position and a rapid growth in hard currency reserves in recent years. In 2004 Pakistan's GDP growth rate was 8.4% which is (after China) the second-highest among the ten most populous countries in the world.[http://aric.adb.org/default11.asp?handler=country&cid=36]

Macroeconomic Reform and Prospects

According to many sources, the Pakistani government has made substantial economic reforms since 2000, and medium-term prospects for job creation and poverty reduction are the best in nearly a decade. Government revenues have greatly improved in recent years, as a result of economic growth, tax reforms - with a broadening of the tax base, and more efficient tax collection as a result of self-assessment schemes and corruption controls in the Central Board of Revenue - and the privatisation of public utilities and telecomunications. Pakistan is aggressively cutting tariffs and assisting exports by improving ports, roads, electricity supplies and irrigation projects. Islamabad has raised development spending from about 2% of GDP in the 1990s to 4% in 2003, a necessary step towards reversing the broad underdevelopment of its social sector. Liberalisation in the international textile trade has already yielded benefits for Pakistan's exports, and the country also expects to profit from freer trade in agriculture. As a large country, Pakistan hopes to take advantage of significant economies of scale, and to replace China as the largest textile manufacturer as the latter China moves up the value-added chain. These industries play to Pakistan's relative strengths in low labour costs. A perception of stability in the nation's monetary policies has contributed to a reduction in money-market interest rates, and a great expansion in the quantity of credit, changing consumption and investment patterns in the nation. Pakistan's domestic natural gas production, and its significant use of CNG in automobiles, has cushioned the effect of the oil-price shock of 2004-2005. Pakistan is also moving away from the doctrine of import substitution which some developing countries (such as Iran and India) dogmatically pursued in the twentieth century. The Pakistani government is now pursuing a export-driven model of economic growth successfully implemented by South East Asia and now highly successful in China. In 2005, the World Bank reported that :"Pakistan was the top reformer in the region and the number 10 reformer globally — making it easier to start a business, reducing the cost to register property, increasing penalties for violating corporate governance rules, and replacing a requirement to license every shipment with two-year duration licenses for traders." [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:20643510~menuPK:158937~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html] In addition, reduced tensions with India and the ongoing peace process raise new hopes for a prosperous and stable South Asia, with more intra-regional trade.

Growing Middle Class

Measured by purchasing power, Pakistan has a 30 million strong middle class enjoying per capita incomes more than $8000-$10,000, according to Dr. Ishrat Husain, Governor of the State Bank of Pakistan [http://www.pabe.org/us-chamber-press-article/PressArticlesOctober18_2004.doc]. In addition, Pakistan has a growing upper class with relatively high per capita incomes. However, Pakistan has no individuals with as much as a billion US dollars, according to Forbes magazine, and has the distinction of being the most populous nation to have no billionaires.

Economic History

First Five Decades

Economically, Pakistan was a very poor and predominantly agricultural country at the time of its independence in 1947 from British India. During its first four decades, Pakistan's economic growth rate was better than the global average. Industrial-sector growth, including manufacturing, was also above average. In the early 1960s, Pakistan was seen as a model of economic development around the world, and there was much praise for the way its economy was progressing. Many countries sought to emulate Pakistan's economic planning strategy and one of them, South Korea, copied its Second Five Year Plan, 1960-65. Not just that But World financial center in Seoul was modeled after Karachi. Later, economic mismanagement in general, and fiscally imprudent economic policies in particular, caused a large increase in the country's public debt and led to slower growth in the 1990s.

Economic Resilience

Historically, Pakistan's overall economic output (GDP) has grown every year since a 1951 recession. Despite this record of sustained growth, Pakistan's economy had, until a few years ago, been characterized as unstable and highly vulnerable to external and internal shocks. However, the economy proved to be unexpectedly resilient in the face of multiple adverse events concentrated into a four-year period —
- the Asian financial crisis;
- economic sanctions — according to Colin Powell, Pakistan was "sanctioned to the eyeballs";
- global recession;
- a severe drought — the worst in Pakistan's history, lasting four years;
- heightened perceptions of risk as a result of military tensions with India — with as many as a million troops on the border, and predictions of impending (potentially nuclear) war; and
- the post-9/11 military action in neighboring Afghanistan, with a massive influx of refugees from that country. Despite these adverse events, Pakistan's economy kept growing, and economic growth accelerated towards the end of this period. This resilience has led to a change in perceptions of the economy, with leading international institutions such as the IMF, World Bank, and the ADB praising Pakistan's performance in the face of adversity.

Recent economic history and trends

Since about the turn of the century, the Pakistani government has instituted wide-ranging reforms, and economic growth has accelerated in the current century. Pakistan's economic outlook has brightened and its manufacturing and financial services sectors have experienced rapid expansion. The growth of the non-agricultural sectors has changed the structure of the economy, and agriculture now only accounts for roughly one-fifth of the GDP. There has been a great improvement in its foreign exchange position and a rapid growth in hard currency reserves as a result of its current account surplus. In the fiscal year ending June 30, 2005, Pakistan's GDP growth rate was 8.4% which is (after China) the second-highest among the ten most populous countries in the world. Its exports grew by as much as 17% and the country also saw increasing foreign investments in the IT sector, thanks to cheap labor, a low tax rate and a large pool of English speakers.

Structure of production

Stock Market

In the first three years of the current century, Pakistan's KSE-100 stock market index (Karachi Stock Exchange) was the best-performing major market index in the world, driven in part by profit growth, high dividend yields and greater transparency in publicly traded companies as a result of reforms enacted by the Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan.

Currency

Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan The basic unit of currency is the Rupee, which is divided into 100 paisas. Since the turn of the century, a strengthening economy and large current-account surplus has caused the rupee's exchange rate to rise in value. In response, Pakistan's central bank has prevented the rupee from rising too much, by lowering interest rates and buying dollars, in order to preserve the country's export competitiveness. As of 2005, one US dollar is approximately equal to 60 rupees.

Industry

Manufacturing and Finance

Pakistan's manufacturing sector has experienced double-digit growth in recent years, with large-scale manufacturing growing by 18% in 2003. A reduction in the fiscal deficit has resulted in less government borrowing in the domestic money market, lower interest rates, and an expansion in private sector lending to businesses and consumers. Foreign exchange reserves continued to reach new levels in 2003, supported by robust export growth and steady worker remittances. export

Tax Incentives & IT Industry

The Government of Pakistan has, over the last few years, granted numerous incentives to technology companies wishing to do business in Pakistan. A combination of decade-plus tax holidays, zero duties on computer imports, government incentives for venture capital and a variety of programs for subsidizing technical education, are intended to give impetus to the nascent Information Technology industry. This in recent years has resulted in impressive growth in that sector. Pakistan saw an increase in IT exports of 50% from 2003-4 to 2004-5, with total exports standing at $48.5 million. This year the government has set an export goal of $72 million. Exports account for 11% of the total revenues of the IT sector in Pakistan. Compared to its neighbor, India, Pakistan's IT sector is still in the infantile stage, but recent trends have led economists to be optimistic about the IT industries future prospects in Pakistan.

Technology & Internet

Paging and mobile (cellular) telephone were adopted early and freely. Cellular phones and the Internet were adopted through a rather laissez-faire policy with a proliferation of private service providers that led to fast adoption. Both have taken off and in the last few years of the 1990s and first few years of the 2000s. With a rapid increase in the number of internet users and ISPs, and a large English-speaking population, Pakistani society has seen major changes.
- Pakistan has more than 20 million Internet users as of 2005. The country is said to have a potential to absorb up to 50 million mobile phone Internet users in the next 5 years thus a potential of nearly 1 million connections per month.
- Almost all of the main government departments, organizations and institutions have their own websites.
- The use of search engines and instant messaging services is also booming. Pakistanis are some of the most ardent chatters on the Internet, communicating with users all over the world. Recent years have seen a huge increase in the use of online marriage services, for example, leading to a major re-alignment of the tradition of arranged marriages.
- As of 2005 there were 6 cell phone companies operating in the country with nearly 28 million mobile phone users in the country.
- Wireless local loop and the landline telephony sector has also been liberalized and private sector has entered thus increasing the teledensity from less than 3% to more than 10% in span of two years.

Agriculture, Energy and Natural Resources

teledensity Pakistan's principal natural resources are arable land, water, and extensive natural gas and petroleum reserves.

Agriculture

About 28% of Pakistan's total land area is under cultivation and is watered by the largest irrigation systems in the world. Water resources include several major rivers, fed by meltwater from snow and glaciers in some of the highest mountains ranges of the world — the Karakorams, Himalayas, and the Hindukush. Other important sources are tube-wells tapping into large aquifers. The most important crops are cotton, wheat, and rice. Other important crops are sugarcane, maize, sorghum, millets, pulses, oil seeds, barley, fish, fruits and vegetables. Pakistan also produces some of the world's best honey. Pakistan is a net exporter of foodgrains.

Energy

Pakistan has extensive energy resources, including fairly sizable natural gas reserves, oil reserves and coal. It also has a large potential for the further development of hydroelectric power. Domestic petroleum production totals only about half the country's oil needs. Pakistan is operating, constructing or planning to construct several nuclear reactors to meet its rapidly growing electricity requirements.

Minerals

Important minerals found in Pakistan are gypsum, limestone, chromites, iron ore, rock salt, silver, gold, precious stones, gems, marble, copper, coal, graphite, sulphur, fire clay, silica. The salt range in Punjab Province has large deposits of pure salt. Balochistan province is a mineral rich area having sub-stantial mineral, oil and gas reserves which have not been exploited to their full capacity. The province has significant quantities of copper, chromite and iron, and pockets of antimony and zinc in the south and gold in the far west. Natural gas was discovered near Sui in 1952, and the province has been gradually developing its oil and gas projects over the past fifty years. [http://www.himalmag.com/2002/july/profile_2.htm]

Trade

Exports

Pakistan exports software, rice, furniture, cotton fiber, cement, tiles, marble, textiles, clothing, leather goods, sports goods (renowned for footballs/soccer balls), surgical instruments, electrical appliances, carpets, and rugs, ice cream, livestock meat, chicken, powdered milk, wheat, seafood (especially shrimp/prawns), vegetables, processed food items, Pakistani assembled Suzukis (to Afghanistan and maybe other countries), defence equipment (submarines, tanks, radars), salt, marble, onyx, engineering goods, fighter planes, and many other items.

Imports

Pakistan's single largest import category is petroleum and petroleum products. Other imports include trucks, automobiles, and industrial machinery. Pakistan also imports computers, computer parts, construction machinery, medicines, pharmaceutical products, food items, airplanes, defence equipment, steel, toys, electronics, other consumer items.

Tourism

petroleum Pakistan's culture, people and landscape are very diverse. Therefore tourism has, in recent years, become a large industry in Pakistan. What is now Pakistan has in the past been invaded and occupied by many different peoples, including Huns, Persians, Arabs, Turks, Mongols and various Eurasian groups, all of which left differences in culture among the different ethnic groups in matters such as dress, food, and religion, especially where indigenous pre-Islamic customs differ from Islamic practices. It is home to a large ancient civilization rivalling those of Egypt and Mesopotamia and also of many smaller civilizations which settled there. There are many tourist attractions in Pakistan. In the North, some of the highest mountains in the world, interest mountain climbers and adventurers from around the world. The Northern Areas of Pakistan are one of the most scenic places to be found with many old army fortresses, towers and other architecture. Among the most beautiful valleys in this area are Chitral and Hunza. The inhabitants of the region are known for their tradition of hospitality, offering food and residence for tourists. In the east, the Punjab province offers a view into the many different civilizations that settled there. Islamic Mughal architecture is very common, such as Badshahi Masjid andthe Shalimar Gardens in Lahore. Pakistan's film industry, Lollywood is also present here.

Demographics

Lollywood Main article: Demographics of Pakistan

Population Statistics

Pakistan has the world's sixth largest population, more than Russia, but less than Brazil. Because of Pakistan's high growth rate, it is expected to overtake Brazil in population before 2025. Based on the high fertility rates of the 1980s, demographers had projected that Pakistan would be the third most populous nation by 2050. However, from 1988 onward, Pakistan's fertility rate has fallen faster than that of any other country except China [http://www.gfeeney.com/pubs/2003-pakistan-fertility-2/2003-pakistan-fertility-2.pdf (Feeney and Alam, 2003, PDF)]. It is now projected that its population will stabilize to a more sustainable level.

Religion

1988 The majority of the people of Pakistan are Muslim (adherents of Islam). Most (75%) are Sunni, some (20%) are Shia. Pakistan has a small non-Muslim population whose numbers remain somewhat difficult to ascertain due to various social conditions within Pakistan, including the inability of the census to account for every person and some alleged discrimination and hesitancy by some to accurately report their professed faith. According to most sources Pakistan's religius minorities consist largely of Christians (2.5%) or 3.9 million, while the remaining 1.2% includes Hindus, Buddhists, Zoroastrians, Sikhs, Jews, and Animists (mainly the Kalash in Chitral). Pakistan's religious demographics were influenced by the partition of British India, which led to the fleeing of 7 million Muslims into Pakistan from India and 6 million Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan to India and led to a larger Muslim majority than had previously existed. Pakistan is also the birthplace of one major world religions, Sikhism and two branches of Buddhism Mahayana Buddhism and Vajrayana Buddhism. Although today there are few Sikhs in Pakistan, Pakistani Punjab was the birthplace of Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism as well the Sikh conqueror Ranjit Singh. In addition, Pakistan is also the birthplace of Mahayana Buddhism, the form of Buddhism practiced by most Buddhists today, including those in China, India, Japan, Vietnam, and Korea. It is also the birthplace of Vajrayana (Tantric) Buddhism. Also, the early formation of the Hindu religion may have taken place here, either amongst the Indus Valley Civilization or in the wake of the Indo-Aryan migration into the area and with the composition of the earliest of the sacred scriptures, the Rig Veda, but most academics believe Hinduism probably formed along the Ganges River further east instead.

Languages

Urdu and English are both recognized as the official languages of Pakistan. English is used in government and corporate business and by the educated urban elite. Private as well as public universities use English as the medium of instruction for degree courses. Urdu is the lingua franca of the people, being widely spoken as a second language, although it is the mother tongue of only 8% of the population, mainly Muhajirs (Muslim refugees from India after 1947) and Punjabis of urban areas. Besides these, nearly all Pakistanis speak mutually related provincial Indo-European languages, of which the most widely spoken is Punjabi, followed by Pashto, Sindhi, and Balochi. Other Indo-European languages spoken in Pakistan include Seraiki, Dari, Hindko, Pothohari, Gujarati, Shina, Wakhi, Kashmiri, Khowar and many others. In addition, small groups of non-Indo-European languages are also spoken including Brahui which is a Dravidian language and Burushaski which is a language isolate.

Ethnic Groups

Punjabis comprise the largest ethnic group in the country. Other important ethnic groups include: Pashtun/Afghans, Sindhis, Balochis, Muhajirs and Seraikis. The numerous other ethnic groups are mainly found in the northern parts of the country such as Turwalis, Kafiristanis, Hindko, Brahui, Kashmiris, Khowar, Shina and so forth. There are also sizeable numbers of refugees from neighboring Afghanistan, who are found mainly in the NWFP and Baluchistan - in the 1980s, Pakistan accommodated over three million Afghan refugees - the largest refugee population in the world, which includes Pashtuns, Tajiks, and Hazaras among others. A sizeable number of Bengali immigrants are mainly concentrated in Karachi, while hundreds of thousands of refugees from Iran are scattered throughout the country.[http://www.minorityrights.org/admin/Download/Pdf/MRGPakistanReport.pdf] People of Sephardic Jewish descent are also found in the country, but probably number less than 200 since the creation of Israel. There is also a sizeable community of Persians, Chinese, Myanmarians (Burmese), and Africans; ther

Demetrius I of Bactria

, crowning himself with right hand, with lion skin and upright club resting on his left arm. Greek legend: BASILEOS DEMETRIOU "King Demetrius".]] Demetrius was the name of at least two, very likely three Greek kings of Bactria and India. Demetrius I (reigned circa 200-180 BCE)was the son of Euthydemus and succeeded him around 200 BCE, after which he conquered extensive areas in what now is eastern Iran, Pakistan, Punjab and northern India, thus creating an Indo-Greek kingdom far from Hellenistic Greece. The much debated Demetrius II was a possible relative, whereas Demetrius III (c.100 BCE), is known only from numismatic evidence.

Invasion of India

Demetrius started the invasion of northern India from 190 BCE, following the destruction of the Mauryan dynasty by the general Pusyamitra Sunga, who then founded the new Indian Sunga dynasty (185-78 BCE). The Mauryans had had diplomatic alliances with the Greeks, and they may have been considered as allies by the Greco-Bactrians. The Greek campaigns eventually went as far as the capital Pataliputra in eastern India (today Patna): "Those who came after Alexander went to the Ganges and Pataliputra" (Strabo, XV.698) The Indian records also describes Greek attacks on Saketa, Panchala, Mathura and Pataliputra (Gargi-Samhita, Yuga Purana chapter). However, the campaigns to Pataliputra are generally attested to the later king Menander I and Demetrius I probably only invaded areas in Punjab, Kashmir and Pakistan, the latter including areas taken from the Seleucid kings, who were weakened after their defeat to the Romans in 190. Other kings may have expanded the territory as well. By ca 175 BCE, the Indo-Greeks ruled various part of northern and northwestern India until the end of the 1st century BCE, while the Sungas remained in the east.

Aftermaths

Demetrius I died of unknown reasons, and the date 180 BCE, is merely a suggestion aimed to allow suitable regnal periods for subsequent kings, of which there were several. Even if some of them were co-regents, civil wars and temporary divisions of the empire are most likely. The kings Pantaleon, Antimachus, Agathocles and possibly Euthydemus II ruled after Demetrius I, and theories about their origin include all of them being relatives of Demetrius I, or only Antimachus. Eventually, the kingdom of Bactria fell to the able newcomer Eucratides. Demetrius II was a later king, possibly a son or nephew of his namesake, and he ruled in India only. Justin mentions him being defeated by the Bactrian king Eucratides, an event which took place at the end of the latters reign, possibly around 150 BCE. Demetrius II left behind his generals Apollodotus and Menander I, who in turn became kings of India and rulers of the Indo-Greek Kingdom following his death. According to Ptolemy, a Demetriapolis was founded in Arachosia. Demetrius is a legend as well as an enigma. He was a hero of Indian folklore under the folk-etymological name Dharma-Mithra, and was mentioned by Geoffrey Chaucer ("D, lord of Ind").

Demetrius and Buddhism

Geoffrey Chaucer There are many records of the Sunga empire persecuting Buddhism, but on the contrary Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek kings, and it has been suggested that their invasion of India was not only intended to show their support for the philhellenic Mauryan empire, but also to protect the Buddhist faith from the religious persecutions of the Sungas.

Coinage & connection with Buddhism

The coins of Demetrius are of four types. One bilingual type with Greek and Kharoshthi legends exists: it is naturally associated with the Indian Demetrius II. A series with the king in diadem are likely to be early issues of Demetrius I. More interesting are the "elephant" coins: The first type shows Demetrius (I) with elephant-crown, a well-known symbol of India and an allusion to Alexander the Great. These coins prove he really invaded India. The other "elephant" type of Demetrius I represents a rejoicing elephant, depicted on the front on the coin and surrounded by the royal bead-and-reel decoration, and therefore treated on the same level as a King. The elephant, one of the symbols of Buddhism and the Gautama Buddha, possibly represents the victory of Buddhism brought about by Demetrius. The reverse of the coin depicts the caduceus, symbol of reconciliation between two fighting serpents, which is likely a representation of peace between the Greeks and the Sungas, and likewise between Buddhism and Brahmanism. It might also be a symbol of Asklepios, the Greek deity of medicine. Alternatively though, the elephant has also been described as a possible symbol of the Greek Indian capital of Taxila (Tarn), or still as a symbol of India. Unambigous Buddhist symbols are found on later Greek coins, but it seems rather unlikely that Demetrius I, who was born in the Greek milieu of Bactria and struck coins with Olympic gods, personally was a buddhist. His conquests did however influence the Buddhist religion in India: Taxila, Gandhara, 1st-2nd century CE.]]

Indian sources

A king Demetrius is named Dharmamita ("Friend of the Dharma") in the Indian text of the Yuga-Purana, a name which probably both reflected phonological approximation of the name Demetrius and an expression of what the King stood for.

Greco-Buddhist art

There are several parallels between Demetrius and the first representations of the Buddha in human form. The deified likeness of Demetrius, including facial features and physical proportions, may have influenced some of the first representations of the Buddha in Greco-Buddhist art, typically depicted in a manner reminescent of the Greek king. Also in another parallel, the characteristic protector deity of Demetrius (Herakles standing with his club over his arm, as seen on the reverse of his coins), was represented in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara as the protector deity of the Buddha.

External links


- [http://www.coinarchives.com/a/results.php?results=100&search=Baktria+and+Demetrios&Thumb=1 Coins of Demetrius]
- [http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/baktria/kings/demetrios/t.html More coins of Demetrius]

See also


- Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
- Seleucid Empire
- Greco-Buddhism
- Indo-Scythians
- Indo-Parthian Kingdom
- Kushan Empire

References


- "The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies" by Thomas McEvilley (Allworth Press and the School of Visual Arts, 2002) ISBN 1581152035
- "Buddhism in Central Asia" by B.N. Puri (Motilal Banarsidass Pub, January 1, 2000) ISBN 8120803728
- "The Greeks in Bactria and India", W.W. Tarn, Cambridge University Press. Category:180 BC deaths Category: Greco-Bactrian kings Category: Indo-Greek kings

180 BC

Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC - 180s BC - 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC Years: 185 BC 184 BC 183 BC 182 BC 181 BC - 180 BC - 179 BC 178 BC 177 BC 176 BC 175 BC ---- Birth Death
- Empress Dowager Lü, de facto ruler of the Han dynasty.
- Pantaleon, probable son and co-ruler of Demetrius I of Bactria (approximate date). Events
- Emperor Wen of Han dynasty ascended to the Chinese throne after quelling the clans of Empress Dowager Lü.
- Demetrius I of Bactria invades India. The conquests of his campaign will form the basis of the Indo-Greek Kingdom under his tributary King Apollodotus I (approximate date).
-

Indo-Greek

The Indo-Greeks (or sometimes Greco-Indians) designate a series of Greek kings, who invaded and controlled parts of northwest and northern India from 180 BCE to around 10 CE. They were the successors in India of the Greco-Bactrian dynasty of Greek kings (the Euthydemids) founded by the military governor Diodotus around 250 BCE when he established the independence of his Bactrian territory from the Seleucid Empire. During the two centuries of their rule, the Indo-Greek kings combined the Greek and Indian languages and symbols, as seen on their coins, and blended Ancient Greek, Hindu and Buddhist religious practices, as seen in the archeological remains of their cities and in the indications of their support of Buddhism. The Indo-Greek kings seem to have achieved a level of cultural syncretism with no equivalent in history, the consequences of which are still felt today, particularly through the diffusion and influence of Greco-Buddhist art. They ultimately disappeared as a political entity around 10 CE following the invasions of the Indo-Scythian, Indo-Parthian and Kushans, although pockets of Greek populations probably remained for several centuries longer.

Historical outline

The Indo-Greek kingdom was established by Demetrius, the son of the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus.

Occupation of Northern India

Euthydemus–171 BCE), wearing the scalp of an elephant, symbol of his conquest of India.]] Demetrius started the invasion of northern India from 180 BCE, following the destruction of the Mauryan dynasty by the general Pusyamitra Sunga, who then founded the new Indian Sunga dynasty (185–78 BCE). Greek conquest temporarily went as far as the capital Pataliputra in eastern India (today Patna): : "Those who came after Alexander went to the Ganges and Pataliputra" (Strabo, 15.698). The Indian records also describe Greek attacks on Mathura, Panchala, Saketa, and Pataliputra. This is particularly the case of some mentions of the invasion by Patanjali around 150 BCE, and of the Yuga Purana, which describes Indian historical events in the form of a prophecy: : "After having conquered Saketa, the country of the Panchala and the Mathuras, the Yavanas (Greeks), wicked and valiant, will reach Kusumadhvaja. The thick mud-fortifications at Pataliputra being reached, all the provinces will be in disorder, without doubt. Ultimately, a great battle will follow, with tree-like engines (siege engines)." (Gargi-Samhita, Yuga Purana chapter, No5). Pataliputra sea-monster, 2nd century BCE, Sirkap.]] To the south, the Greeks occupied the areas of the Sindh and Gujarat down to the strategic harbour of Barigaza (Bharuch), as attested by several writers (Strabo 11; Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, ch.41) and by coinage of the Indo-Greek ruler Apollodotus I. Most likely the conquests east of the Punjab region were made later, during the second half of the century, by the king Menander I. The city of Sirkap, today in northwestern Pakistan, seems to have been built by Demetrius. The site of Sirkap was built according to the "Hippodamian" grid-plan characteristic of Greek cities. Numerous Hellenistic artifacts have been found, in particular coins of Greco-Bactrian kings and stone palettes representing Greek mythological scenes. Some of them are purely Hellenistic, others indicate an evolution of the Greco-Bactrian styles found at Ai-Khanoum towards more indianized styles. For example, accessories such as Indian ankle bracelets can be found on some representations of Greek mythological figures such as Artemis.

Consolidation

Artemis mint).
Obv: King Menander throwing a spear.
Rev: Athena with thunderbolt. Greek legend: BASILEOS SOTĒROS MENANDROU "Of King Menander, the Saviour".]] The first invasion was completed by 175 BCE, and the Sungas were confined to the east but, back in Bactria, the usurper Eucratides managed to eradicate the Euthydemid dynasty and occupy territory as far as the Indus, between ca 170 BCE and 150 BCE. :"The Yavanas (Greeks) will command, the Kings will disapear. (But ultimately) the Yavanas, intoxicated with fighting, will not stay in Madhadesa (the Middle Country); there will be undoubtedly a civil war among them, arising in their own country (Bactria), there will be a terrible and ferocious war." (Gargi-Samhita, Yuga Purana chapter, No7). The advances of Eucratides was however checked by the Indo-Greek king Menander I, who asserted himself in the Indian part of the empire and even began the last expansions eastwards. Menander is considered as probably the most succesful Indo-Greek king, and the conquerer of the vastest territory. He is remembered in Budddhist litterature (the Milinda Panha) as a convert to Buddhism. He also introduced a new coin type, with Athena Alkidemos ("Protector of the people") on the reverse, which was adopted by most of his successors in the East. He was probably succeeded by his wife Agathokleia, who acted as regent to his son Strato I. Strato I The Indo-Greeks suffered further losses of territory around 125 BCE, following the attack of the Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles, son of Eucratides, but around this time the Yuezhi, following a long migration from the border of China, conquered the kingdom of Bactria proper. The remaining domains were divided into two realms: the house of Menander retreated to their territories east of the Jhelum River as far as Mathura, whereas other kings ruled a larger kingdom of Paropamisadae, western Punjab and Arachosia to the south.

Eastern territories

Arachosia-55 BCE.]] After around 100 BCE, Indian kings recovered the area of Mathura and Eastern Punjab east of the Ravi River, and started to mint their own coins. The Arjunayanas (area of Mathura) and Yaudheyas mention military victories on their coins ("Victory of the Arjunayanas", "Victory of the Yaudheyas"). During the 1st century BCE, the Trigartas, Audumbaras and finally the Kunindas (closest to Punjab) also started to mint their own coins, usually in a style highly reminiscent of Indo-Greek coinage. The Western king Philoxenus briefly occupied the whole remaining Greek territory from the Paropamisadae to Western Punjab between 100 to 95 BCE, after what the territories fragmented again. The eastern kings regained their territory as far west as Arachosia. Philoxenus.]] Around 80 BCE, an Indo-Scythian king named Maues, possibly a general in the service of the Indo-Greeks, ruled for a few years in northwestern India before the Indo-Greeks again took control. King Hippostratos (65-55 BCE) seems to have been one of the most succesful subsequent Indo-Greek kings until he lost to the Indo-Scythian Azes I, who established an Indo-Scythian dynasty. Throughout the 1st century BCE, the Indo-Greeks progressively lost ground against the invasion of the Indo-Scythians. They maintained a territory in the eastern Punjab, until the kingdom of the last Indo-Greek king Strato II was taken over by the Indo-Scythian ruler Rajuvula around 10 CE.

Western territories

Rajuvula In the western area of the Indo-Greek territory in the Paropamisadae (around Kabul), the Yuezhi expanded from the north and ended the rule of the last western Indo-Greek king, Hermaeus, around 70 BCE. There, the Yuezhi issued a vast quantity of posthumous issues of Hermaeus, known up to around 40 CE, when they blend with the coinage of the Kushan king Kujula Kadphises. The Greeks of the territory of the Paropamisadae were probably closely associated to the Hellenized Yuezhi tribes, settled to the north-west in neighbouring Bactria from an early date. The first documented Yuezhi prince, Sapadbizes, ruled around 20 BCE, and minted in Greek and in the same style as the western Indo-Greek kings, probably depending on Greek mints and celators. The Yuezhi expanded to the east during the 1st century CE, to found the Kushan Empire. The first Kushan emperor Kujula Kadphises ostensibly associated himself with Hermaeus on his coins, suggesting that he may have been one of his descendants by alliance, or at least wanted to claim his legacy.

The Indo-Greeks and Indian culture

Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek kings, and it has been suggested that their invasion of India was intended to show their support for the philhellenic Mauryan empire, and to protect the Buddhist faith from the religious persecutions of the Sungas. Sunga legend, BASILEOS SOTĒROS MENANDROY lit. "Of The Saviour King Menander".
Rev: Kharosthi legend: MAHARAJA TRATASA MENADRASA "Of The Saviour King Menander". Athena advancing right, with thunderbolt and shield.]] Demetrius, who organized the invasion, was named Dharmamita ("Friend of the Dharma") in the Indian text of the Yuga-Purana. The city of Sirkap founded by Demetrius combines Greek and Indian influences without signs of segregation between the two cultures. The first Greek coins to be minted in India, those of Menander I and Appolodotus I bear the mention "Saviour king" (BASILEOS SOTHROS), a title with high value in the Greek world which indicated an important deflective victory. For instance, Ptolemy I had been Soter (saviour) because he had helped save Rhodes from Demetrius the Besieger, and Antiochus I because he had saved Asia Minor from the Gauls." (Tarn, "The Greeks in Bactria and India"). Gauls Also the coins of the Greek kings in India were bilingual, written in Greek on the front and in Kharoshthi on the back, a tremendous concession to another culture never before made in the Hellenic world. Incidentally, the bilingual coins of the Indo-Greeks were the key in the decipherment of the Kharoshthi script by James Prinsep (1799-1840). Kharoshthi became extinct around the 3rd century CE. In Indian literature, the Indo-Greeks are described as Yavanas (transliteration of "Ionians"). Direct epigraphic evidence involves the Indo-Greek kings, such as the mention of the "Yavana king" Antialcidas on the Heliodorus pillar in Vidisha, or the mention of Menander I in the Buddhist text of the Milinda Panha. In the Harivamsa the "Yavana" Indo-Greeks are qualified, together with the Sakas, Kambojas, Pahlavas and Paradas as Kshatriya-pungava i.e foremost among the Warrior caste, or Kshatriyas. The Majjhima Nikaya explains that in the lands of the Yavanas and Kambojas, in contrast with the numerous Indian castes, there were only two classes of people, Aryas and Dasas (masters and slaves). The Arya could become Dasa and vice versa.

The Indo-Greeks and Buddhism

Main article: Greco-Buddhism Menander I, one of the most famous successors of Demetrius, ruled from 150 to 135 BCE. He is presented by Greek authors as an even greater conqueror than Alexander the Great. Strabo (XI.II.I) says Menander was one of the two Bactrian kings who extended their power farthest into India. Strabo in the Indo-Greek city of Sirkap, northern Pakistan, 2nd century BCE. It combines the sculptures of three temple-fronts: Greek (hidden from view, on the left), Hindu (center) and Buddhist (right). Wider view: .]] Menander, the "Saviour king", seems to have converted to Buddhism, and is described in Buddhist texts as a great benefactor of the religion, on a par with Ashoka or the future Kushan emperor Kanishka. He is famous for his dialogues with the Buddhist monk Nagasena, transmitted to us in the Milinda Panha. Upon his death, the honour of sharing his remains was claimed by the various cities under his rule, and they were enshrined in stupas, in a parallel with the historic Buddha (Plutarch, Praec. reip. ger. 28, 6).

Buddhist proselytism

During the reign of Menander, the Greek (Pali: Yona, lit: "Ionian") Buddhist monk Mahadhammarakkhita (Sanskrit: Mahadharmaraksita) is said to have come from Alasandra (thought to be Alexandria of the Caucasus, the city founded by Alexander the Great, near today's Kabul) with 30,000 monks for the foundation ceremony of the Maha Thupa ("Great stupa") at Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka, indicating the importance of Buddhism within Greek communities in northwestern India, and the prominent role Greek Buddhist monks played in them: :"From Alasanda the city of the Yonas came the thera (elder) Yona Mahadhammarakkhita with thirty thousand bhikkhus." (Mahavamsa, XXIX ) Several Buddhist dedications by Greeks in India are recorded, such as that of the Greek meridarch (civil governor of a province) named Theodorus, describing in Kharoshthi how he enshrined relics of the Buddha. The inscriptions were found on a vase inside a stupa, dated to the reign of Menander or one his successors in the 1st century BCE (Tarn, p391): :"Theudorena meridarkhena pratithavida ime sarira sakamunisa bhagavato bahu-jana-stitiye": :"The meridarch Theodorus has enshrined relics of Lord Shakyamuni, for the welfare of the mass of the people" :(Swāt relic vase inscription of the Meridarkh Theodoros ) Although the spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and Northern Asia is usually associated with the Kushans, a century or two later, there is a possibility that it may have been introduced in those areas from Gandhara "even earlier, during the time of Demetrius and Menander" (Puri, "Buddhism in Central Asia").

Buddhist symbolism

Menander From around 180 BCE, Agathocles and Pantaleon, probable successors to Demetrius I in the Paropamisadae, and the earliest Greek kings to issue Indian-standard square bilingual coins (in Brahmi), depicted the Buddhist lion together with the Hindu goddess Lakshmi. These coins show an unprecedented willingness to adapt to every of the local culture: shape of the coinage, coinage size, language, and religion. Lakshmi and a palm of victory on the reverse (British Museum).]] British Museum seated on a throne, with Nike on his right arm, holding a victory wreath above an eight-spoked wheel.]] Later, some Indo-Greek coins incorporate the Buddhist symbol of the eight-spoked wheel, such as those of Menander I, as well as his probable grandson Menander II. On these coins, the wheel is associated with the Greek symbols of victory, either the palm of victory, or the victory wreath handed over by the goddess Nike. Nike The ubiquitous symbol of the elephant may or may not have been associated with Buddhism. Interestingly, on some coin series of Antialcidas, the elephant holds the same relationship to Zeus and Nike as the Buddhist wheel on the coin of Menander II, tending to suggest a common meaning for both symbols. Some of the earlier coins of king Apollodotus I directly associate the elephant with Buddhist symbolism, such as the stupa hill surmounted by a star, also seen, for example on the coins of the Mauryan Empire or those of the later Kuninda kingdom. Conversely, the bull is probably associated with Shiva, and often described in an erectile state as on the coins of Apollodotus I. Apollodotus Is on Indo-Greek coinage. Top: Divinities Tyche and Zeus. Bottom: Depiction of Indo-Greek kings Nicias and Menander II.]] Also, after the reign of Menander I, several Indo-Greek rulers, such as Agathokleia, Amyntas, Nicias, Peukolaos, Hermaeus, Hippostratos and Menander II, depicted themselves or their Greek deities forming with the right hand a symbolic gesture identical to the Buddhist vitarka mudra (thumb and index joined together, with other fingers extended), which in Buddhism signifies the transmission of the Buddha's teaching. mudra, Calcutta (drawing).]] At precisely the same time, right after the death of Menander, several Indo-Greek rulers also started to adopt on their coins the Pali title of "Dharmikasa", meaning "follower of the Dharma" (the title of the great Indian Buddhist king Ashoka was Dharmaraja "King of the Dharma"). This usage was adopted by Strato I, Zoilos I, Heliokles II, Theophilos, Peukolaos, Menander II and Archebios. Altogether, the conversion of Menander I to Buddhism suggested by the Milinda Panha seems to have triggered the use of Buddhist symbolism in one form or another on the coinage of close to half of the kings who succeeded him. Especially, all the kings after Menander who are recorded to have ruled in Gandhara (apart from the little known Demetrius III) display Buddhist symbolism in one form or another. On the contrary, none of the kings whose rule was limited to Punjab did display Buddhist signs (with the exception of the powerful Hippostratos, who probably took under his protection many Gandharan Greeks fleeing from the Indo-Scythians (Tarn).). A 2nd century BCE relief from a Buddhist stupa in Bharhut, in eastern Madhya Pradesh (today at the Indian Museum in Calcutta), represents a foreign soldier with the curly hair of a Greek and the royal headband with flowing ends of a Greek king. In his left hand, he hold a branch of ivy, symbol of Dionysos. Also parts of his dress, with rows of geometrical folds, are characteristically Hellenistic in style. On his sword appears the Buddhist symbol of the three jewels, or Triratana.

Representation of the Buddha

The anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha is absent from Indo-Greek coinage, suggesting that the Indo-Greek kings may have respected the Indian aniconic rule for Buddhist depictions, limiting themselves to Buddhist symbolism only. Consistently with this perspective, the actual depiction of the Buddha would be a later phenomenon, usually dated to the 1st century CE, emerging from the sponsorship of the syncretic Kushan Empire and executed by Greek, and, later, Indian and possibly Roman artists. Datation of Greco-Buddhist statues is generally uncertain, but they are at least firmly established from the 1st century CE. Greco-Buddhist.]] Another possibility is that the Indo-Greeks may not have considered the Buddha strictly as a God, but rather as an essentially human sage or philosopher, in line with the traditional Nikaya Buddhist doctrine. Just as philosophers were routinely represented in statues (but certainly not on coins) in Antiquity, the Indo-Greek may have initiated anthropomorphical representations of the Buddha in statuary only, possibly as soon as the 2nd-1st century BCE, as advocated by Foucher and suggested by Chinese murals depicting Emperor Wu of Han worshipping Buddha statues brought from Central Asia in 120 BCE (See picture) ). Stylistically, Indo-Greek coins generally display a very high level of Hellenistic artistic realism, which declined drastically around 50 BCE with the invasions of the Indo-Scythians, Yuezhi and Indo-Parthians. The first known statues of the Buddha are also very realistic and Hellenistic in style and are more consistent with the pre-50 BCE artistic level seen on coins. This would tend to suggest that the first statues were created between 130 BCE (death of Menander) and 50 BCE, precisely at the time when Buddhist symbolism appeared on Indo-Greek coinage. From that time, Menander and his successors may have been the key propagators of Buddhist ideas and representations: "the spread of Gandhari Buddhism may have been stimulated by Menander's royal patronage, as may have the development and spread of Gandharan sculpture, which seems to have accompanied it" (Mc Evilly, "The shape of ancient thought", p378) Indo-Parthian.]] The representation of the Buddha may also be connected to his progressive deification, which is usually associated with the spread of the Indian principle of Bhakti (personal devotion to a deity). Bhakti is a principle which evolved in the Bhagavata religious movement, and is said to have permeated Buddhism from about 100 BCE, and to have been a contributing factor to the representation of the Buddha in human form. The association of the Indo-Greeks with the Bhagavata movement is documented in the inscription of the Heliodorus pillar, made during the reign of the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas (r.c. 115-95 BCE). At that time relations with the Sungas seem to have improved, and some level of religious exchange seems to have occurred. The point of time when bhakti fervour would have encountered the Hellenistic artistic tradition would then be around 100 BCE. Most of the early images of the Buddha (especially those of the standing Buddha) are anepigraphic, which makes it difficult to have a definite datation. The earliest known image of the Buddha with approximate indications on date is the Bimaran casket, which has been found buried with coins of the Indo-Scythian king Azes II (or possibly Azes I), indicating a 30-10 BCE date , although this date is not undisputed. Such datation, as well as the general Hellenistic style and attitude of the Buddha on the Bimaran casket (himation dress, contrapposto attitude, general depiction) would made it a possible Indo-Greek work, used in dedications by Indo-Scythians right after the end of Indo-Greek rule in the area of Gandhara. Since it already displays quite a sophisticated iconography (Brahma and Indra as attendants, Bodhisattvas) in an advanced style, it would suggest much earlier representations of the Buddha were already current by that time, going back to the rule of the Indo-Greeks (Alfred A. Foucher and others).

Incipient Greco-Buddhist art

Main article: Greco-Buddhist art In general, the art of the Indo-Greeks is poorly documented, and few works of art (appart from their coins and a few stone palettes) are directly attributed to them. Rather paradoxically, most Gandharan Hellenistic works of art are usually attributed to the successors of the Indo-Greeks in India, such as the Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians and the Kushans. Kushans (left detail) and Tyche/Hariti (right detail) may be "incipient Buddhist sculpture in Indo-Greek style" (Boardman). Herakles still has his lion skin on the left shoulder, although his club has been replaced by Vajrapani's thunderbolt. Tyche holds a Classical cornucopia, Hadda, eastern Afghanistan. Photographic reference: .]] Afghanistan with cornucopia in left hand, and, with the right hand, making a benediction gesture identical to the Buddhist vitarka mudra.]] Among others, Foucher, and more recently Boardman have taken the contrary view that some of the most purely Hellenistic works of northwestern India and Afghanistan, may actually be wrongly attributed to later centuries, and instead belong to the Indo-Greeks of the 2nd-1st century BCE. This is particularly the case of some purely Hellenistic works in Hadda, Afghanistan, an area which "might indeed be the cradle of incipient Buddhist sculpture in Indo-Greek style" (Boardman, p141). Refering to one of the Buddha triads in Hadda (drawing), in which the Buddha is sided by very Classical depictions of Herakles/Vajrapani and Tyche/Hariti, Boardman explains that both figures "might at first (and even second) glance, pass as, say, from Asia Minor or Syria of the first or second century BC (...) these are essentially Greek figures, executed by artists fully conversant with far more than the externals of the Classical style" (Boardman, p143). Many of the works of art at Hadda can also be compared to the style of the 2nd century BCE sculptures at the Temple of Olympia at Bassae in Greece, which could also suggest roughly contemporary dates. Alternatively, it has been suggested that these works of art may have been executed by itinerant Greek artists during the time of maritime contacts with the West from the 1st to the 3rd century CE. The supposition that such highly Hellenistic and, at the same time Buddhist, works of art belong to the Indo-Greek period would be consistent with the known Buddhist activity of the Indo-Greeks (the Milinda Panha etc...), their Hellenistic cultural heritage which would naturally have induced them to produce extensive statuary, their know artistic proficiency as seen on their coins until around 50 BCE, and the dated appearance of already complex iconography incorporating Hellenistic sculptural codes with the Bimaran casket in the early 1st century CE.

Indo-Greeks in the art of Gandhara

Bimaran casket, Gandhara, 1st century CE.]] The Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, beyond the omnipresence of Greek style and stylistic elements which might be simply considered as an enduring artistic tradition, offers numerous depictions of people in Greek Classical realistic style, attitudes and fashion (clothes such as the chiton and the himation, similar in form and style to the 2nd century BCE Greco-Bactrian statues of Ai-Khanoum, hairstyle), holding contraptions which are characteristic of Greek culture (amphoras, "kantaros" Greek drinking cups), in situations which can range from festive (such as Bacchanalian scenes) to Buddhist-devotional. Uncertainties in dating make it unclear whether these works of art actually depict Greeks of the period of Indo-Greek rule up to the 1st century BCE, or remaining Greek communities under the rule of the Indo-Parthians or Kushans in the 1st and 2nd century CE.
Image:GandharaDonorFrieze2.JPG|Buddhist devotees, holding plantain leaves, in purely Hellenistic style, inside Corinthian columns, 1st-2nd century CE. Image:BacchanalianScene.JPG|Bacchanalian scene, representing the harvest of wine grapes, Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, 1st-2nd century CE. Image:DrinkingScene.JPG|Drinking scene, with Dionysus and Ariadne on his lap, Greek drinking cups, Greek dress. Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara. Dated 3rd century CE. Image:Great_Departure.JPG|"The Great Departure", with the Buddha amid Greek deities and costumes.

The Indo-Greeks and Zoroastrianism

Buddha, wearing a radiated phrygian cap.]] Images of the Persian Zoroastrian god Mithra also appear extensively on the Indo-Greek coinage of the Western kings, as a god with a radiated phrygian cap. Located around the Paropamisadae, these kings were geographically in direct contact with the eastern reaches of the Parthian empire. Parthian empire This Zeus-Mithra god is also the one represented seated (with the rays around the head, and a small protrusion on the top of the head representing the cap) on many coins of Hermaeus, Antialcidas or Heliokles II, or possibly even earlier during the time of Eucratides I, on whose coins the deity is said to be the god of the city of Kapisa. The future Buddha Maitreya, usually represented seated on a throne Western-style, and venerated both in Mahayana and non-Mahayana Buddhism, is sometimes considered as influenced by the g